Learning Activity # 2

Title of learning Activity

 Historical Development of Management.

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

a) Explain the principles of classical management movement.
b) Relate the contribution of human relations movement to organizational
management.
c) Explain the behavioural science movement approaches to management
d) Relate the various approaches to management to education.

Summary

In the first unit, you were introduced to the definitions of various words
and concepts used in management and organization. You also learned the
differen- ces between management and administration. In this unit, we shall
discuss the historical development of management. We shall deal with the
classical mo- vement, human relations movement and behavioural science
movement. The key personalities behind each movement are discussed and their
contribution to management thought explained.
Detailed description of activity
 Bureaucracy
Max Weber was a German historian and sociologist (1864 – 1920) who
played a major role in the development of a system of organization called bureaucracy.
He is referred to as the father of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy emerged from problems
associated with big business enterprises and increasing complexity of government
operations. According to Weber, bureaucracy is an approach to ma- nagement by office or
position rather than a person. Weber designed patterns of relationships to guide complex
organizational activities in a systematic manner to fulfill the needs of clients. He
proposed that the system of administration should be through departments. Weber
further proposed that an organization should be developed around logical rules, routines,
clear division of labour, tech- nical qualifications and clear chain of command.
According to Max Weber bureaucracy was the best method of achieving group
endeavours.

Characteristics of Bureaucracy
The system of bureaucracy advocated by Weber has various unique features.
These are:
a) Division of Labour. In a bureacratic system of organization, jobs are broken
down into simple, routine and well-defined tasks. Organizational leaders are
selected and appointed on the basis of demonstrated competence to perform the
tasks. Complicated tasks are split into relatively simple and manageable parts
and an individual person assigned to manage such a task. Specialization is
emphasized to increase efficiency and achieve organizational goals.

b) Hierarchical Structure. Refers to office arrangement in vertical order in which

each lower hierarchy is supervised by higher order. This hierarchy of authority
is represented in form of a chart.

c) Prescribed competence. It is also referred to as formal selection. All members

of the organization are selected on the basis of technical qualifications such as
training and level of education.

d) Formal rules and regulation. Rules and regulations are used to ensure
uniformity and to regulate the actions of workers. Rules in bureaucratic system
are used to promote efficiency and ensure continuity of organi- zational
functions. As a result order, rational and equal treatment of all employees is
practiced.
e) Impersonality. Organizational decisions are made based upon facts rather than
personal feelings and emotions. Rules and regulations are applied uniformly to
avoid personal bias. Impersonality in dealing with workers ensures objectivity
within the organization.

f ) Career orientation. Employment in bureaucracy favours technical

qualification rather than ownership of the organization. Managers are
professionals and promotion is based profession, experience or seniority.
  Advantages and Disadvantages of Bureaucracy

 Advantages
The development of bureaucratic system has contributed a lot in
managing huge organizations. Advantages and disadvantages of
bureaucratic system in organiza- tional functions include;
1) Efficiency. Bureaucracy serves a large number of people in systematic
manner. Besides this, individuals who have been involved in
bureaucra- cy are trained and knowledgeable. All tasks that are
performed at every echelon are supervise. Therefore bureaucracy
is efficient in utilizing resources and effective in task
performance.
2) Predictability. Bureaucracy operates on the basis of rules and regula-
tions. Decisions are made on the basis of the set policies.
Decisions are free from prejudice and arbitrariness. As a result,
activities are predicta- ble and can be forecasted in advance.
3) Impersonality. Since bureaucracy functions on the basis of rules and
policies, it sets clear boundaries for each position to minimize
personal bias and duplication of efforts.

 Disadvanta
ges
1) Over conformity. Bureaucracy encourages conformity and continuity of established
rules.
It does not encourage the promotion of change. Bureaucracy is too be rigid and
overemphasize adherence to rules and regulations.

2 ) Bureaucracy does not encourage two way communication.

Orders are from top and sometimes it is difficult for subordinates to communicate to the top
management.

3) Bureaucratic organizations are slow in decision making. The search for rationality
may create communication block which contribute to the delay in decision-making
activities.

 Application of Bureaucracy in Educational Organizations

The characteristics listed by Weber can be applied to individual
schools and educational institutions. Schools are categorized as formal
organizations with many similarities and characteristics of bureaucratic
organizations. Some of the characteristics of schools found in bureaucratic
organizations include hierarchi- cal structure; appointments and promotions;
staff specialization; rules and regu- lations; responsibilities and authorities as well
as division of labour.
 Henri Fayol (1841-1925) was another major contributor to
scientific mana- gement thought and a leading French industrialist. In 1916 he
published his famous book, Administration Industrielle et Generale (General and
Industrial Management).
In the book, Fayol proposed the following 14 principles of management.

