What is a Wave

A wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium and transfers energy from one point to
another without causing any permanent displacement of the medium itself.

If a stone is dropped into a pond or swimming pool, ripples or waves are seen spreading on the
surface of the water from the point where the stone was dropped. The water itself does not move
in the direction of the ripples, but the wave transfers energy from one point to another.

Waves are also encountered in other branches of physics. For example, we can generate a wave
along a string fixed at both ends by plucking the string (i.e. pulling it vertically and releasing it).
Light and sound waves can also be shown to be wave motions.

There are two major classes of waves: mechanical and electromagnetic waves.

Mechanical waves are waves that require a material medium for their propagation, such as water
waves, waves generated in a spring or rope and sound waves.

Electromagnetic waves are waves that do not require a material medium for propagation,

Examples are light rays, radiowaves, X-rays and gamma-rays.

Wave motion

The particles of the medium which transfer energy move to and fro, or vibrate, about a mean
position as the wave passes. The vibrations are passed on from one particle of the medium to the
next. The direction in which this vibration takes place is significant in classifying the type of wave.

Depending on the direction of particle vibration with respect to the direction of travel of the wave,
we can distinguish two types of wave.

A wave is said to be a transverse wave if the direction of travel of the wave is perpendicular to the
direction of vibration of the medium.

For example, water waves and waves generated by plucking a string are transverse waves.

A wave is said to be longitudinal if the direction of travel of the wave is the same as the vibration
of vibration of the medium. For example, sound waves are longitudinal waves

Propagation of waves

Mode of propagation of transverse waves

We have mentioned that a water wave is a typical example of a transverse wave. One can
understand clearly the properties of transverse waves by studying water waves in greater detail.

A transverse wave can be represented pictorially by a series of up and down movements; that is,
some portions of the waves are displaced upwards while adjacent portions are displaced
downwards. The region of maximum upward displacement is called a crest. The region of
maximum downward displacement is called a trough.
Mode of propagation of longitudinal waves

If a wave motion is such that the particles vibrate in the same direction as the wave travels, it is
called a longitudinal wave. The vibrating particles behave like a spiral spring that has a series of
compressed regions and spaced out regions travelling along it. These are referred to as
compressions and rarefactions. Thus, particles of the medium can be represented by a spiral spring
in longitudinal wave motion.

General representation of a wave

A transverse wave as we have seen can be represented by a series of crests and troughs. We obtain
a similar picture if we plot the wave as a graph, where y represents the direction of vibration of
particles, while x represents the direction of propagation of the wave.
In contrast, a longitudinal wave is made up of compressions and rarefactions. If we plot a graph
where y represents compression and x represents distance travelled by the wave, we obtain a graph
similar to that for the transverse wave above.

The compressions and rarefactions in a longitudinal wave represent the crests and troughs in a
transverse wave. Hence it is convenient to represent any wave by the same diagram. Thus,
graphical representation of a longitudinal wave is not a true representation of the actual physical
form.

Terms used in describing a wave and relationship between them

Amplitude (a):As the wave progresses, the particles of the medium vibrate about a mean position.
The maximum displacement of particles from their mean (or rest)position is called the amplitude
a of the wave. It is measured in metres.

Period (T)

The time required for a particle to perform one complete cycle or to complete an oscillation is
called the period T of the wave. It is measured in seconds. The period is also the time for the wave
to travel one wave length.

Frequency (f)

The number of cycles which the wave completes in one second is called the frequency, f. The SI
unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).

Wavelength (𝛌)

The distance along the x-axis between successive crests or successive troughs is called the
wavelength. It is the distance covered by the wave after one complete cycle. It is measured in
metres. In longitudinal waves the wavelength is the distance between successive compressions or
rarefactions.

Wave speed (v)

The distance which the wave travels in one second, is called the wave speed, v. It is measured in
metres per second. If the wave covers a distance x metres in t seconds the speed of the wave is
given by: v = x/t (m/s)
Relation between T, f, λ and v

𝟏 𝛌
𝒇= , 𝒗 = 𝒇𝛌, 𝒗 =
𝑻 𝑻

𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞

𝒗=
𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

We illustrate the use of these important relations with the two examples below.

