Power

Electrical & Computer PE

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Exam Textbook

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Spring 2021 CBT Edition
Updated for Latest CBT Exam
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Learn the key concepts and skills necessary to pass the PE Exam

by Justin Kauwale, P.E.

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PL Electrical PE: Power Textbook

by Justin Kauwale, PE

Published by Engineering Pro Guides, LLC

Honolulu, HI 96815
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Copyright © 2017-2020 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form on by any means,
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electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, including information storage and

retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher, except as permitted by U.S.
copyright law.

Spring 2021 Edition

ISBN 978-1-7329987-0-4 (ebook)

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 Electrical PE Power Textbook
How to pass the PE exam

Table of Contents
Section 1.0 ..................................................................................................... Introduction
Section 2.0 ............................................................................................................ Circuits
Section 3.0 ............................................................... Devices & Power Electronic Circuits
Section 4.0 ...........................................................................................Rotating Machines

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Section 5.0 ....................................................................................Electric Power Devices
Section 6.0 ............................................................................. Transmission & Distribution
Section 7.0 ........................................................................................................ Protection

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Section 8.0 ..................................................................... Measurement & Instrumentation
Section 9.0 ..................................................................................................... Applications
Section 10.0 ....................................................................................... Codes & Standards
Section 11.0 .................................................................................................... Conclusion
Section 12.0 ................................................................................................ Cheat Sheets
Section 13.0 ............................................................................................................. Index
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1 – Introduction

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Introduction
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 Key Concepts and Skills ...................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Units .................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Computer Based Test (CBT) ............................................................................................... 6
1.4 NCEES PE Power Reference Handbook ............................................................................ 7
1.5 Code Books ......................................................................................................................... 8
2.0 Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................... 8

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3.0 How to use this Book .............................................................................................................. 8
4.0 Sample Exam Tips .................................................................................................................. 9
4.1 Actual Exam Day Tips .................................................................................................. 12
5.0

6.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
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Recommended References ............................................................................................. 14
NFPA 70, NEC Handbook, 2017 Edition ...................................................................... 14
National Electrical Safety Code .................................................................................... 14
Free References ........................................................................................................... 15
Past Surveys .................................................................................................................... 15
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Introduction - 1 www.engproguides.com
1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important steps in an engineer's career is obtaining the professional
engineering (P.E.) license. It allows an individual to legally practice engineering in the state of
licensure. This credential can also help to obtain higher compensation and develop a credible
reputation. In order to obtain a P.E. license, the engineer must first meet the qualifications as
required by the state of licensure, including minimum experience, references, and the passing of
the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) exam. Engineering
Pro Guides focuses on helping engineers pass the NCEES exam through the use of free
content on the website, http://www.engproguides.com and through the creation of books like
sample exams and guides that outline how to pass the PE exam.

The key to passing the PE exam is to learn the key concepts and skills that are tested on the
exam. There are several issues that make this very difficult. First, the key concepts and skills

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are unknown to most engineers studying for the exam. Second, the key concepts and skills are
not taught in a single document. This technical guide teaches you all of the key concepts and
skills required to pass the Electrical Power PE Exam.

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Power PE Textbook: https://www.engproguides.com/pe-power-technical-study-guide.html

Power PE Full Exam: https://www.engproguides.com/pe-power-practice-exam-prep.html

Power PE References Exam: https://www.engproguides.com/pe-power-supplemental-

reference-exam-prep.html

Power PE Final Exam: https://www.engproguides.com/pe-power-final-exam-prep.html

Introduction - 2 www.engproguides.com
1.1 KEY CONCEPTS AND SKILLS
How are the key concepts and skills determined?

The key concepts and skills tested in this sample exam were first developed through an analysis
of the topics and information presented by NCEES. NCEES indicates on their website that the
PE Exam will cover an AM exam (4 hours) followed by a PM exam (4 hours) and that the exam
will be 80 questions long, 40 questions in the morning and 40 questions in the afternoon. The
Power Electrical PE exam will focus on the following topics, as indicated by NCEES.
(http://ncees.org/engineering/pe/):

I. General Power Engineering (21-32 questions)

A) Measurement and Instrumentation (4‐6 questions)

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1 Instrument transformers
2 Insulation testing
3 Ground resistance testing
B) Applications (7‐11 questions)
1 Lightning protection
2 Surge protection
3 Reliability
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4 Illumination/lighting and energy efficiency engineering
5 Demand calculations
6 Energy management
7 Engineering economics
8 Grounding
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C) Codes and Standards (10‐15 questions)
1 National Electrical Code (NFPA 70, NEC 2017)

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2 National Electrical Safety Code (ANSI C2, NESC-2017)
3 Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace: Shock and Burns (NFPA 70E-2018)
4 Hazardous Area Classification (NFPA 497-2017, 499-2017, 30B-2015)
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II. Circuits (14-21 questions)

A) Analysis (8‐12 questions)

1 Three-phase circuits
2 Symmetrical components
3 Per unit system
4 Phasor diagrams
5 Single phase circuits
6 DC circuits
7 Single-line diagrams
B) Devices and Power Electronic Circuits (6‐9 questions)
1 Battery characteristics and ratings

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 2 Power supplies
3 Relays, switches and PLCs
4 Variable speed drives

III. Rotating Machines and Electromagnetic Devices (14-21 questions)

A) Rotating Machines (7‐11 questions)

1 Induction and Synchronous Machines
i) Generator/motor applications
ii) Equivalent circuits and characteristics
iii) Motor starting
iv) Electrical machine theory

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B) Electric Power Devices (7‐11 questions)
1 Transformers
2 Reactors
3 Testing
4 Capacitors

questions)
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IV. Transmission and Distribution (High, Medium and Low Voltage) (21-32

A) Power System Analysis (10‐15 questions)

1 Voltage drop
2 Voltage regulation
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3 Power factor correction and voltage support
4 Power quality

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5 Fault current analysis
6 Transformer connection
7 Transmission line models
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8 Power flow
9 Load sharing parallel generators or transformers
10 Power system stability
B) Protection (11‐17 questions)
1 Overcurrent protection
2 Protective relaying (differential, distance, undervoltage, pilot)
3 Protective devices (e.g., fuses, breakers, reclosers)
4 Coordination

Next, each of these broad topics were investigated and filtered for concepts and skills that met
the following criteria:

Introduction - 4 www.engproguides.com
(1) First, the concept and skill must be commonly encountered in the Power
Engineering field of study. For example: Voltage drop, phasor diagrams, three-phase power,
NEC and transmission analysis are regular occurrences in the Power Engineering field.

(2) Second, the skill and concept must be testable in roughly 6 minutes per problem .
There are (40) questions on the morning exam and you will be provided with 4 hours to
complete the exam. The same is true for the afternoon portion of the exam. This results in an
average of 6 minutes per problem. This criterion limits the complexity of the exam problems
and the resulting solutions. For example, power flow calculations are common in the Power
Engineering field, but the calculation is often very lengthy because of the number of steps
involved, especially if the circuit is complex. Thus, the exam uses simple circuits and the math
required to solve the problems is also very simple.

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(3) Third, the key concepts and skills must be used or be known by practicing electrical
engineers in the Power field. This criterion is similar to the first criterion. However, this
criterion filters the concepts and skills further by limiting the field to material encountered and
used by practicing engineers . The Power Engineering field is vast and there are many
different avenues an engineer can take. Two diverging paths are those engineers involved in

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research and those who practice. Research engineers are pushing the boundaries of the field
and are highly focused in their specific area of the field. The Professional Engineering Exam
does not cover emerging technologies or highly focused material.

(4) The PE Exam must test the principle or application of the skill and concept and not
the background knowledge of the topic or concept. The exam also does not cover
background information on the NCEES topics. The PE Exam is meant to prove that the test
taker is minimally competent to practice in the Electrical Engineering field. The exam is less
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concerned with theory and more with the principle or application of the theory, skill or concept.
For example, the PE Exam is less concerned with the theory of thyristors or magnetic flux and

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more with the performance of a rectifying circuit and the voltage output of a transformer.

In summary, this book is intended to teach the necessary skills and concepts to develop a
minimally competent, practicing professional engineer in the Electrical Engineering Power field,
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capable of passing the PE Exam. This book and the sample exams do this through the
following means:

(1) Teaching commonly used skills and concepts in the Power field.

(2) Providing sample problems that can be completed in roughly 6 minutes per problem.

(3) Teaching skills and concepts used by practicing Power engineers.

(4) Teaching the application of the skill and concept.

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1.2 UNITS
The primary units that are used in the PE Exam are United States Customary System Units
(USCS). As such, this guide focuses exclusively on the USCS. However, it is recommended
that the test taker have a conversion book, because certain areas of the PE Exam may use the
International System of Units (SI).

1.3 COMPUTER BASED TEST (CBT)

As of December 2020, the exam will be converted from the paper-pencil/scantron testing
method to a computer based platform. This allows the test to be offered year round instead of
twice per year. This also means you will not have the same set of the questions as the next

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person. The style of the testing interface will be very similar to the fundamentals of engineering
(FE) exam that is also administered by NCEES. If you have gone through the computer based
version of the FE exam, you should be familiar with the format. The main difference is the
number and difficulty of questions and the length of the exam. It is important to review the
NCEES Examinee Guide to understand the testing rules and format. Below is a summary of the
major content.

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(1) Year Round: The exam may be taken any time throughout the year, as long as the testing
facility is open. However, you are only allowed to take the exam once per quarter (Jan – March,
April – June, July – Sept, Oct – Dec) and at most 3 times per 12 months. The turnaround time
from your exam application to test date will be much faster and the results should be received
within 7-10 days. The only thing holding you up may be your state approval.

(2) Day of Timeline: The overall time at the testing facility will be 9 hours, with 1 hour allotted
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for prep time and breaks and 8 hours of actual exam time. You can take as long as you want to
complete the first half of the exam, but that time is subtracted from the total 8 hour time. Once

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you submit the first section you cannot return to those questions. You will then have a
maximum of 50 minutes of break time, where you are allowed to leave the facility. If you arrive
after the 50 minutes, then that time is subtracted from your 8 hours. Finally, you will have a the
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remaining of the 8 hours to complete the second half of the exam.

(3) Question Types: One of the main changes in the actual content of the computer-based test
is the ability to incorporate different question types. Majority of the questions will be multiple
choice with one answer out of four options, but additional question types include (1) multiple
answers, (2) selecting a point, (3) drag and drop for matching, sorting, labeling, etc, and (4) fill in
the blank. These question types are called AIT (Alternative Item Type) questions. There are
only FOUR of the AIT questions.

The exam questions are written in a way that can be confusing or meant to trick the examinee,
so you can imagine how this can really add to the difficulty of the problem.

