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Additional Notes

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Ronald Sethoga
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Engineering Mathematics 115 Additional Notes I. Mathematical Induction ‘The method of mathematical induction (or simply induction) is a proof method that can be used to prove that a certain statement is truo for all positive integers n € N. ‘Wo illustrate the method by means of the following problem. Suppose we begin with the number 2, multiply it by 2, multiply the result by 2, and so on. Then the following sequence develops 2,4,8,16, 32, 28,27, 23, 24,25, If we would like to know, for example, the 30th number in the sequence then the pattem suggests it will be 2% (=1 073 741 824), and that the nth number will be 2° (where n is any positive integer 1,2,3,...). How can we be really sure? That is, how can we prove that the 30th number is indeed 1 073 741 824 without first calculating the first 29 numbers, and that there is not perhaps an error with the pattern 21,22, 28,24, 08,...7 For this trivial problem there would probably be noone that would doubt the nth number is 2”, In Mathematics there are real situations where it is not so easy to convince yourself of the correctness of the proof of a formula, The principle of mathematical induction is a powerful method for showing that certain formulae are indeed true, We now formulate the above problem slightly differently and try to show that the ‘nth number actually is 2". Suppose the sequence a1,a2,... is obtained as follows: ‘The first number is ay = 2 and Qnj1 = 2an for n = 1,2,.... Then we claim that an = 2" for n = 1,2, How can we prove this statement? If k is any fixed positive integer, we assume that @, = 2*, and then dy definition of the sequence if the assumption is true ‘Therefore, if the statement is true for n = & (ie. ay — 2) then the statement is true for n= +1 (ie. ayi1 = 2**2), This means that, if the formula is correct for any integer then it is correct for the next integer. Further we see that if 1 then 2” = 2! = 2 which agrees with the definition a; = 2. Since the formula is true for 1 then is must also be true for n = 2, and then also for n = 3, for n = 4, and ‘so on. So, we can conclude that the formula is correct for all positive integers n. A proof by indus ‘goes as follows: n of the truth of a certain statement for all positive integers n, 1. Show that the statement is true for n 2, Show that if the statement is te for n = k then it is also true for n =k + 1. At step 2 of the inductive proof we assume that the statement is true for n = k, ‘This is called the induction hypothesis. Note that it is an assumption that is only justified when the whole proof is complete ~ therefore it not the case that we accept ‘and use the statement we are trying to prove, Another illustration of proof by induction is given in the proof of the following ‘theorem. ‘Theorem For all n € N, 142434..40= wo Proof: For n = 1, the snm on the left hand si on the right hand side is, of (1) is equal to 1, and the formula n(n t1) _ W@) B 2 2 and thus the statement holds for n Assume that the statement holds for n = HEEL go. T42434...¢k= Ifn=k-+1, the sum on the left of (1) consists of k+ 1 terms and, by the induction hypothesis, we know the sum of the first & terms. So, 142434. FREED = HDS G+D 1 = (b+) (}e+1) k+2 = ern (SE (e+ 1)(e+1) +1) Gamer nsy, ‘Therefore, the statement holds for n = k + 1 if it holds for n = k; since it holds for n =|, it follows by the principle of mathematical induction that it holds for all nen. Remark: For completeness we point out that the principle of mathematical induc- tion as presented above cannot be proved by more sophisticated techniques: indue- tion is considered as an axiom of