Example

A wave travels a distance of 80m in 4s. The distance between successive crests of the wave is
50cm. Calculate the frequency of the wave.

Example

A radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 200kHz.

If the speed of the wave is 3 x 10^8ms^-1, calculate:

(a) the period;

(b) the wavelength of the wave.

Equation of a travelling wave

𝒚 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒙) ………………….1

𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
Substituting 𝝎 = ;𝒌=
𝑻 𝛌

𝟐𝝅𝒕 𝟐𝝅𝒙
𝒚 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝑻 − )
𝛌

𝒕 𝒙
𝒚 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅(𝑻 − 𝛌)……………………2

𝟐𝝅 𝛌𝒕
𝒚 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝛌 ( 𝑻 − 𝒙)………………………3
 𝛌𝒕
Since 𝒗 = 𝒇𝛌 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒗 =
𝑻

Any of the equation above can be used to represent a plane progressive wave/ travelling wave

Example

A travelling wave in a string is given by y=0.03 Sin(2.2x – 3.5t) where y and x are in metres and t
is in seconds. Find the amplitude, wavelength, frequency, period and speed of the wave.

Exercise

The wavelength of a travelling wave is 5m at a frequency of 12 Hz.

(1) What is the wave velocity?

(ii) If there is a crest at x = 3m at time t, find three other positions of the crest at that instant.

(iii) What time later will there be another crest at x=3m?

(iv) If the amplitude of the wave is 1.5m, write the equation of the wave.

WAVEFRONTS

Consider a water wave generated by dropping a spherical object in water. Circular patterns are
observed emerging from the centre of disturbance.

A plane wavefront can also be generated in water by dropping a straight rod into water. The
common circle of all particles which vibrate in phase constitutes what is called a wavefront.
Progressive and stationary waves

All waves, both transverse and longitudinal, which spread out continuously are called travelling
or progressive waves.

Fig. General shape of a stationary wave

A stationary wave is a wave obtained when two progressive waves of equal amplitude and
frequency are travelling in opposite directions and combined together

Most stationary waves are obtained as a result of reflection of the incident waves. Any wave can
be reflection of the incident waves. Any wave can be reflected just like light in such a way that the
laws of reflection are obeyed. Hence when a wave travels along a given path and it is reflected
perpendicularly on striking an obstacle, the wave returns along the same path. The two waves form
a stationary wave.

In a stationary wave, some points are permanently at rest. These are called nodes (N). Some other
points vibrate with maximum amplitude. These are called antinodes (A).

Note that the wavelength of the wave is twice the distance between two successive nodes.

A node is a point on a stationary wave where there is no movement of the medium.

An antinode is a point on a stationary wave where there is maximum movement of the

medium
Examples of stationary waves

(a) Waves obtained by plucking a string fixed at both ends. The transverse wave travels both ways
along the string; and is reflected at the fixed ends. The waves travel in opposite ways then combine
together, and the process continues until vibrations die down due to friction. This applies to all
stringed instruments.

(b) Waves set up in open and closed pipes are longitudinal stationary waves in air. They are formed
in a similar way to stationary waves in strings.
Properties and characteristics of waves

Waves have characteristic properties which can be examined using the ripple tank. They can be
reflected in the same way a ball can bounce of a surface. They also have the properties of refraction,
diffraction, interference and polarization.

The study of waves in two dimensions is often done using a ripple

tank. A ripple tank is a large glass-bottomed tank of water that is
used to study the behavior of water waves. A light typically shines
upon the water from above and illuminates a white sheet of paper
placed directly below the tank. A portion of light is absorbed by the
water as it passes through the tank. A crest of water will absorb
more light than a trough. So the bright spots represent wave troughs
and the dark spots represent wave crests. As the water waves move
through the ripple tank, the dark and bright spots move as well. As
the waves encounter obstacles in their path, their behavior can be observed by watching the
movement of the dark and bright spots on the sheet of paper.