(4) NCEES Reference Handbook: Perhaps the greatest consequence of shifting to the
computer based conversion is that examinees are no longer able to bring in outside resources.
Your only aid during the test is the NCEES PE Power Reference Handbook, see the following

Introduction - 6 www.engproguides.com
2 – Circuits Analysis

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Three phase circuits | Symmetrical components | Per-unit system | Phasor diagrams

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| Single phase circuits | DC circuits | Single-line diagrams

Study Guide
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 Section 2.0 – Circuits Analysis
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4
2.0 Direct Current ..................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Ohm’s Law ...................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Electrical Power .............................................................................................................. 6
2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws ............................................................................................................. 7
2.3.1 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) ................................................................................. 7
2.3.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) ................................................................................. 8

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2.4 Circuit Arrangements ...................................................................................................... 9
2.4.1 Series Circuits ......................................................................................................... 9
2.4.2 Parallel Circuits ..................................................................................................... 10

2.5
2.4.3
2.4.4

2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3
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Open Circuit .......................................................................................................... 11
Short Circuit ........................................................................................................... 11
Inductors & Capacitors ................................................................................................. 12
Inductors ................................................................................................................ 12
Inductor Characteristics ......................................................................................... 14
Inductors in Parallel ............................................................................................... 15
2.5.4 Inductors in Series ................................................................................................. 15
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2.5.5 Capacitors ............................................................................................................. 15

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2.5.6 Capacitor Characteristics ...................................................................................... 17
2.5.7 Capacitors in Parallel ............................................................................................ 18
2.5.8 Capacitor in Series ................................................................................................ 18
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3.0 Alternating current ............................................................................................................ 19

3.1 Frequency ..................................................................................................................... 20
3.2 RMS and MAX .............................................................................................................. 20
3.3 Complex Numbers ........................................................................................................ 23
3.3.1 Rectangular Form .................................................................................................. 24
3.3.2 Polar Form ............................................................................................................. 25
3.3.3 Converting Polar and Rectangular Forms - Calculator .......................................... 25
3.4 Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance and Impedance ................................................ 27
3.4.1 Resistance (Resistors) .......................................................................................... 28
3.4.2 Inductance or Inductive Reactance (Inductors) ..................................................... 28

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 3.4.3 Capacitance or Capacitive Reactance (Capacitors) .............................................. 28
3.4.4 Impedance ............................................................................................................. 29
3.5 Single-Phase vs. Three-Phase ..................................................................................... 29
3.5.1 Single-Phase ......................................................................................................... 29
3.5.2 Three-Phase .......................................................................................................... 30
3.6 Delta versus Wye Arrangements .................................................................................. 31
3.6.1 Delta Arrangement ................................................................................................ 32
3.6.2 Wye Arrangement ................................................................................................. 33
3.6.3 Convert between Delta and Wye ........................................................................... 34
3.7 Power Factor ................................................................................................................ 36

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3.7.1 Waveform – Current & Voltage ............................................................................. 36
3.7.2 Phasor – Current & Voltage .................................................................................. 39
3.7.3 Apparent Power, Real Power and Reactive Power ............................................... 41

3.8
3.7.4

3.8.1
3.8.2
3.8.3
3.8.4
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Apparent Power Vector Equations ........................................................................ 43
Common Arrangements ............................................................................................... 44
Wye Arrangement ................................................................................................. 45
Delta Arrangement ................................................................................................ 46
High Leg Delta or Center Tapped Delta ................................................................ 47
Open Delta ............................................................................................................ 48
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3.8.5 Split Phase ............................................................................................................ 49
3.9 Typical Voltage Arrangements ..................................................................................... 51

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3.9.1 240/120 V Residential (Single Phase Only) .......................................................... 51
3.9.2 480/277 V Commercial (Three Phase) .................................................................. 53
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3.9.3 208/120 V Mixed Commercial & Residential (Single and/or Three Phase) ........... 55
3.9 Voltage Drop ................................................................................................................. 57
4.0 Symmetrical Components ................................................................................................ 59
4.1 Balanced vs. Unbalanced Loads .................................................................................. 59
4.2 Positive, Negative and Zero Components .................................................................... 60
5.0 Per Unit Analysis .............................................................................................................. 63
5.1 Change Per-Unit Base .................................................................................................. 64
5.2 Application of Per-Unit .................................................................................................. 64
6.0 Single-Line Diagram ......................................................................................................... 66
6.1 Standard Symbols ........................................................................................................ 66

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 6.2 Reading a Single-Line Diagram .................................................................................... 67
7.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 69
7.1 Problem 1 – Per Unit .................................................................................................... 69
7.2 Problem 2 – Per Unit .................................................................................................... 69
7.3 Problem 3 – Power Factor ............................................................................................ 70
7.4 Problem 4 – Three-Phase Circuits ............................................................................... 70
7.5 Problem 5 – Three-Phase Circuits ............................................................................... 71
7.6 Problem 6 – Other Arrangements ................................................................................. 71
7.7 Problem 7 – Power ....................................................................................................... 72
7.8 Problem 8 – Per Unit .................................................................................................... 72

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7.9 Problem 9 – Circuits ..................................................................................................... 73
7.10 Problem 10 – Symmetrical Components ...................................................................... 73
7.11 Problem 11 – Power ..................................................................................................... 74

8.0
7.12

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
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Problem 12 – Power ..................................................................................................... 75
Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 76
Solution 1 – Per Unit ..................................................................................................... 76
Solution 2 – Per Unit ..................................................................................................... 76
Solution 3 – Power Factor ............................................................................................ 77
Solution 4 - Three-Phase Circuits ................................................................................. 78
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8.5 Solution 5 - Three-Phase Circuits ................................................................................. 79
8.6 Solution 6 – Other Arrangements ................................................................................. 80

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8.7 Solution 7 – Power ....................................................................................................... 81
8.8 Solution 8 – Per Unit ..................................................................................................... 81
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8.9 Solution 9 - Circuits ...................................................................................................... 82

8.10 Solution 10 – Symmetrical Components ...................................................................... 83
8.11 Solution 11 – Power ..................................................................................................... 83
8.12 Solution 12 – Power ..................................................................................................... 83

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8-12 out of 80 problems
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Circuits Analysis accounts for approximately 8‐12 questions on the Electrical &
Computer, Power PE exam.

This section provides a refresher on the basic electrical engineering concepts, beginning with
direct current. Following the direct current section, exam type material will be covered with
alternating current, per-unit analysis and symmetrical components.

The circuit analysis section of this book will serve as the basis for many of the other application
sections. Therefore, the terms explained here will be used in sections such as 4.0 Rotating
Machines, 5.0 Electromagnetic Devices, and 6.0 Transmission. In the latter sections, it will be
expected that that you have a strong understanding of the material presented in this section, 2.0
Circuits. Specifically, this section will introduce three methods of understanding circuits, (1) one

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line diagrams, (2) phasor diagrams and (3) waveforms. These three methods are the basic
tools that will be used in the other sections previously mentioned. The symmetrical components
and the three methods will also be used in 8.0 Protection.

Direct Current
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8-12 questions

Alternating Current Per Unit Analysis Symmetrical

Components
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 Ohm’s Law  Frequency  One-line  Unbalanced
 Series Circuit  RMS Diagrams Loads
 Parallel Circuit  Complex Numbers  Changing  Balanced
 Kirchhoff’s  Reactance Bases Loads
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Laws  Impedance  Positive,

 Single-Phase Negative and
 Three-Phase Zero
 Delta & Wye Components
 Power Factor
 Phasor Diagrams

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8-12 out of 80 problems
2.0 DIRECT CURRENT
The PE exam will most likely not have any easy direct current problems, so you may skip this
section if you are already familiar with the basics of electricity. This section is only provided as
a basis for the terms that are used in the other sections throughout this book.

Direct current (DC) is the supply of current in one direction. In a circuit, current flows from the
positive voltage terminal to the negative terminal. Current is deemed positive when it flows in
this direction. Current is considered negative when it flows from a negative terminal to a
positive terminal. DC current is a constant source and does not switch between negative and
positive. Alternating current (AC) is able to supply current in both directions, positive to negative
and negative to positive. This is shown in the graph below, where the current can be positive
(above the 0-axis) or negative (below the 0-axis).

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Figure 1: In an AC circuit, current can alternate its flow from positive to negative. In a DC
circuit, current is constant.
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There are three main elements to a basic circuit, (1) current, (2) voltage and (3) resistance. The
flow of electrons in a circuit is called current (I) and current is given in units of amperes. The
energy that drives the flow of electrons is called the voltage (V) and is given in units of volts.
The voltage is measured between two points because it is the difference in energy (also known
as the potential) that drives the current from one point to the next. The third term is resistance,
which is measured in units of ohms (Ω). Resistance (R) is the opposition to the flow of current.
One ohm is described as the level of resistance that will allow 1 ampere to flow when 1 volt is
applied to a circuit.

In the following sections you will read about voltage in terms of “voltage between phases” or
“voltage across two phases” or “voltage between phase and neutral”.

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Figure 12: When an inductor is added in series with a resistor, the inductor will impede the rate
of change in current. Once the circuit reaches steady state, then there will be no change in

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current, so the inductor will act like a “short”. This means that there will be no voltage drop
through the inductor, at steady state. Once the circuit is de-energized, there will again be a rate
of change in current, so the inductor will impede this new rate of change in current.

The following figures show the current and voltages across an inductor in series with a resistor

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(solid line) as a constant voltage is applied, i.e. it is charging, and as the voltage source is
removed, i.e. it is discharging. This is compared to only a resistor connected to the same
voltage source (dashed line).
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Figure 13: When the circuit is first connected, the inductor will impede the rate of change in
current. This is shown in the charging section. Once it reaches steady state, then the current in
the circuit will be a function of only the voltage and the resistance of the resistor. When the
circuit is disconnected, the inductor will impede the rate of change in current. The current is
trying to go down to zero, but the inductor is impeding the change, until finally the current
reaches zero. This is shown in the discharge section.

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 1
⇒ 𝐶
1/𝐶 1/𝐶 ⋯ 1/𝐶

3.0 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating current is most commonly used on the PE exam and in most power applications.
Alternating current describes the alternating directions of flow in a circuit. Current quickly
alternates flow direction from positive to negative many times a second. In the figure below,
positive current is shown flowing in a clockwise direction in the figure on the right and this flow
direction corresponds to the positive portions of the graph on the left.

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Figure 18: Alternating current consists of positive and negative flowing current. This figure
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shows positive current flow.

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In this next figure, negative current is shown flowing in a counter-clockwise direction. The
current flow in the figure on the right corresponds to the negative portions of the graph on the
left.
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Figure 19: Alternating current consists of positive and negative flowing current. This figure
shows negative current flow.

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3.4.1 Resistance (Resistors)
Resistance describes the resistors ratio of voltage to current in units of ohms. In the Power
Engineering field, resistors are used to describe any electrical load that does useful work. A
resistive load can be any light (incandescent, fluorescent, LED, etc.), any motor, any electronic
device (computers, cellphone, printers, copy machines) and much more. These resistive loads
are true power users because current is dissipated at the load and results in actual work (i.e.
motor spins a rotor and a light illuminates). The motor load also has inductive loads, which will
be described in the next set of paragraphs.

𝑉
𝑅 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝐼

In the previous figure, the phasor diagram shows resistance as 𝑅∠0°, which is characterized as
a positive vector on the real axis.

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3.4.2 Inductance or Inductive Reactance (Inductors)
An inductor is made up of a wire wound about a coil. As the current flows through the wound

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coil, the current builds a magnetic field. This concept of the magnetic field is used heavily in the
5.0 Electromagnetic Devices, 4.0 Rotating Machines and 6.0 Transmission sections. Inductive
loads or inductive reactance are any loads that create a magnetic field. This load is not deemed
useful since the current is not dissipated. The current builds the magnetic field and when the
current is shut off, then the magnetic field dissipates.

𝑋 𝑤𝐿 2𝜋𝑓𝐿

𝑍 𝑗𝑋
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In the previous figure, the phasor diagram shows inductance as 𝑋 ∠90°, which is characterized

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as a positive vector on the imaginary axis.
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3.4.3 Capacitance or Capacitive Reactance (Capacitors)

A capacitor is made up of two conductors separated by a dielectric. As current is supplied to
the capacitor on the positive side, charge is built up, which restricts current. Then the current
alternates and charge is built up on the negative side, which also restricts current. Capacitors
are used in the next section, 3.0 Devices, to smooth waveforms because of its timing
component. It takes time to fill the capacitor with charge, which delays any sudden inrush of
voltage.

1 1
𝑋
𝑤𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

𝑍 𝑗𝑋

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Figure 30: Three-phase power waveform

The next question is how the wires are physically arranged in three-phase power. In single-
phase power, there is a hot wire which enters the input of the load and a neutral that leaves the

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exit of the load. However, in three-phase wire, you need three hot wires entering the load and
possibly a neutral that leaves the exit of the load. There are two major arrangements for three-
phase circuits, called Delta and Wye. These arrangements will be described in detail in the next
sections.

3.6 DELTA VERSUS WYE ARRANGEMENTS

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On the exam, loads and power sources will be given in delta or wye arrangements. You will
need to be able to distinguish between the phase currents/voltages and line currents/voltages

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for the two arrangements. You will also need to be able to calculate power in both
arrangements.