1. Division of work. A worker is given only a small element of work.

2. Authority. This is the right to give orders and power to exert obedience in
order to get work done.
3. Discipline. Rules and regulations should be enforced fairly and
judiciously.
4. Unity of command. Each man should receive orders from one superior
5. Unity of direction. One head should plan for a group of activities with
the same objectives.
6. Subordination of individuals interests to the organizational inte-
rests. Interest of organization must take priority all the
times.
7. Remuneration of staff. This should be fair to both employer and the
firm.
8. Centralization. This should always be there.
9. Scalar-chain. A clear chain of authority from top to bottom of an
organization
10. Order. A place for everything and everything in its place; materials and
people should be in the right place.
11. Equity. A combination of kindness and justice towards the employee.
12. Stability of staff. Employees turnover should be minimum
13. Initiative. All employees to be allowed to be innovative.
14. Espirit de corps. Team spirit should be promoted by management

In addition to the fourteen principles, Fayol recognized five processes which he

referred to as “the basic elements of administration”.
These were planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and
controlling.
 Scientific management
Fredrick W. Taylor (1856 – 1915) is considered as the father of scientific mana- gement
movement. He systematically studied work in industries when
industries in Western countries were becoming complex. He was an
industrial engineer at the Midvale Steel Company between 1879 –
1889. During his tenure, he interacted with workers and the industry
itself and developed the following scientific management ideas usually
referred to as principles.
(a) Time – motion study principle: This principle stipulated that all work must be
measured by accurate and standard observation. He believed that all effort made
for productivity should be measured in terms of time and motion. Therefore,
standardized time of operation, rules and regulations should be set for workers. He
further advocated that envi- ronment should be conducive to work in for
productivity to increase.

(b) Piece – rate principle. In this principle, Taylor proposed that wage should be
proportional to output. Therefore the more work a worker
performs, the higher should the pay be.
(c) Division of labour – (or separation principle). This principle advo- cated that
responsibility of management should be separated from that of
workers. Therefore management is expected to plan, facilitate
and set standards of work. Workers on the other hand should
perform the tasks assigned to increase their efficiency.
(d) Functional foremanship – This principle is based on specialization.
Taylor believed that the source of authority should be based on
ex- perts. Specialization requires that supervisors should have
the necessary knowledge and skills on the work they supervise.

2. The Human Relations Movement

In the last part of this section we have learned about the scientific
movement approach and its principles. We shall now consider another approach called
the human relations movement. This movement was initiated by a social psychologist
known as Mary Park Follet (1863-1933). She was against the scientific movement
approach with its principles on high productivity, efficiency and other physical factors
and wages as means of motivating workers. She strived to work hard to bring about a
better-ordered society in which people might live a more satisfying life. To do this, she
proposed the following four major principles.
1. Employers and employees should solve their differences through conferences and
cooperation. This democratic way of solving problems should be done by the two
parties:
(i) involved listening to each other’s different views/ situation.
(ii) accepting each others view points and understanding each other better.
(iii) integrating their view points and becoming united in the pursuit of the
common goal.
 2. Coordination must be achieved in the early stages. In order to run any
organization well its duties must be coordinated from the very
begin- ning.
3. Coordination is the result of reciprocal understanding of all factors in the
situation. This means that both employers and employees
should share in the organizational tasks; this will result in
better relationship.
4. Coordination is a continuing process. The sharing of ideas and working together
between the administrators and workers should continue for the
betterment of the administration and the workers.

Elton Mayo (1880) disseminated Follet’s principles and became the

strongest contributor of the human relations movement. Between 1923 and 1926, he
carried out experiments to test the physical conditioning on workers’ productivity.
Results from his study indicated that the determinant factor which affected job
productivity was what went on inside the worker. The study further found out that
sociological and physiological factors were the strongest elements influencing worker’s
productivity. They were based on the following three elements.
1. Morale. In every group, there are rules which influence the morale of
workers; for example, forbidding all noise.

2. Job Satisfaction. Overproduction and underproduction were both

discouraged since it led to the danger of dismissal.
3. Team –Spirit. This was encouraged. Members of any group (informal
group) were not allowed to report their associate (co-workers)
to the administration.

The Human relations movement according to Mayo,

had the following two major principles:
1. Satisfaction. This principle stated that the organization with the most
satisfied workers would be the most efficient.
2. Democracy. This principle pointed out that democracy must prevail in any
organization through:
i) Employee participation in decision-making.
ii) Delegation of responsibilities to the workers by the administration
iii) Open channels of communication between employers and workers as
well as among workers.

Application of Human Relations Movement to Educational Management

Through human relations movement:

1. workers were provided with opportunities to enhance their personal growth
and development.
2. organizations were concerned with people and their needs. Workers were
recognized as social-psychological human beings.
3. The Behavioural Science Movement (1950-1970)
This movement is also referred to as the social science movement. The
move- ment was opposed to the scientific management movement which it critici-
zed as being too harsh in its approach to workers. It also criticized the human
relations movement as being too soft on the workers to the detriment of the
organizational objectives. The social science movement advocated the view that both
approaches should be used appropriately to effect satisfaction for both the organization
and the workers.
Chester Bernard (1886 – 1961) initiated the movement in the 1940s. He
stressed the need for a systematic conceptual scheme of administrative behaviour
within a social science framework. He advocated the recognition of the workers as psy
chological-social beings. To achieve this, administrators/ managers should be
equipped with some knowledge of social sciences disciplines. These disciplines include
psychology, sociology, government and economics. A good administra- tor/ manager
has a good insight of the working situation, the job and the worker himself.

Application of behavioural science movement to education

management

This movement has two important effects. They are:

1. It advocates administrators emerging from different disciplines and
not necessarily from educational institutions;
2. It reveals that to-day, those who train as school administrators are also expected
to have some knowledge of social sciences like economics and government.
 chological-social beings. To achieve this, administrators/ managers should be equipped
with some knowledge of social sciences disciplines. These disciplines include psychology,
sociology, government and economics. A good administra- tor/ manager has a good
insight of the working situation, the job and the worker himself.

Application of behavioural science movement to education management

This movement has two important effects. They are:

1. It advocates administrators emerging from different disciplines and not necessarily
from educational institutions;
2. It reveals that to-day, those who train as school administrators are also expected
to have some knowledge of social sciences like economics and government.