Reflection of Waves

If a linear object attached to an oscillator bobs back and forth within the water, it becomes a
source of straight waves. These straight waves have alternating crests and troughs. As viewed on
the sheet of paper below the tank, the crests are the dark lines stretching across the paper and the
troughs are the bright lines. These waves will travel through the water until
they encounter an obstacle - such as the wall of the tank or an object placed
within the water. The diagram at the right depicts a series of straight waves
approaching a long barrier extending at an angle across the tank of water. The
direction that these wavefronts (straight-line crests) are traveling through the
water is represented by the blue arrow. The blue arrow is called a ray and is drawn perpendicular
to the wavefronts. Upon reaching the barrier placed within the water, these waves bounce off the
water and head in a different direction. The diagram below shows the reflected wavefronts and
the reflected ray. Regardless of the angle at which the wavefronts approach the barrier, one
general law of reflection holds true: the waves will always reflect in such a way that the angle at
which they approach the barrier equals the angle at which they reflect off the barrier. This is
known as the law of reflection.

The discussion above pertains to the reflection of waves off of straight

surfaces. But what if the surface is curved, perhaps in the shape of a parabola?
What generalizations can be made for the reflection of water waves off
parabolic surfaces? Suppose that a rubber tube having the shape of a parabola
is placed within the water. The diagram at the right depicts such a parabolic
barrier in the ripple tank. Several wavefronts are approaching the barrier; the ray is drawn for
these wavefronts. Upon reflection off the parabolic barrier, the water waves will change direction
and head towards a point. This is depicted in the diagram below. It is as though all the energy
being carried by the water waves is converged at a single point - the point is known as the focal
point. After passing through the focal point, the waves spread out through the water.
Refraction of Waves
Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier. Refraction of
waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another.
Refraction, or the bending of the path of the waves, is accompanied by a change in speed and
wavelength of the waves. It was mentioned that the speed of a wave is dependent upon the
properties of the medium through which the waves travel. So if the medium (and its properties)
is changed, the speed of the waves is changed. The most significant property of water that would
affect the speed of waves traveling on its surface is the depth of the water. Water waves travel
fastest when the medium is the deepest. Thus, if water waves are passing from deep water into
shallow water, they will slow down. This decrease in speed will also be accompanied by a
decrease in wavelength. So as water waves are transmitted from deep water into shallow water,
the speed decreases, the wavelength decreases, and the direction changes.

This boundary behavior of water waves can be observed in a ripple tank if the
tank is partitioned into a deep and a shallow section. If a pane of glass is
placed in the bottom of the tank, one part of the tank will be deep and the other
part of the tank will be shallow. Waves traveling from the deep end to the shallow end can be
seen to refract (i.e., bend), decrease wavelength (the wavefronts get closer together), and slow
down (they take a longer time to travel the same distance). When traveling from deep water to
shallow water, the waves are seen to bend in such a manner that they seem to be traveling more
perpendicular to the surface. If traveling from shallow water to deep water, the waves bend in the
opposite direction.

The refractive index BnA of medium A with respect to B is related to the speeds in the two
media as follows.
 speed of wave in B
BnA = which can be related to wavelength and frequency.
speed of wave in A

Diffraction

If two barriers are placed in the ripple tank with a fairly large gap between them, the waves pass
through the gap and form a wide band of waves, the waves form a beam or a wide ray.

If the barriers are placed closer together to leave a narrow gap, about one wavelength wide, the
wave behaves differently. On passing through the gap it spreads out in all directions, forming
spherical wave fronts. The gap behaves like a second, smaller source of waves. This is
diffraction, the spreading out of a wave on passing through a small gap.

It is usual to think that light, which is a type of wave, always travels in straight lines. This is true
in most circumstances. However, light can be refracted and diffracted, so it is not strictly true to
say that it always travels in straight lines.

Reflection, refraction and diffraction are all boundary behaviors of waves associated with the
bending of the path of a wave. The bending of the path is an observable behavior when the
medium is a two- or three-dimensional medium. Reflection occurs when there is a bouncing off
of a barrier. Reflection of waves off straight barriers follows the law of reflection. Reflection of
waves off parabolic barriers results in the convergence of the waves at a focal point. Refraction
is the change in direction of waves that occurs when waves travel from one medium to another.
Refraction is always accompanied by a wavelength and speed change. Diffraction is the bending
of waves around obstacles and openings. The amount of diffraction increases with increasing
wavelength.