In a three-phase arrangement, the terms phase and line are introduced. The term phase
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describes the insides of the load or power source and the term line describes the wires that
enter the load or power source. The easiest way to describe line current and voltage is to
envision a three-phase motor. There are three wire leads at the entrance to the motor and
these are the line currents/voltages. The phase voltage and current is measured inside the
equipment.

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phase voltage. This is common of your simple single-phase power equation. However, in
practice you are not often given the phase current and the phase voltage, since these
measurements are within the equipment (motor or generator). In practice, you are able to
measure the line current and line voltage entering the equipment. So you start with the first
equation and then use the relationships between the phase current and line current and the
phase voltage and line voltage to get the three-phase power equation below.

𝑆 𝐼 , ∗𝑉 , 𝐼 , ∗𝑉 , 𝐼 , ∗𝑉 ,

𝐼
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙
√3
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝑆 ∗𝑉 ∗𝑉 ∗𝑉
√3 √3 √3

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𝐼
𝑆 3 ∗𝑉 →𝑆 √3 𝐼 𝑉
√3

3.6.2 Wye Arrangement

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In a wye arrangement, the line currents and the phase currents are equal to each other. The
line voltage, however, is √3 times greater than the phase voltage. (The line voltage leads the
phase voltage by 30 degrees when transitioning from delta to wye.)
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Figure 33: Wye circuit (The line voltage leads the phase voltage by 30 degrees when
transitioning from delta to wye.)

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 Figure 70: In a single phase system, the voltage is compared to a neutral. The maximum
amount of power that can be sent across a transmission/distribution line is a function of the
voltage and the impedance of the line.

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The voltage drop through a three phase system will follow Ohm’s law with the addition of the
“root 3” term. The power lost along the impedance of a three phase system will be found
through the following equations.

PL
𝑉 𝐼 𝑍 ∗ √3; 𝑆 3𝑉 𝐼 ;
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Figure 71: In a three phase system, the line voltage drop is compared to the other lines. The
maximum amount of three phase power that can be sent across a transmission/distribution line
is a function of the line voltage and the impedance of the line.

The voltage drop across A1 to A2 will be the same as the phase to neutral voltage drop from the
single phase equations. However, when you want to find the line voltage at A2 and compare it
to points B2 or C2, you will need to take into account the “root 3” term. This is because the
voltage at B1 & B2 and C1 & C2 are different, as opposed to N1 & N2.

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7.0 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
7.1 PROBLEM 1 – PER UNIT
A 3-phase, 1,000 KVA, 480V/120V transformer has a percent impedance of 6%. What is the
actual impedance for the transformer on the high voltage side?

(A) 0.014 Ω

(B) 0.06 Ω

(C) 0.14 Ω

(D) 2.3 Ω

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7.2 PROBLEM 2 – PER UNIT
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Based on the diagram below and given a Generator G2 as the per-unit base, what is the per-
unit reactance values for Generator G1?
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(A) 0.06 pu

(B) 0.16 pu

(C) 0.24 pu

(D) 0.48 pu

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7.12 PROBLEM 12 – POWER
Given the figure below, what does the shaded blue region most likely represent?

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(A) Complete real power

(B) Complete reactive power

(C) Partial real power

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(D) Partial reactive power

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8.0 SOLUTIONS
8.1 SOLUTION 1 – PER UNIT
A 1,000 KVA, 480V/120V transformer has a percent impedance of 6%. What is the actual
impedance for the transformer on the high voltage side?

First solve for the base current and actual impedance.

𝑉 . 480 𝑉
𝑍 .23 Ω
𝑆 , 1,000 ∗ 1,000

Next, use the per-unit value to find the actual impedance.

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𝑍
𝑍 ;
𝑍

𝑍
0.06 ;
. 23 Ω

PL 𝑍

The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 0.014 Ω.

Another equation that can be used is shown below.

0.014 Ω

𝑉
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.
𝑍
𝑆 ,

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8.2 SOLUTION 2 – PER UNIT
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Based on the diagram below and given a Generator G2 as the per-unit base, what is the per-
unit reactance values for Generator G1?

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Reactive Power: This power flows in both directions. A generator provides reactive power and
inductors receive reactive power. A capacitor can also act as a source of reactive power. You
cannot convert reactive to real power and vice versa. Reactive power has units VAR.

The blue portion is in the negative region, so it cannot be real power and must be reactive
power. However, only some of the reactive power is shown, because only the negative
direction is shown. Reactive power consists of both the positive and negative directions on the
waveform. The actual reactive graph will look like positive and negative pulses, like the figure
below.

E
PL
M

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Figure 80: It is very important to note that these two powers cannot be added or subtracted. Real and
reactive power are two different powers, with different units. This problem is only intended to show that
reactive power flows back and forth between the source and the load. Reactive power flows to a load
where it builds up a magnetic field, then discharges the magnetic field and flows back to the source.
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The correct answer is most nearly, (D) Partial reactive power.

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A
L
Alternating current ꞏ 5, 19
Angular frequency ꞏ 20 lagging ꞏ 38, 40, 41, 42, 70, 77
ANSI Device ꞏ 68 leading ꞏ 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 70, 77
apparent power ꞏ 36, 37, 39, 40

N
B
negative sequence ꞏ 61, 62
balanced ꞏ 34, 35, 36, 59, 60, 63, 71, 79 Negative-sequence ꞏ 60

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C O

Capacitance ꞏ 27, 28 Ohm’s Law ꞏ 6

capacitor ꞏ 27, 28, 42 one-line ꞏ 64, 66
Center Tapped Delta ꞏ 47 open circuit ꞏ 11
Complex numbers ꞏ 23

D
Delta ꞏ 31, 32, 34, 35
Direct Current ꞏ 5

F
PL Open Delta ꞏ 48

P
parallel circuit ꞏ 10
Per Unit ꞏ 63, 69, 76
phase voltage ꞏ 31, 33, 34, 63, 79
phasor diagram ꞏ 27, 28, 29, 39, 40, 41
polar form ꞏ 25, 26, 59
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Polar form ꞏ 24
frequency ꞏ 20, 30 positive sequence ꞏ 61, 62

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Positive-sequence ꞏ 60
power factor ꞏ 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 70, 77, 78
H
R
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High Leg Delta ꞏ 47

reactive power ꞏ 23, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 77

I real component ꞏ 23, 24
Real power ꞏ 6, 36, 41
imaginary component ꞏ 23, 24 Rectangular form ꞏ 24
impedance ꞏ 29, 34, 59, 61, 63, 64, 66, 69, 76 Resistance ꞏ 5, 27, 28
Inductance ꞏ 27, 28 RMS ꞏ 20, 21, 22
inductor ꞏ 27, 28, 41, 42

S
K
series circuit ꞏ 9
KCL ꞏ 7, 8, 60 short circuit ꞏ 11, 12, 66
KVL ꞏ 7, 8, 10, 11 Single-Line ꞏ 66, 67
single-phase ꞏ 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 63
Split Phase ꞏ 49

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Symmetrical Components ꞏ 59
W
Wye ꞏ 31, 33, 34, 35
T
three-phase ꞏ 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 70, 78
Z
zero component ꞏ 61
U
Zero-sequence ꞏ 60
unbalanced ꞏ 30, 34, 35, 59, 60, 61

E
PL
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3 – Devices & Power Electronic Circuits

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Battery characteristics & ratings | Power supplies and converters | Relays, switches

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and ladder logic | Variable speed drives

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 Section 3.0 – Devices & Power Electronic Circuits
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Batteries ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Equivalent Circuit ............................................................................................................ 5
2.2 Types .............................................................................................................................. 5
2.1.1 Lead Acid Battery .................................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery (VRLA) ............................................................ 6
2.1.3 Lithium Battery ........................................................................................................ 7

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2.2 Ratings ........................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1 C-Rating .................................................................................................................. 7
2.2.2 E-Rating .................................................................................................................. 8

2.3
2.4
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
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Cycle Life ................................................................................................................. 9
Temperature Effect ................................................................................................ 10
State of Charge ..................................................................................................... 11
Cold Cranking Amps ............................................................................................. 11
Battery Resources ........................................................................................................ 12
Battery Discharging ...................................................................................................... 14
2.5 Battery Charging ............................................................................................................... 17
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2.5.1 Battery Charging Methods .......................................................................................... 20

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2.5.2 Battery Charging Equations ........................................................................................ 22
2.6 Other Barry Topics ............................................................................................................ 22
2.6.1 Battery Self Discharge ................................................................................................ 22
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2.6.2 Battery Sulfation ......................................................................................................... 23

2.6.3 Battery Corrosion ........................................................................................................ 23
2.7 Theoretical Capacity of a Cell ....................................................................................... 24
2.8 Peukert’s Relation for Lead Acid Batteries ................................................................... 25
3.0 Power Supplies ................................................................................................................ 27
3.1 AC to DC Inverters ....................................................................................................... 27
3.2 DC to AC Inverters ....................................................................................................... 28
3.3 DC to DC Converters .................................................................................................... 28
3.3.1 Buck Converter ...................................................................................................... 28
3.3.2 Boost Converter .................................................................................................... 29

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 3.3.3 Buck-Boost Converter ........................................................................................... 30
4.0 Variable Speed Drives ..................................................................................................... 31
4.1 Thyristors, Diodes and IGBTs ...................................................................................... 32
4.2 Rectifiers ....................................................................................................................... 33
4.2.1 Half-Wave Rectifiers .............................................................................................. 33
4.2.2 Full-Wave Rectifiers .............................................................................................. 34
4.2.3 DC Bus Ripple ....................................................................................................... 36
4.2.4 Half-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor ........................................................................ 38
4.2.5 Full-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor ........................................................................ 40
4.3 Inverters ........................................................................................................................ 41

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4.4 Variable Speed Drives .................................................................................................. 41
4.4.1 Construction .......................................................................................................... 42
4.4.2 Line Reactors ........................................................................................................ 45

5.0
4.5
4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.4
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Rectifier Derivations ..................................................................................................... 46
Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier ......................................................................... 46
Single Phase Full Wave Rectifier .......................................................................... 48
Three Phase Half Wave Rectifier .......................................................................... 50
Three Phase Full Wave Rectifier ........................................................................... 52
Controls ............................................................................................................................ 54
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5.1 Relays and Switches .................................................................................................... 55
5.2 Programmable Logic Controllers .................................................................................. 55

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5.3 Ladder Logic ................................................................................................................. 55
5.3.1 Sample Ladder Logic Diagram – Hand-Off-Auto Pump ........................................ 58
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5.3.2 Sample Ladder Logic Diagram – Reduced Voltage Starter................................... 59

5.4 Controls Resources ...................................................................................................... 60
6.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 61
6.1 Problem 1 - Battery ....................................................................................................... 61
6.2 Problem 2 – Half-Wave Rectifier .................................................................................. 61
6.3 Problem 3 – Full -Wave Rectifier .................................................................................. 62
6.4 Problem 4 – Variable Frequency Drives ....................................................................... 62
6.5 Problem 5 – Variable Frequency Drives ....................................................................... 63
6.6 Problem 6 – Variable Frequency Drives ....................................................................... 63
6.7 Problem 7 – Batteries ................................................................................................... 64

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 6.8 Problem 8 – Batteries ................................................................................................... 64
6.9 Problem 9 – Batteries ................................................................................................... 65
6.10 Problem 10 – Batteries ................................................................................................. 65
7.0 Solutions ............................................................................................................................... 66
7.1 Solution 1 - Battery ....................................................................................................... 66
7.2 Solution 2 – Half-Wave Rectifier ................................................................................... 66
7.3 Solution 3 – Full-Wave Rectifier ................................................................................... 67
7.4 Solution 4 – Variable Frequency Drives ....................................................................... 69
7.5 Problem 5 – Variable Frequency Drives ....................................................................... 69
7.6 Solution 6 – Variable Frequency Drives ....................................................................... 70

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7.7 Solution 7 – Batteries ................................................................................................... 71
7.8 Solution 8 – Batteries ................................................................................................... 71
7.9 Solution 9 – Batteries ................................................................................................... 72
7.10

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Solution 10 – Batteries ................................................................................................. 72

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The section, Devices & Power Electronic Circuits, accounts for approximately 7
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questions on the Power Engineering, Electrical PE exam.