the real mumber system. It is also a procedure that agrees with our intuition and everyday experience, and therefore we are willing to accept a proof by induction as valid. Exercises: Show by mathematical induction that the following statements are true for all n € N: 1 eae L4345474...4(n—1 =n? ) 2.3? + 22.38 + 28.34 +... +.2".3°41 = 18(6" —1) (14a)? > 1+ na where a €R, a> 3" +7 is divisible by 8 10"*! + 3.10" +5 is a multiple of 9 sin(@+ nm) = (—1)"sind nl > n° ifm is large enough. IL. Binomial Theorem “The basic idea of this section is to find a formula for (a-+6)", where n is a positive integer. Of course, one could simply umnltiply out, but that would be extremely tedions and timo-consuming of n is large. We begin by introducing some notation that will be needed later. Factorial notation If n is a non-negative integer, we define nl (read "n factorial”) as follows: oad nl = nx(n-1)x(n—2)x...x3xK2x1 fornE1 For example wel 6 = 6x5x4x3x2x1=720 Notice that (n-+1)! =n! (+1). Binomial coefficients Hf n and k are non-negative integers, and k 1, (7) “@-0! (ix. x 2x1 Properties of binomial coefficients. For n,k integers, n > land 0 1, and a,b any real numbers: (ato) = (Gee (fortes +( ports +(e = (pete imo or, using a = 1 and b= &: (42 " — os WV — = a 8 + — WN It is then Proof: We prove nsing mathematical indnetion the formula for (I+ easy to derive the formula for (a +)" from this, (Do it yourself!) Forn=1, (+e L #2250 Re Assume the statement is true for n = k, that is, ‘Then Q+ayh = (+2)Ka+2) (Boe ~ (Dae (Dereal +(G)=4(1)2+(3)2+- +(,5,)#+(i)on (12) oP eee Ree = 3 ( ket je rot 7 So the claim is also true for n — k + 1 if it is true for n = k. Therefore, by the principle of mathematical induction, the statement is true for all n > 1. 7 Pascal’s Triangle Let us have a closer look at the pattern of these binomial coefficients. Writing them all out (for n from 0 to 6) we get: (3) Gy) SQ Qe Byes ay ay Pog) My @ wy Qe Ga a) (8) CE GVO Ce Notice that, apart from the 1’s along the sides, each binomial coefficient is the sum of the two coefficients diagonally above it. That is exactly what the equation (2)+Gh)-(8)} (+2)> = 14524 102? +1028 +524 + 2° (a+b)> = a° +5a%b + 10050? + 1007? + 5ab4 + 0° Examples on the Binomial Theorem Example 1 Expand (x +3)* (+34 E(t) 3 = = (4) + (4 )2oe (3 )eete (f+ (4) = at +4. 325 +6-927 +4. 272+ BL = at +1225 +542? + 1082+ 81 a 8 Example 2 Expand (27 + 5)® (Qn +5)* % (teste = (3 )enr+( 1 )ents+ ( 3 Jems (3) ears ( {east (e (22)* + 5(22)45 + 10(20)%5? + 1010(22)75% + 5(22)54 + 5° = 322° + 40024 + 2000z° + 50007 + 62502 +3125 Example 3 Write the first fonr terms (in descending powers of 2) in the binomial expansion of (7 ~ 2y)". Solution (2 —2y)* ( s )a+( Pat 2y) + ( 2 ) 2-20? + ( yy Jara +.. = 2!8 — 30rMy + 420215? — 36402'y8 + Example 4 Find the coefficient of x® in the binomial expansion of (52? — 2)"°. Solution The general term in the binomial expansion of (52? — 2)! is (22) crear = (10) src 2re™, that is, 2r = 14 60 that r= 7. For the coefficient of 28, we solve 20 ~ 2r = the req Example 5 Find the coefficients of 2° and z'° in the expansion of (2? ~ >)". Solution ‘The general term in the binomial expansion of 2? — (s)em (Eres For the coefficiont of 2°, we solve 24 ~ 3r = 9 whence 3r = 15 and r = 5. Thus the coefficient of 2° is ( 2 ) (ayaa (3 )eor= -12-11-6- 4° = 811008. 9 For the coefficient of 2°, we solve 24 — 3r = 10 whence 3r = 14 and r = 14/3. As ris not an integer, there is no term in 2", that is, the coefficient is 0. Example 6 Find the constant term in the binomial expansion of ( at Solution The constant term is the term in 2° 7 2m germ nt iia sani ot (243) (B)e(a)-(Erer (er We want 15 —3r = 0, which implies that r = 5. ‘Therefore, the constant term is (28)

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