What happens when two waves meet while they travel through the same medium? What effect
will the meeting of the waves have upon the appearance of the medium? Will the two waves
bounce off each other upon meeting (much like two billiard balls would) or will the two waves
pass through each other? These questions involving the meeting of two or more waves along the
same medium pertain to the topic of wave interference.
What is Interference?

Wave interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while traveling along
the same medium. The interference of waves causes the medium to take on a shape that results
from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium. To begin our
exploration of wave interference, consider two pulses of the same amplitude traveling in
different directions along the same medium. Let's suppose that each displaced upward 1 unit at
its crest and has the shape of a sine wave. As the sine pulses move towards each other, there will
eventually be a moment in time when they are completely overlapped. At that moment, the
resulting shape of the medium would be an upward displaced sine pulse with an amplitude of 2
units. The diagrams below depict the before and during interference snapshots of the medium for
two such pulses. The individual sine pulses are drawn in red and blue and the resulting
displacement of the medium is drawn in green.

Constructive Interference
This type of interference is sometimes called constructive interference. Constructive
interference is a type of interference that occurs at any location along the medium where the two
interfering waves have a displacement in the same direction. In this case, both waves have an
upward displacement; consequently, the medium has an upward displacement that is greater than
the displacement of the two interfering pulses. Constructive interference is observed at any
location where the two interfering waves are displaced upward. But it is also observed when both
interfering waves are displaced downward. This is shown in the diagram below for two
downward displaced pulses.

In this case, a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of -1 unit (negative means a downward
displacement) interferes with a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of -1 unit. These two
pulses are drawn in red and blue. The resulting shape of the medium is a sine pulse with a
maximum displacement of -2 units.

Destructive Interference

Destructive interference is a type of interference that occurs at any location along the medium
where the two interfering waves have a displacement in the opposite direction. For instance,
when a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of +1 unit meets a sine pulse with a maximum
displacement of -1 unit, destructive interference occurs. This is depicted in the diagram below.

In the diagram above, the interfering pulses have the same maximum displacement but in
opposite directions. The result is that the two pulses completely destroy each other when they are
completely overlapped. At the instant of complete overlap, there is no resulting displacement of
the particles of the medium. This "destruction" is not a permanent condition. In fact, to say that
the two waves destroy each other can be partially misleading. When it is said that the two
pulses destroy each other, what is meant is that when overlapped, the effect of one of the pulses
on the displacement of a given particle of the medium is destroyed or canceled by the effect of
the other pulse. Recall that waves transport energy through a medium by means of each
individual particle pulling upon its nearest neighbor. When two pulses with opposite
displacements (i.e., one pulse displaced up and the other down) meet at a given location, the
upward pull of one pulse is balanced (canceled or destroyed) by the downward pull of the other
pulse. Once the two pulses pass through each other, there is still an upward displaced pulse and a
downward displaced pulse heading in the same direction that they were heading before the
interference. Destructive interference leads to only a momentary condition in which the
medium's displacement is less than the displacement of the largest-amplitude wave.

The two interfering waves do not need to have equal amplitudes in opposite directions for
destructive interference to occur. For example, a pulse with a maximum displacement of +1 unit
could meet a pulse with a maximum displacement of -2 units. The resulting displacement of the
medium during complete overlap is -1 unit.

This is still destructive interference since the two interfering pulses have opposite displacements.
In this case, the destructive nature of the interference does not lead to complete cancellation.

Interestingly, the meeting of two waves along a medium does not alter the individual waves or
even deviate them from their path. This only becomes an astounding behavior when it is
compared to what happens when two billiard balls meet or two football players meet. Billiard
balls might crash and bounce off each other and football players might crash and come to a stop.
Yet two waves will meet, produce a net resulting shape of the medium, and then continue on
doing what they were doing before the interference.

The Principle of Superposition

The task of determining the shape of the resultant demands that the principle of superposition is
applied. The principle of superposition is sometimes stated as follows:

When two waves interfere, the resulting displacement of the medium at any location is
the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that same location.
In the cases above, the summing the individual displacements for locations of complete overlap
was made out to be an easy task - as easy as simple arithmetic:

Displacement of Pulse 1 Displacement of Pulse 2 = Resulting Displacement

+1 +1 = +2
-1 -1 = -2
+1 -1 = 0
+1 -2 = -1