This section discusses the Devices and Power Electronic Circuits section. At first this section

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may seem very different from Power Engineering. However, upon closer inspection you will see
how this section is important to practicing Power Engineering. Batteries are beginning to play an
increasingly important role in the power field as intermittent renewable energy requires a form of
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energy storage. Power supplies, drives and controls are used heavily in the motor control section
to reduce electricity costs and this effect is large, since motors account for more than 50% of all
industrial electricity usage. Some estimates indicate that motors account for more than 2/3 of
industrial electricity usage. But with these electricity savings comes unwanted effects to power
quality, which Power Engineers must be equipped to resolve. As you can see this section is
closely related to the 4.0 Machines section and the 7.0 Power System Performance section, so
please be sure to read through this section before reading those sections.

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 Devices
7 questions

Batteries Power Supplies Drives Controls

 Types  AC to DC  Diodes &  Relays

 Ratings Inverter Thyristors  Switches
 Safety  DC to AC  Rectifiers  PLCs
Inverter  Inverters

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 Variable Speed
Drives

2.0 BATTERIES
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Batteries are used to store electrical energy as chemical energy. A battery consists of an
electrolyte medium and two electrodes, one positive and the other negative. Current flows from
the positively charged end of the battery, through the circuit, then to the negatively charged portion
of the battery. Chemically, electrons are negatively charged and are attracted to the positively
charged end of the battery.
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SA

Figure 1: A battery provides direct current to a circuit. Current flows from the positive terminal
to the negative terminal.

This transfer of electrons creates this voltage potential, which drives the current during discharge
as shown in the figure above. The same principal is used when the battery is being charged but
in reverse.

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If an inductor is present, then the output current will have the waveform as shown in the
Handbook. If an inductor is not present, then the current will be a square waveform.

The equations presented show current values as a function of time. One thing that is not defined
in the equations is the tau value.

𝐿
𝜏
𝑅

A common question would be to find the maximum current value at the output.

3.2 DC TO AC INVERTERS

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A DC to AC inverter converts direct current from alternating current. These types of inverters are
used in the power engineering field in PV installations, where the direct current output from a PV
module must be converted to AC in order for it to be used in the normal power distribution system.
Inverters are also commonly used in an uninterruptible power supply or UPS. A UPS stores

3.3 DC TO DC CONVERTERS
3.3.1 Buck Converter
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energy as a battery, which normally supplies power in DC. However, in order to power electronics,
this DC power must be converted to AC.

In a buck converter, the output voltage will be LOWER than the input voltage.
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Switch Closed (On): When the switch is closed, the inductor will create an opposing voltage to

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decrease the voltage sent to the load. If the switch allows the system to reach steady state, then
the voltage will go down to zero. But before this happens, the switch transitions to the off state.
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Figure 12: When the switch is closed, current flows from the voltage source through the
inductor (charges the inductor) and to the load. The voltage seen by the load is reduced due to
the inductor.

Switch Opened (Off): When the switch is opened, the inductor wants to fight against the change
in current, so the inductor now becomes a current source. The energy that was stored in the

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 E
Figure 26: From time, t = a, there is no power from the AC voltage source. The voltage is from
the capacitor. Once the voltage drops to Vc, which is shown at time t = a, then the voltage is

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from the AC voltage source. During t = a through Ɵ, the voltage is provided by the AC voltage
source to the load, but the capacitor is in parallel with the load too, so charging is also occurring
during this time. After t = Ɵ, the voltage from the AC voltage source reaches its peak and starts
to decrease. This decrease in voltage, causes the capacitor to now provide current to the load.
The capacitor will continue to be the voltage source to the load, until the voltage has dropped to
Vc.

The difference between the peak voltage and the voltage at which the capacitor shuts off is found
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through the equation below.

2𝜋 𝑉

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∆𝑉 𝑉
𝜔𝑅𝐶 𝑓𝑅𝐶

The following example will go through the types of problems that the exam can and cannot ask
you. Given a half-wave rectifier connected to a 480 V RMS, 60 HZ voltage source and a resistive
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load of 70 ohms and a capacitor sized at 750 uF, determine the following.

Maximum Voltage at Load (can appear on the exam):

𝑉 480 𝑥 √2 679 𝑉

Angle when capacitor serves as voltage source to load (cannot appear on exam):

𝜃 tan 2𝜋𝑓 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝐶 𝜋

𝜃 tan 2𝜋 60 ∗ 70 ∗ 750𝑥10 𝜋 92.9°

The angle should be pretty close to the peak at 90 degrees. It is often just assumed that the
capacitor turns on after the peak.

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 𝑉 /
, 1
𝑉 3 1 cos 2𝜃
2𝜋 / 2

𝑉 /
,
𝑉 3 1 cos 2𝜃
4𝜋 /

𝑉 , 1 1
𝑉 3 5𝜋/6 sin 10𝜋/6 𝜋/6 sin 2𝜋/6
4𝜋 2 2

𝑉 , 5𝜋 √3 𝜋 √3
𝑉 3
4𝜋 6 4 6 4

E
𝑉 , 4𝜋 √3
𝑉 3
4𝜋 6 2

PL 𝑉 0.841 ∗ 𝑉
M

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Figure 36: This figure shows the AC input on the left and the DC output after the rectifier.
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These two figures can be a little confusing, because there are phase and line RMS & Max
values. The line AC maximum and RMS values are translated from the left figure to the right
figure. This was done by shifting the y = 0, horizontal line down to where the line AC max value
is shown on the left. The DC RMS value is shown in light blue and the DC load (average value)
is shown in green.

4.5.4 Three Phase Full Wave Rectifier

The fourth rectifier is the three-phase, full-wave rectifier. The input to the rectifier are three
voltages or currents each at the same RMS value and MAX value. For the purposes of these
derivations, voltage will be used, but just understand that voltage can be replaced with current.

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6.5 PROBLEM 5 – VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES
The AC input voltage to a variable speed drive is 440 V RMS. What will be the voltage
measured at the DC link (DC RMS) after the rectifier? Assume 3-phase.

(a) 480 V DC

(b) 597 V DC

(c) 622 V DC

(d) 678 V DC

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6.6
PL
PROBLEM 6 – VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES
Which of the following is methods will provide the greatest reduction in total harmonics caused
by a standard 6-pulse variable frequency drive?
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(a) Installing a 3% line reactor:

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(b) Upgrading from a 6-pulse to an 18-pulse VFD

(c) Upgrading from a 6-pulse to a 12-pulse VFD

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(d) Installing a DC inductor

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7.7 SOLUTION 7 – BATTERIES
This question is provided to ensure that you have read through the recommended resources.

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a VRLA battery?

(a) Regular maintenance includes filling of electrolyte – A VRLA battery does not normally allow
for its battery to be opened and filled with electrolyte, when its electrolyte is depleted. VLA
batteries regularly require the filling of electrolyte, since it is regularly open to the atmosphere.
This can cause electrolyte (water) to evaporate quickly.

(b) Can possibly release gases – In the event of excess pressure in the battery, the valve will
open and release any build-up of gases.

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(c) Subject to negative strap corrosion – Negative strap corrosion is the most common cause of
failure in a VRLA battery. The strap is the connection between the plate and the terminal. In a
VLA battery, the positive plate will corrode, but in a VRLA battery, the negative strap will corrode
often.

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(d) Its electrolyte can dry out – Although a VRLA battery is technically “sealed”, its electrolyte
can still dry out or evaporate. This is the second most common cause of failure of a VRLA
battery.

The correct answer is most nearly, (a) Regular maintenance includes filling of electrolyte.
M

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7.8 SOLUTION 8 – BATTERIES
Which of the following batteries has the SHORTEST service life? Assume that all batteries are
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properly maintained, the same size and are installed in the same environment.

(a) Lithium Ion – These batteries have a service life of around 10 years.

(b) VLA – The vented lead acid batteries have a service life of around 15 years.

(c) VRLA – The valve regulated, lead-acid batteries have a service life of around 5 years.

(d) Flooded battery – This is the same as the vented battery. It has a service life of around 15
years.

The correct answer is most nearly, (c) VRLA.

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 H
A
Half-Wave Rectifier ꞏ 61, 66
AC to DC ꞏ 27 Half-Wave Rectifiers ꞏ 33

B I
Batteries ꞏ 3, 4, 7, 27 IGBTs ꞏ 32
Battery ꞏ 61, 66 Inverters ꞏ 41

C L
Cold Cranking Amps ꞏ 11 Ladder Logic ꞏ 55, 58

E
Coulomb Counting ꞏ 11 Lead Acid Battery ꞏ 5
C-Rating ꞏ 7 Lithium Battery ꞏ 7
Cycle Life ꞏ 9

R
D
DC Bus Ripple ꞏ 36
DC to AC ꞏ 28
Diodes ꞏ 32

E
Equivalent Circuit ꞏ 5
E-Rating ꞏ 8
PL Rectifiers ꞏ 33

S
Single-Phase, Full-Wave Rectifier ꞏ 37
Single-Phase, Half-Wave Rectifier ꞏ 37
State of Charge ꞏ 11
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T
F

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Temperature Effect ꞏ 10
Three-Phase, Full-Wave Rectifier ꞏ 38
Full -Wave Rectifier ꞏ 62 Three-Phase, Half-Wave Rectifier ꞏ 38
Full-Wave Rectifier ꞏ 67 Thyristors ꞏ 32
Full-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor ꞏ 40
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Full-Wave Rectifiers ꞏ 34
V
Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery (VRLA) ꞏ 6
Variable Speed Drives ꞏ 31, 41

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4 – Rotating Machines

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Induction & Synchronous Machines | Generator applications | Motor applications |

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Equivalent circuits and characteristics | Motor starting | Electrical machine theory

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 Section 4.0 – Rotating Machines
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4
2.0 Synchronous Machines ...................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Construction ................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Rotating Magnetic Field ........................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 Torque Angle ........................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Synchronous Speed ....................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Synchronous Generator ................................................................................................. 9

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2.3.1 Equivalent Circuit .................................................................................................. 10
2.3.2 Synchronous Generator – Leading Power Factor ................................................. 11
2.3.3 Synchronous Generator – Lagging Power Factor ................................................. 12

2.4
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.3.6
2.3.6
2.3.7
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Generator Control .................................................................................................. 13
Voltage Regulation ................................................................................................ 18
Efficiency ............................................................................................................... 18
Generator Voltage Dip ........................................................................................... 18
Characteristics under Various Loading Conditions ............................................... 19
Synchronous Motor ...................................................................................................... 19
2.4.1 Synchronous Motor - Leading Power Factor ......................................................... 20
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2.4.2 Synchronous Motor - Lagging Power Factor ......................................................... 21

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2.5 Leading vs. Lagging (Synchronous Motors and Generators) ....................................... 22
2.6 Over-Excited vs. Under-Excited ................................................................................... 22
3.0 Induction Machines .......................................................................................................... 23
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3.1 Construction ................................................................................................................. 24

3.1.1 Rotating Magnetic Field ......................................................................................... 24
2.1.2 Lenz’s Law and Lorentz Law ................................................................................. 25
3.2 Slip................................................................................................................................ 27
3.3 Equivalent Circuits ........................................................................................................ 29
3.3.1 Equivalent Circuit during Start-Up ......................................................................... 30
3.3.2 Equivalent Circuit during No Load ......................................................................... 31
3.3.3 Equivalent Circuit during Full Load ........................................................................ 31
3.4 Voltage Regulation ....................................................................................................... 32
3.5 Voltage Unbalance ....................................................................................................... 32

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 3.6 Characteristics under Various Loading Conditions ....................................................... 33
4.0 Speed-Torque .................................................................................................................. 33
4.1 Induction Machines ....................................................................................................... 34
4.1.1 Starting an Induction Motor ................................................................................... 35
4.1.2 Other Induction Motor Classes .............................................................................. 36
4.1.3 Induction Motor Characteristics during Start-Up ................................................... 37
4.1.4 Induction Motor Characteristics as a Function of Percent Load ............................ 40
4.2 Synchronous Motors/Generators .................................................................................. 42
4.2.1 Starting a Synchronous Motor & Generator .......................................................... 43
5.0 Starting Methods .............................................................................................................. 43

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5.1 Across the Line Starters ............................................................................................... 44
5.2 Reduced Voltage Starters ............................................................................................ 44
5.2.1 Resistor Bank Reduced Voltage Starter ................................................................ 44

5.3
6.0
7.0
7.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
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Autotransformer Reduced Voltage Starter ............................................................ 45
Wye-Delta Reduced Voltage Starter ..................................................................... 46
Variable Speed Drive as a Starter ................................................................................ 47
Power Flow Between Voltage Sources ............................................................................ 49
Practice problems ............................................................................................................ 50
Problem 1 – Poles ........................................................................................................ 50
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7.2 Problem 2 – Breakdown Torque ................................................................................... 50
7.3 Problem 3 – Speed Regulation ..................................................................................... 51

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7.4 Problem 4 – Equivalent Circuits ................................................................................... 51
7.5 Problem 5 – Equivalent Circuits ................................................................................... 52
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7.6 Problem 6 – Slip ........................................................................................................... 52

7.7 Problem 7 – Induction Machines .................................................................................. 53
7.8 Problem 8 – Induction Machines .................................................................................. 53
7.9 Problem 9 – Synchronous Machines ............................................................................ 54
7.10 Problem 10 – Synchronous Machines .......................................................................... 54
7.11 Problem 11 – Induction Motor ...................................................................................... 55
7.12 Problem 12 – Induction Motor ...................................................................................... 55
7.13 Problem 13 – Induction Motor ...................................................................................... 56
7.14 Problem 14 – Induction Motor ...................................................................................... 56
7.15 Problem 15 – Induction Motor ...................................................................................... 57

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 7.16 Problem 16 – Induction Motor ...................................................................................... 57
7.17 Problem 17 – Induction Motor ...................................................................................... 58
7.18 Problem 18 – Induction Motor ...................................................................................... 58
7.19 Problem 19 – Induction Motor ...................................................................................... 59
8.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 60
8.1 Solution 1 – Poles ......................................................................................................... 60
8.2 Solution 2 – Breakdown Torque ................................................................................... 60
8.3 Solution 3 – Speed Regulation ..................................................................................... 61
8.4 Solution 4 – Equivalent Circuits .................................................................................... 61
8.5 Solution 5 – Equivalent Circuits .................................................................................... 62

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8.6 Solution 6 – Slip ............................................................................................................ 63
8.7 Solution 7 – Induction Machines ................................................................................... 64
8.8 Solution 8 – Induction Machines ................................................................................... 64
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
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Solution 9 – Synchronous Machines ............................................................................ 65
Solution 10 – Synchronous Machines .......................................................................... 65
Solution 11 – Induction Motor ....................................................................................... 67
Solution 12 – Induction Motor ....................................................................................... 67
Solution 13 – Induction Motor ....................................................................................... 69
Solution 14 – Induction Motor ....................................................................................... 70
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8.15 Solution 15 – Induction Motor ....................................................................................... 70
8.16 Solution 16 – Induction Motor ....................................................................................... 71

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8.17 Solution 17 – Induction Motor ....................................................................................... 73
8.18 Solution 18 – Induction Motor ....................................................................................... 74
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8.19 Solution 19 – Induction Motor ....................................................................................... 74

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The section, Rotating Machines, accounts for approximately 7‐11 questions on the Power
Engineering, Electrical PE exam.

The rotating machines section on the PE exam focuses on two main types of machines, (1)
Synchronous machines and (2) Induction machines. These two types of machines are important
in electrical power engineering, because these two machines define the primary sources and
loads for AC power. Induction motors are one of the largest loads for electricity and synchronous
generators are the leading power sources for AC power.

In order to do well on rotating machines exam problems, you should understand how electricity is
generated through a synchronous generator and how electricity is used by a motor. You should
be able to follow the flow of electricity through the equivalent circuit of a generator and motor.

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The exam also does have miscellaneous questions on starting methods, speed and torque.
These three terms are also discussed in this section.

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Synchronous Machines
Rotating Machines
7-11 questions

Induction Machines
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 Construction  Construction

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 Synchronous Generator/Alternator  Induction Motor
 Synchronous Motor  Motor Starting
 Motor Starting  Equivalent Circuits
 Equivalent Circuits  Speed-Torque Characteristics
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 Speed Torque Characteristics  Voltage Regulation

 Speed Regulation

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2.0 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
A synchronous machine is a machine that rotates at the same frequency as the alternating
current. This frequency is called the synchronizing frequency and in the USA this frequency is 60
Hz. An induction machine rotates at a frequency slightly less than this synchronous frequency.

 2.0 Synchronous Machines: The synchronous machine has a steady state rotation
that is synchronized with the frequency of the alternating current.

 3.0 Induction Machines: Instead of two separate magnets used to create rotation like
the synchronous machine does, the induction machine induces a magnetic field from one
coil to the other (between the stator and rotor). The transfer of current via electromagnetic
induction causes a lag and therefore, the induction machine will always have a speed less

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than the synchronous speed.

This section will primarily focus on synchronous machines and the following section will focus on
induction machines.

Both synchronous machines and induction machines can then be separated into two main types


2.3
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of machines, (1) Generator or (2) Motor.

Generator: A generator uses the mechanical energy from rotation to produce

alternating current electrical energy.

2.4 Motor: Motors use alternating current electrical energy to produce mechanical
energy in the form of rotation.
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These two types of machines are discussed in further detail in this section, but first you should
understand the general construction of a synchronous machine.

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2.1 CONSTRUCTION
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There are three main parts of a rotating synchronous machine.

 Mechanical Stator: The stator is the stationary part of the synchronous machine. The
stator contains slots of stator windings.

 Electrical Field Windings: A winding is another term for electrical coil. The field refers to
the rotating magnetic field component. In a motor, the stator receives three-phase
alternating current which creates the rotating magnetic field, and in a generator the rotor
is rotated to create a rotating magnetic field.

 Mechanical Rotor: The rotor is the rotating part of the synchronous machine. The rotor
contains rotor windings that are served by a DC source. The DC source is used to create
north and south poles. Sometimes permanent magnets are used instead of windings and
a DC source.

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 E
Figure 1: A synchronous machine consists of a stator and a rotor. Motor shown in figure.

2.1.1 Rotating Magnetic Field

magnetic field. PL
A key part of the synchronous and induction machines section is the rotating magnetic field. In a
motor, the stator creates a rotating magnetic field. In a generator the rotor creates the rotating

Synchronous Motor: In a motor, alternating current creates a rotating magnetic field in the stator.
As one phase becomes reaches its peak it becomes the “North Pole”. There is a corresponding
“South Pole” that is circuited opposite of that phase’s North Pole.
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SA

Figure 2: A rotating magnetic field in the clockwise direction, A-C-B sequence.

First, all the “A” slots are either North or South. Then “B” is North or South and then C. This
creates a magnetic field rotating clockwise. If the alternating current had a phase sequence of A-

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2.3.4.2 S PEED R EGULATION
Real power is controlled by maintaining the speed at which the prime mover is rotating the rotor.
Increasing the speed of the generator will linearly increase the frequency of the power system
(see Section 3.2 for the speed and frequency relationship), and since the power system must
remain at constant frequency, the generator controls are set to maintain the speed of the shaft by
adding or decreasing the amount of fuel to the generator. This is accomplished via a speed
governor control system that converts the relationship between frequency and power in a linear
fashion, as seen in the figure below. Note that the real frequency vs. power curve is not linear,
but it is adjusted as such via the speed governor for simplified controlling. In the figure below, if
the load power requirements are increased, then the frequency at the generator will decrease.
To maintain constant frequency, the curve must rise vertically by adding more fuel to the prime
mover.

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Figure 18: The frequency or speed of the rotor affects the real power supplied to the load.

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Conceptually this can be described as an increase in input power, and therefore increase in
torque, to sustain the increased resistance from a load, similar to how driving uphill will require
SA

more gas to maintain the car at the same speed than if it were on flat ground. The power input is
related to the shaft torque by the following equation.

𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑃 𝑘𝑊 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑁 ∗ 𝑚 ∗ 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑠

To understand how the speed mathematically affects the real power of a generator, the torque
angle is introduced. Just as a car shaft will require more torque going uphill, so will the generator
shaft require more torque for large real power loads. The torque angle is the angle between the
stator and rotor magnetic fields and, alternatively, the angle between the internal generator
voltage and the terminal voltage.

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The terminal voltage is the voltage provided by the electrical distribution system or the power
source. There is a voltage drop through the stator due to the armature reactance and resistance.
The resulting voltage at the air gap is the voltage that the motor will use to rotate the rotor.

On the exam, you should be able to quickly understand the flow of current and voltage drop
sequence in the previous equivalent circuit and you should be able to visualize the voltage drop
equation in phasor form. The following figures will construct the voltage drop equation in phasor
form for a leading power factor load.

2.4.1 Synchronous Motor - Leading Power Factor

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Figure 20: This figure shows the equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor. The circuit is the
same for both a leading and lagging power factor, but the following phasor steps are for a
leading power factor.
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SA

Figure 21: Step 1 - Assign your voltage as having a 0 degree reference point and the armature
current leads the voltage phasor by the power factor angle.

Figure 22: Step 2 - There will be a voltage subtraction from the terminal voltage equal to the
voltage drop through the resistive losses. Remember that the current in the equivalent circuit
moves from right to left; it starts at the terminal and works its way to the motor. Voltage is being

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Figure 38: A lower rotor resistance will have a higher inrush current, but a lower initial torque.

PL
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SA

Figure 39: A higher resistance will lower the inrush current, but the initial torque will be
increased. The breakdown torque remains the same for both scenarios.

4.1.4 Induction Motor Characteristics as a Function of Percent Load

Once the motor is started and the rated speed is reached, then the motor can be varied based on
the percent load required. In order to change the percent load, the slip must be changed.
Practically this is done by changing the loading that is acting upon the equipment (pump, fan,
compressor, etc.). As the mechanical load on the equipment is varies, this changes the electrical
load on the motor, which changes the slip. As the load decreases, the slip decreases, until the
slip reaches zero. When this occurs, there is no load and the induction motor rotates at
synchronous speed. As the load increases, the slip increases, which causes the induction motor
to rotate at a slower rate.

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 E
Figure 45: This figure shows the high voltage diagram that can be either a delta or wye

5.3
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arrangement depending on whether or not M3 or M2 is closed. The left side shows the control
diagram that controls how M1, M2 and M3 open and close.

VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE AS A STARTER

A variable speed drive (VSD) or variable frequency drive (VFD) was discussed in the previous
section. This type of drive is able to control the voltage and frequency to a motor, which is
especially useful during the starting process of a motor. During the start, the drive increases the
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frequency from 0 Hz up to the normal frequency (50 or 60 Hz). The low frequency tricks the circuit
into thinking that the motor is running at its “rated full load speed”. By gradually increasing the

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frequency like this, the motor can be considered running at its rated speed for that frequency.
Also, since the motor can be considered running at its rated speed, the rated motor torque is
available already from start and the current will be around the nominal current. Usually, the drive
trips if the current reaches 1.5 times the rated current.
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This method uses the reduced voltage method, so the reduced voltage relationships will apply
like the reduction in current. But at the same time the voltage is reduced, the frequency is also
reduced. This allows the torque-speed curve shape to remain the same, but to be shifted to the
left. The torque provided is sufficient to get the rotor running, but since the voltage is also reduced,
the current will be reduced.

This method is called the V/f method. The ratio of voltage to frequency is kept constant. So you
start off with a smaller voltage but proportionally smaller frequency, then you slowly increase both
the voltage and frequency.

For example, the rated voltage and frequency could be 480 V & 60 HZ.

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7.0 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
7.1 PROBLEM 1 – POLES
A 3-phase motor, 60 Hz, induction motor has the following values on its nameplate:

Efficiency (50% , 75%, 100% load) 94%, 95%, 96%

Efficiency (50% , 75%, 100% load) 0.78 pu, 0.85 pu, 0.88 pu
Full Load Speed 1,784 RPM
Full Load Torque 1,473 lb-ft
Locked Rotor Torque 90% full load
Breakdown Torque 220% full load
Voltage 4,160 V

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How many poles does the motor have? The answer is most nearly,

(a) 1

(b) 2

(c) 3

(d) 4

7.2
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PROBLEM 2 – BREAKDOWN TORQUE
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A 3-phase motor, 60 Hz, induction motor has the following values on its nameplate. What is the
breakdown torque?

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Horsepower 50 HP
Full Load Speed 1,784 RPM
Locked Rotor Torque 90% full load
Breakdown Torque 220% full load
SA

Voltage 4,160 V

The answer is most nearly,

(a) 147 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡

(b) 200 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡

(c) 310 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡

(d) 324 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡

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8.9 SOLUTION 9 – SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
A 3-phase synchronous generator currently provides power to a total load with a leading power
factor of 0.9. Which of the following is NOT true, if the total load changes to a lagging power
factor of 0.9?

During a leading power factor the magnitude of the internal generator voltage (EA) is less than the
magnitude of the voltage at the terminal (load).

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When the load switches to a lagging power factor. The internal generator voltage must be
greater than the magnitude of the voltage at the terminal (load).

PL
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The voltage magnitude of the internal generator must be increased, which is caused by increasing
the excitation. The synchronous speed will remain the same.

The correct answer is most nearly, (c) The torque angle must be increased.
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8.10 SOLUTION 10 – SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

A synchronous generator, 3-Ph, 480 V, 60 Hz, 100 KW, 1,800 RPM is operating at a speed of
1,700 RPM. Which of the following will most likely be true?

The answer is most nearly,

(a) The rated synchronous speed will be increased.

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8.17 SOLUTION 17 – INDUCTION MOTOR
As the speed is increased during start-up, the slip and inrush current values decrease, but they
decrease at varying rates. Thus the active power delivered to the rotor makes a curve similar to
the ones shown below.

If the motor is artificially sped up above the design speed towards the synchronous speed,
through another means (instead of mechanical load, there is a mechanical rotational supply),
then the current, slip and real power will drop to zero. This could also be done by removing the
load.

This power will cause a motor torque to be applied and this torque will cause the motor shaft to
accelerate. Since the power is very high, there will be a high torque value.

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9.55 ∗ 𝑃
𝑇
𝑛

The torque will decrease once its breakdown torque value is reached. The breakdown torque is
the maximum torque during acceleration. Since the breakdown torque is achieved at 0 RPM,

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then the torque-speed graph will look like the graph below.
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 Mechanical Stator ꞏ 5
A
Across the Line ꞏ 44 N
actual speed ꞏ 27
Actual Speed of Induction Motor ꞏ 28 No Load ꞏ 33
armature current ꞏ 10

P
B
Poles ꞏ 9, 50, 60

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Breakdown Torque ꞏ 50, 60 Power Flow ꞏ 49

C R

copper windings ꞏ 24 Reduced Voltage ꞏ 44

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efficiency of a generator ꞏ 18
Electrical Field Winding ꞏ 5
equivalent circuit ꞏ 29
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equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator ꞏ 10
Equivalent Circuits ꞏ 51, 52, 61, 62
excitation branch ꞏ 29
Rotor ꞏ 10

S
Shaft Speed ꞏ 13
Short Circuit ꞏ 33
Slip ꞏ 27, 52, 63
slip factor ꞏ 29
Speed Regulation ꞏ 17, 51, 61
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Speed-Torque ꞏ 33
squirrel cage ꞏ 24

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F Starting Methods ꞏ 43
Stator ꞏ 10
Field Current ꞏ 13, 14 steady state ꞏ 19
steel laminations ꞏ 24
subtransient reactance ꞏ 19
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G Synchronous Generator ꞏ 9
Synchronous Generator – Lagging Power Factor ꞏ 12
Generator Control ꞏ 13 Synchronous Generator – Leading Power Factor ꞏ 11
generator losses ꞏ 18 Synchronous Machines ꞏ 5
Generator Voltage Dip ꞏ 18 Synchronous Motor ꞏ 19, 23
Synchronous Motor - Lagging Power Factor ꞏ 21
Synchronous Motor - Leading Power Factor ꞏ 20
I synchronous speed ꞏ 27
Synchronous Speed ꞏ 8
Induction Machines ꞏ 23
Inrush Current ꞏ 44
T

M three phase motor ꞏ 30

Torque ꞏ 43
transient reactance ꞏ 19
Mechanical Rotor ꞏ 5

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 Voltage Unbalance ꞏ 32
V
V/f method ꞏ 47
W
V/f ratio ꞏ 48
Variable Speed Drive ꞏ 47
Winding resistance ꞏ 29
Voltage Regulation ꞏ 18, 32

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PL
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5 – Electric Power Devices

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Transformers | Reactors | Testing | Capacitors

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 SECTION 5.0 – ELECTRIC POWER DEVICES

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Transformers ...................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Types .............................................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Construction ................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Types ....................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Tap Setting .............................................................................................................. 6

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2.3 Ideal transformers ........................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Transforming Impedances ....................................................................................... 8
2.3.2 Flux Equation ........................................................................................................ 10
2.4 Real transformers ......................................................................................................... 10

2.5
2.6
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3

2.6.1
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Equivalent Circuit .................................................................................................. 11
Coil Losses ............................................................................................................ 11
Core Losses .......................................................................................................... 11
Efficiency ...................................................................................................................... 12
Testing .......................................................................................................................... 13
Short Circuit Test ................................................................................................... 13
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2.6.2 Open Circuit Test .................................................................................................. 13

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2.7 Impedance .................................................................................................................... 14
2.8 Transformers in Parallel ............................................................................................... 14
2.9 Cooling Methods ........................................................................................................... 15
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3.0 Transformer Arrangements (3-Phase) ............................................................................. 17

3.1 Delta-Wye Transformer ................................................................................................ 17
3.2 Delta-Delta Transformer ............................................................................................... 18
3.3 Wye-Delta Transformer ................................................................................................ 19
3.4 Wye- Wye Transformer ................................................................................................ 21
4.0 Measurement Transformers ............................................................................................. 22
5.0 Autotransformers .............................................................................................................. 23
5.1 Step-Up Autotransformers ............................................................................................ 23
5.2 Step-Down Autotransformers ....................................................................................... 24
5.3 Buck Autotransformers ................................................................................................. 25

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 5.4 Boost Autotransformers ................................................................................................ 26
6.0 Reactors ........................................................................................................................... 28
6.1 Line/Load Reactor ............................................................................................................. 28
7.0 Capacitors ........................................................................................................................ 29
7.1 Capacitor Selection ...................................................................................................... 30
7.2 Voltage Rise Due to Capacitor ..................................................................................... 30
7.3 Capacitor Installation .................................................................................................... 31
7.4 Capacitor Harmonics .................................................................................................... 32
7.5 Capacitor Capacity ....................................................................................................... 33
8.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 34

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8.1 Problem 1 – Transformer Losses ................................................................................. 34
8.2 Problem 2 – Transformer Losses ................................................................................. 34
8.3 Problem 3 - Autotransformer ........................................................................................ 35
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
9.0
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Problem 4 - Autotransformer ........................................................................................ 35
Problem 5 – Transformer Arrangements ...................................................................... 36
Problem 6 - Transformer Arrangements ....................................................................... 36
Problem 7 - Capacitor ................................................................................................... 37
Problem 8 - Reactor ..................................................................................................... 37
Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 38
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9.1 Solution 1 – Transformer Losses .................................................................................. 38
9.2 Solution 2 – Transformer Losses .................................................................................. 38

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9.3 Solution 3 - Autotransformer ......................................................................................... 39
9.4 Solution 4 - Autotransformer ......................................................................................... 40
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9.5 Solution 5 – Transformer Arrangements ...................................................................... 41

9.6 Solution 6 – Transformer Arrangements ...................................................................... 42
9.7 Solution 7 – Capacitor .................................................................................................. 43
9.8 Solution 8 – Reactor ..................................................................................................... 44

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The section, Electric Power Devices, accounts for approximately 7‐11 questions on the
Power Electrical PE exam.

The Electric Power Devices section covers all different types of transformers and reactors.
Transformers and reactors generate current through electromagnetic fields, hence the term
electromagnetic devices. Transformers are the biggest topic from this section on the exam,
because of the many types of transformers and the ease in which questions can be constructed
for the exam. The Transformers topic also overlaps with the Measurement & Instrumentation
section.

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Electric Power Devices
7-11 questions




Transformers

Construction
Ideal vs. Real
Equivalent
circuit




PL Transformers
Arrangements

Delta-wye
Delta-delta
Wye-wye
Wye-delta



Measurement

Current
transformers
Potential
transformers
Autotransformers



Step-up
Step-down
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 Efficiency
 Testing

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 Parallel
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Reactors

 Shunt reactor
 Shunt capacitor
 Testing

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2.2 CONSTRUCTION
A power transformer is made up of a metal core and two windings, or wires that wrap around
the core. The core itself is made up of thin laminates with insulation between each layer to
electrically isolate the laminates. Using thin laminates instead of one solid core reduces the
amount of eddy current losses through the core. Eddy current losses are explained in the Real
Transformer section.

The basic operation of a transformer begins with an AC current that is sent through the primary
winding. As the current flows through the wire and around the core, a magnetic flux is created
through the core. The magnetic flux in the core then induces current through the secondary
windings to produce AC current at a different voltage, which is specified by the number of turns
in the windings. This will be discussed in the next section.

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Figure 1: Basic construction of a three-phase transformer, which is made up of three single-
phase transformers. The copper windings can be seen on the transformer core. These
windings are then wired to connection points at the exterior of the transformer. These points are
called terminals. The bushings are located at the terminals. They are used to insulate the wires
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that pass through the transformer enclosure, preventing the charge in the wires from hitting the
grounded enclosure.

2.1.1 Types
There are various types of transformers, which can be seen on any of the popular
manufacturers’ websites. For the purposes of the exam, you should just be familiar with the
names and how the types are different only for context of problems. The exam most likely will
not test you on the construction differences of the different types of transformers. The exam will
test you on the different transformer arrangements which are discussed later.

http://www.schneider-electric.us/en/product-category/53700-transformers/?filter=business-4-
low-voltage-products-and-systems

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2nd Designation: The next deciding factor in cooling the windings is how that type of oil is
moved over the hot windings. The oil can naturally flow over the hot windings via natural
convection or it can be forced through pumps. Fans are used to move air and pumps are used
to move oil.

3rd Designation: If the windings are cooled with oil or another liquid, then the heat in the type of
oil must be expelled to the outside ambient air. The heat can be transferred from the oil to air or
to water.

4th Designation: Once the heat is transferred from oil to either air or water, then the heat can be
removed from the air or water and transferred to the ambient air via either natural convection or
forced convection (fan).

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Figure 7: This figure shows coils that are cooled by naturally flowing oil and oil that is cooled via
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naturally flowing air (ONAN). On the right hand side the cooling method shows coils that are
cooled by naturally flowing oil and oil that is cooled via forcefully flowing air (ONAF).

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Figure 8: This figure shows coils that are cooled by forcefully flowing oil and oil that is cooled
via naturally flowing air (OFAN). On the right hand side the cooling method shows coils that are
cooled by forcefully flowing oil and oil that is cooled via forcefully flowing air (OFAF).

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 operates instantaneously. The last component is the motor, which consumes the real and
reactive power.

Figure 24: In this figure, a capacitor is installed at the motor, on the load side of the overload

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device. The capacitor will now be the new source of reactive power and this causes a reduction
in the amperage from the power source and through the OCPD (overcurrent protection device),
starter and OL (overload device). The overload device will see less current, so its settings must
be adjusted or replaced, otherwise it will not accurately detect an overload condition. For

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example, if the full load current was 10 A and the overload device were to trip at 13 A. The full
load current is now 8 A, so the overload condition will occur at a smaller value and if the OL
device is still set at the higher value, then it will not accurately protect the motor.
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Figure 25: This situation bypasses the problem of changing the settings or replacing an existing
overload device. In this scenario the OL device will get both the real and reactive power flows.

7.4 CAPACITOR HARMONICS

Capacitors can cause resonance on a system. Resonance occurs at a frequency where the
given inductance and capacitance values feed upon each other and incrementally build up the
voltage and current to unsafe values. The changing inductor magnetic field generates current
that charges the capacitor and the capacitor discharges current to build the inductor’s magnetic
field. They continually work together at this resonant frequency and continue to increase the
voltage and current.

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8.3 PROBLEM 3 - AUTOTRANSFORMER
A single-phase, 480V/120V transformer rated at 50 KVA is re-wired as an autotransformer in
order to step-up the voltage from 480V to 600V. What is rating of the autotransformer?

(a) 50 KVA

(b) 125 KVA

(c) 200 KVA

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(d) 250 KVA

8.4
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PROBLEM 4 - AUTOTRANSFORMER
A 3-phase autotransformer has a rating of 100 KVA. The autotransformer transforms line
voltages from 13.8KV to 10 KV. What is the KVA rating of Vprimary and Vsecondary of the
autotransformer as shown below? This figure is one of the three phases and the
autotransformer is arranged as a wye-wye transformer.
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Answers arranged as apparent power through Vprimary & Vsecondary

(a) 2.2 KVA & 2.2 KVA

(b) 2.2 KVA & 9.2 KVA

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(c) 3.9 KVA & 9.2 KVA

(d) 9.2 KVA & 9.2 KVA

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 7.97 𝐾𝑉 𝑉 5.77 𝐾𝑉 → 𝑉 2.2 𝐾𝑉

Now find the currents, since you know the voltage and the apparent power.

33.33 𝐾𝑉𝐴
𝑆 33.33 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑉 , ∗𝐼 →𝐼 4.18 𝐴
7.97 𝐾𝑉
33.33 𝐾𝑉𝐴
𝑆 33.33 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑉 , ∗𝐼 →𝐼 5.78 𝐴
5.77 𝐾𝑉

Next find icomb

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 →𝐼 5.78 𝐴 4.18 𝐴 1.6 𝐴

Now use the current and the voltages to find the power through Vprimary and Vsecondary.

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𝑆 𝐼 ∗𝑉 4.18 𝐴 ∗ 2.2 𝐾𝑉 9.2 𝐾𝑉𝐴

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The correct answer is most nearly, (d) 9.2 KVA & 9.2 KVA.

9.5 SOLUTION 5 – TRANSFORMER ARRANGEMENTS

∗𝑉 1.6 𝐴 ∗ 5.77 𝐾𝑉 9.2 𝐾𝑉𝐴
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A 3-phase delta-wye transformer is rated at 100 MVA, 13.2 KV-480V. If there is a motor with a
load of 500 A, then what is the corresponding current on the high voltage side in one of the

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phases of the transformer?
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The motor load of 500 amps corresponds to the line current on the secondary.

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A
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Autotransformer ꞏ 4, 35, 39, 40
Autotransformers ꞏ 23 Measurement transformers ꞏ 4
Measurement Transformers ꞏ 22
metal core ꞏ 5
C
Capacitors ꞏ 29 O
Coil Losses ꞏ 11
Copper Losses ꞏ 11 Open Circuit Test ꞏ 13
core losses ꞏ 13

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R
D
Reactors ꞏ 28
Delta-Delta Transformer ꞏ 18 Real transformers ꞏ 10
delta-wye transformer ꞏ 41, 42
Delta-Wye Transformer ꞏ 17

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Eddy current ꞏ 5

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Short Circuit Test ꞏ 13
Step-Down Autotransformers ꞏ 24
Step-Up Autotransformers ꞏ 23

T
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full load losses ꞏ 13 Tap Setting ꞏ 6
Transformer Arrangements ꞏ 36

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transformer efficiency ꞏ 12
H transformer impedance ꞏ 14
Transformer Losses ꞏ 34, 38
Hysteresis ꞏ 10 Transformers ꞏ 4
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I W

Ideal transformers ꞏ 6 Wye- Wye Transformer ꞏ 21

impedance of a transformer ꞏ 14 Wye-Delta Transformer ꞏ 19

L
Leakage Flux ꞏ 10
Line/Load reactor ꞏ 28

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6 – Transmission & Distribution

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Voltage drop | Voltage regulation | Power factor correction | Voltage support | Power

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quality | Fault current analysis | Transformer connections | Transmission line models
| Power flow | Power system stability

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 SECTION 6.0 – TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Transmission Line Analysis ................................................................................................ 4
2.1 Equivalent Circuits .......................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Resistance............................................................................................................... 4
2.1.2 Inductance ............................................................................................................... 7
2.1.3 Capacitance ............................................................................................................ 8

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2.1.4 Impedance ............................................................................................................. 10
2.1.5 Short Transmission Line ........................................................................................ 10
2.1.6 Medium Transmission Line ................................................................................... 13
2.1.7 Long Transmission Line ........................................................................................ 16
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
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Voltage Drop ................................................................................................................. 16
Voltage Regulation ....................................................................................................... 17
Power Factor Correction ............................................................................................... 17
Correcting a Lagging Power Factor ....................................................................... 17
Correcting a Leading Power Factor ....................................................................... 19
Power Factor Correction Tables ............................................................................ 19
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2.5 Power Quality ............................................................................................................... 23

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2.5.1 Harmonics ............................................................................................................. 23
2.6 Power Flow Between Voltage Sources ........................................................................ 25
2.6.1 Lagging Power Factor Load .................................................................................. 27
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2.6.2 Leading Power Factor Load .................................................................................. 28

2.6.3 Unity Power Factor Load ....................................................................................... 28
3.0 Distribution Analysis ......................................................................................................... 29
3.1 Fault Current Analysis .................................................................................................. 29
3.1.1 Symmetrical Faults ................................................................................................ 30
3.1.2 Asymmetrical Faults .............................................................................................. 32
3.1.3 Fault Current Examples ......................................................................................... 36
3.2 Transformer Connections ............................................................................................. 44
4.0 Power Flow ...................................................................................................................... 46
4.1 Power Flow Basics ....................................................................................................... 47

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5.0 Load Sharing .................................................................................................................... 48
5.1 Parallel Generators ....................................................................................................... 48
5.1.1 Droop Compensation ............................................................................................ 49
5.1.2 Infinite Bus ............................................................................................................. 50
5.2 Parallel Transformers ................................................................................................... 54
5.2.1 Different KVA Transformers .................................................................................. 55
5.2.2 Different Impedance Transformers ........................................................................ 56
5.2.3 Different Impedance and Different KVA transformers ........................................... 57
5.2.4 Different X/R Ratios ............................................................................................... 58
5.2.5 Different Taps, Different Voltage Ratio, Different Turns Ratio............................... 58

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6.0 Power System Stability .................................................................................................... 58
6.1 Power Flow Equations .................................................................................................. 59
6.2 Power Flow Diagrams .................................................................................................. 61
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
7.0
7.1
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Power Flow During Fault Condition with Load During Fault ......................................... 61
Power Flow During Fault Condition with No Load During Fault ................................... 63
Swing Equation for Synchronous Motor – Torque ........................................................ 63
Swing Equation for Synchronous Generator – Power .................................................. 64
Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 65
Problem 1 – Power Factor Correction .......................................................................... 65
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7.2 Problem 2 – Geometric Mean Distance ........................................................................ 65
7.3 Problem 3 – Voltage Regulation ................................................................................... 66

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7.4 Problem 4 – Parallel Transformers ............................................................................... 66
7.5 Problem 5 – Parallel Transformers ............................................................................... 67
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7.6 Problem 6 – Parallel Generators .................................................................................. 67

7.7 Problem 7 – Parallel Generators .................................................................................. 68
7.8 Problem 8 – Fault Current Analysis .............................................................................. 68
7.9 Problem 9 – Fault Current Analysis .............................................................................. 69
7.10 Problem 10 – Power Stability ....................................................................................... 70
7.11 Problem 11 – Power Stability ....................................................................................... 71
8.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 72
8.1 Solution 1 – Power Factor Correction ........................................................................... 72
8.2 Solution 2 – Geometric Mean Distance ........................................................................ 72
8.3 Solution 3 – Voltage Regulation ................................................................................... 73

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 8.4 Solution 4 – Parallel Transformers ............................................................................... 73
8.5 Solution 5 – Parallel Transformers ............................................................................... 74
8.6 Solution 6 – Parallel Generators ................................................................................... 74
8.7 Solution 7 – Parallel Generators ................................................................................... 75
8.8 Solution 8 – Fault Current Analysis .............................................................................. 76
8.9 Solution 9 – Fault Current Analysis .............................................................................. 78
8.10 Solution 10 – Power Stability ........................................................................................ 79
8.11 Solution 11 – Power Stability ........................................................................................ 80

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The section, Transmission & Distribution, accounts for approximately 10‐15 questions
on the Power Engineering, Electrical PE exam.

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Transmission covers the extra-high (>230 kV) and high (115 kV to 230 kV) voltage lines that
transport electricity from the electric power plants (generators) to the substations. These lines
can travel miles and miles between substations and are typically under the jurisdiction of the
electric utility. These transmission lines are also governed by the NES (under Section 11.0
Codes and Standards). The distribution system consists of the medium (69 kV to 2.4kV) and
low voltage (600V and less) lines that transmit electricity between substations and also transmit
electricity to consumers. These consumers can be residential, commercial voltages at 480V
and below. But these consumers can also be industrial at medium voltages (69 kV to 2.4kV).
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Motors and generators are not included under this section, since they are covered under
Rotating Machines. Transformers are also included in a separate section, but are technically

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covered under Transmission and Distribution. Protection devices are also technically part of
Transmission and Distribution but are excluded from this section and are included in its own
section.
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 E
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Figure 12: The remaining steps of the medium transmission line are the same as the short
transmission line equivalent circuit. The only difference in this explanation is that you start with
the receiving end voltage and voltage drops are ADDED onto the receiving voltage phasor,
which results in the sending voltage phasor.

2.1.7 Long Transmission Line

The long transmission line is similar to the medium transmission line, except instead of only two
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capacitance lines or one capacitance line, the long transmission line is assumed to have many
capacitance lines. This requires you to integrate throughout the entire length of the

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transmission line and will require software to complete, or a lot of time. For this reason, the long
transmission line is not included in this book.
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2.2 VOLTAGE DROP

As you can see in the phasor diagrams for the short transmission line, the voltage drop along a
transmission line will be dependent on the impedances AND the power factor of the load. The
following equations characterize the voltage drop on a transmission line for the line to line and
line to neutral situations.

 Short Transmission Line Voltage Drop Equations

𝑉 , 𝑋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∗ 𝐼 ∗ √3

𝑉 , 𝑋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∗𝐼

𝑋 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 Ω ; 𝑋 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 Ω ;

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varying frequencies is given an effective value, a.k.a. RMS, but in the figure below the term E is
used.

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Figure 16: A distorted waveform can be de-constructed into pure sinusoidal waves of varying
frequencies.

The process by which the distorted waveform is de-constructed is not relevant to the exam,
because it involves complicated Fourier analysis. You should be able to quantify how much
harmonics are in a circuit through any one of the following equations.
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∑ 𝑉 ,
𝑇𝐻𝐷

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𝑉

In the equation above, you must sum up the square of the root mean square values of all nth
frequencies. Then you take the square root of this sum. This is equal to the root mean square
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of the waveform without the fundamental frequency.

𝑉
𝑇𝐻𝐷
𝑉

Next you divide these two numbers to get the total harmonic distortion, which can be multiplied
by 100 in order to get the THD in percentage.

The issue with harmonics is that these values will create unbalanced waveforms, which will
cause more current to flow through the neutral which will increase the heating in all circuits. The
amount that will flow in the neutral can be found through the positive, negative and zero
sequences. These sequences correspond to the nth order of harmonics as shown in the
following table. You will see that the triplen harmonics (multiples of 3) correspond to the zero

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3.2 TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
The various transformer connections like delta-wye and wye-wye are covered in Section 5.0
Electromagnetic Devices. But now that you know about positive, negative and zero sequence
components, you will be able to see how the various transformer connections behave during
fault conditions, specifically fault conditions that generate zero sequence currents.

In a three phase or phase to phase fault, then the currents will be balanced and there will be no
zero sequence currents. When a phase to ground or double phase to ground fault occurs, zero
sequence currents will occur. These zero sequence currents will travel along the phase or
phases and then back on the neutral. If a neutral does not exist, then there will be no path for
these zero sequences to travel, unless the transformer connection has a ground or a path for
the zero sequence to recirculate.

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Figure 33: In a wye-wye, both sides grounded, there is a path for the zero sequence currents to
flow from on both sides of the transformer. This allows the transformer to transform these zero
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sequence currents from the secondary line side of the transformer to the primary line side.

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Figure 34: In this arrangement, the zero sequence currents can circulate on the primary side of
the transformer, if the fault were to occur on the primary side of the transformer. However, if the
fault were to occur on the secondary side, the zero sequence currents would be unable to flow.
Thus the zero sequence currents would be unable to be transformed from the secondary line
side of the transformer to the primary line side of the transformer.

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6.4 POWER FLOW DURING FAULT CONDITION WITH NO LOAD DURING FAULT
This power flow diagram can be used for problems with no load during a fault.

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Figure 55: In this diagram, the critical angle must be selected for a given power load, such that
the blue area is equal to the red area. The system is stable if the angle is less than the critical
angle, meaning that the blue area is less than the red area.

The previous scenario will most likely take too long to test on the PE exam, so this is the most
likely scenario that can be tested in the power system stability topic. You can solve for the
critical angle, given the other variables. There are many other variations of problems that can
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be asked with this one graph alone.

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𝑃 𝜋 2∗𝛿
cos 𝛿 cos 𝛿
𝑃

Please be sure to use radians when using the equation.

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6.5 SWING EQUATION FOR SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR – TORQUE

The torque swing equation can be used to show the relationship between the net accelerating
torque and the actual acceleration of the motor’s rotor. If the electrical torque provided to the
motor is greater than the mechanical torque provided by the motor, then there is a net
accelerating torque, which will cause the rotational speed of the rotor to increase.

𝑑 θ
𝐽 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑑𝑡

𝐽 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 ;θ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

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7.7 PROBLEM 7 – PARALLEL GENERATORS
A 3-phase generator is connected to a very large power distribution system. It is assumed the
generator is connected to an infinite bus. The infinite bus is operating at a voltage of 13.2
KV∠0°. The generator is operating at a voltage of 13.0 KV∠0° and 200 A. The internal
reactance is Xa and the internal resistance of the generator is negligible. What is the power
provided by the generator?

(a) 2,680∠ 90°𝐾𝑉𝐴

(b) 4,503∠ 90°𝐾𝑉𝐴

(c) 4,503∠ 90°𝐾𝑉𝐴

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(d) 2,640∠ 90°𝐾𝑉𝐴

7.8
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PROBLEM 8 – FAULT CURRENT ANALYSIS
A three phase bolted fault occurs at the location in the diagram below. What is the short circuit
current?

480/3000V
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(a) 5 A

(b) 21 A

(c) 48 A

(d) 86 A

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A 3-phase generator is connected to a very large power distribution system. It is assumed the
generator is connected to an infinite bus. The infinite bus is operating at a voltage of 13.2
KV∠0°. The generator is operating at a voltage of 13.4 KV∠0° and 200 A. The internal
reactance is Xa and the internal resistance of the generator is negligible. What is the power
produced by the generator?

𝑆 𝐼 ∗ 𝑥 𝑉𝑥 √3

The difficulty is finding the angle of the current. Luckily, you know from this section that the
angle should be -90 degrees.

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M

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𝑆 200𝐴∠90° ∗ 13.4𝑘𝑉∠0° ∗ √3

𝑆 4,642∠90°𝐾𝑉𝐴

The correct answer is most nearly, (c) 4,642∠90°𝐾𝑉𝐴

8.7 SOLUTION 7 – PARALLEL GENERATORS

A 3-phase generator is connected to a very large power distribution system. It is assumed the
generator is connected to an infinite bus. The infinite bus is operating at a voltage of 13.2
KV∠0°. The generator is operating at a voltage of 13.0 KV∠0° and 200 A. The internal
reactance is Xa and the internal resistance of the generator is negligible. What is the power
provided by the generator?

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A
I
Active Elements ꞏ 47
Asymmetrical Faults ꞏ 32 Impedance ꞏ 10
AWG ꞏ 5 Inductance ꞏ 7
Infinite Bus ꞏ 50

B
K
Buses ꞏ 47
KCMIL ꞏ 5

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L
Capacitance ꞏ 8
CMIL ꞏ 5 Line to Ground Fault ꞏ 29
Correcting a Lagging Power Factor ꞏ 17 Line to Ground Fault (with R) ꞏ 29
Correcting a Leading Power Factor ꞏ 19 line to line fault ꞏ 33

D
distorted waveform ꞏ 24
double line to ground fault ꞏ 35
Double Line to Ground Fault ꞏ 29
Droop Compensation ꞏ 49
PL Line to Line Fault ꞏ 29
Load Sharing ꞏ 48
Long Transmission Line ꞏ 16

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Medium Transmission Line ꞏ 13
mil ꞏ 5
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E
N

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Equivalent Circuits ꞏ 4
excitation current ꞏ 52 Nominal T Circuit ꞏ 14
Nominal Π Circuit ꞏ 13

F
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P
Fault Current Analysis ꞏ 29
field current ꞏ 48 Parallel Generators ꞏ 48, 67, 74, 75
Parallel Transformers ꞏ 54, 66, 73, 74
Passive Elements ꞏ 47
G Percentage Impedance ꞏ 54
Phase Angle Shift ꞏ 54
Geometric Mean Distance ꞏ 9, 65, 72 Phase Sequence ꞏ 54
GMD ꞏ 9 Polarity ꞏ 54
Position of Tap changer ꞏ 54
Power Factor Correction ꞏ 17, 65, 72
H Power Factor Correction Tables ꞏ 19
Power Flow ꞏ 46
Harmonics ꞏ 23 Power Flow Between Voltage Sources ꞏ 25
Power Quality ꞏ 23
Power System Stability ꞏ 58

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 Three Phase Fault ꞏ 29
R Three-Phase Fault ꞏ 32
Three-Phase to Ground Fault ꞏ 30
reactive power ꞏ 49
Transmission Line ꞏ 4
Reactive Power: Reactive power is controlled by the
Turns Ratio ꞏ 54
excitation current, also known ꞏ 52
real power ꞏ 49
Resistance ꞏ 4
V
RMS ꞏ 24
voltage dips ꞏ 23
Voltage Drop ꞏ 16
S
Voltage Ratio ꞏ 54
Voltage Regulation ꞏ 17, 66, 73
Short Transmission Line ꞏ 10
Voltage sensitivity ꞏ 58
Short-circuit faults ꞏ 29
single line to ground fault ꞏ 32

E
speed governor ꞏ 48
X
Symmetrical Faults ꞏ 30
X/R Ratios ꞏ 58
T
THD ꞏ 24
Three Line to Ground Fault ꞏ 29

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M

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7 – Protection

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National Electrical Code | National Electrical Safety Code | Standard for Electrical

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Safety in the Workplace: Shock and Burns | Hazardous area classification

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 Section 7.0 – Protection
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Protective (Tripping) Devices ............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Fuses .............................................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Circuit Breakers .............................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Re-closers ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Sectionalizer ................................................................................................................... 5
3.0 Overcurrent Protection ....................................................................................................... 6

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3.1 Short Circuit Current ....................................................................................................... 7
3.1.1 Transformer Fault .................................................................................................... 7
3.1.2 Generator/Motor Fault ............................................................................................. 8

3.2
3.2
3.1.3

3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
PL
Transmission Line Fault .......................................................................................... 8
Ampere Interrupting Capacity (AIC) ............................................................................... 8
MVA Method ................................................................................................................... 9
Example 1 – Fault at Generator .............................................................................. 9
Example 2 – Fault at Transmission Line ............................................................... 11
Example 3 – Fault at Motor ................................................................................... 12
3.3 Per-Unit Method ........................................................................................................... 12
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3.3.1 Example 3 – Fault at Motor ................................................................................... 12

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3.4 Ohmic Method .............................................................................................................. 14
4.0 Protective Relaying .......................................................................................................... 14
4.1 Relay Types .................................................................................................................. 14
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4.1.1 Overcurrent/Undercurrent Relays ......................................................................... 18

4.1.2 Overvoltage/Undervoltage Relays ......................................................................... 19
4.1.3 Directional Relays ................................................................................................. 19
4.1.4 Differential Relays ................................................................................................. 20
4.1.5 Distance Relays - General .................................................................................... 21
4.1.6 Distance Relay – Mho Method .............................................................................. 22
4.1.7 Distance Relay – Reactance or Resistance Method ............................................. 25
4.1.8 Pilot Relays ........................................................................................................... 26
4.2 Arc Fault Current Interrupter ......................................................................................... 26
4.3 Ground Fault Current Interrupter .................................................................................. 27

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5.0 Coordination ..................................................................................................................... 27
5.1 Primary Relaying .......................................................................................................... 28
5.2 Backup relaying ............................................................................................................ 28
5.3 Time-Current Coordination Graph ................................................................................ 28
5.4 Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection (50) .................................................................. 30
5.5 Definite Time Overcurrent Protection ........................................................................... 31
5.6 Inverse Time Overcurrent Protection (51) .................................................................... 31
6.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 34
6.1 Problem 1 – Short Circuit Current ................................................................................ 34
6.2 Problem 2 – Differential Relay ...................................................................................... 34

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6.3 Problem 3 – TCC .......................................................................................................... 35
6.4 Problem 4 – TCC .......................................................................................................... 36
6.5 Problem 5 – Protective Relays ..................................................................................... 37
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
PL
Problem 6 – Fuses ....................................................................................................... 37
Problem 7 – MVA Method ............................................................................................ 38
Problem 8 – Per Unit Method ....................................................................................... 39
Problem 9 – Arc Fault Circuit Interrupter ...................................................................... 40
Problem 10 – Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter ............................................................. 40
Problem 11 – Protective Relays ................................................................................... 41
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6.12 Problem 12 – Protective Relays ................................................................................... 41
6.13 Problem 13 – Protective Relays ................................................................................... 42

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6.14 Problem 14 – Protective Relays ................................................................................... 43
6.15 Problem 15 – Protective Relays ................................................................................... 43
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6.16 Problem 16 – TCC ........................................................................................................ 44

6.17 Problem 17 – TCC ........................................................................................................ 45
7.0 Solutions ............................................................................................................................... 46
7.1 Solution 1 – Short Circuit Current ................................................................................. 46
7.2 Solution 2 – Differential Relay ...................................................................................... 46
7.3 Solution 3 – TCC .......................................................................................................... 47
7.4 Solution 4 – TCC .......................................................................................................... 48
7.5 Solution 5 – Protective Relays ...................................................................................... 49
7.6 Solution 6 – Fuses ........................................................................................................ 50
7.7 Solution 7 – MVA Method ............................................................................................. 51

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 7.8 Solution 8 – Per Unit Method ........................................................................................ 52
7.9 Solution 9 –Arc Fault Circuit Interrupter ....................................................................... 52
7.10 Solution 10 – Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter .............................................................. 53
7.11 Solution 11 – Protective Relays .................................................................................... 53
7.12 Solution 12 – Protective Relays .................................................................................... 54
7.13 Solution 13 – Protective Relays .................................................................................... 55
7.14 Solution 14 – Protective Relays .................................................................................... 56
7.15 Solution 15 – Protective Relays .................................................................................... 58
7.16 Solution 16 – TCC ........................................................................................................ 59
7.17 Solution 17 – TCC ........................................................................................................ 60

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

PL
Protection accounts for approximately 11‐17 questions on the Power Electrical PE
exam.

A protection system in power systems is designed to monitor the power system through voltage,
current, phase, power factor and many other measurement devices. These devices are
discussed further in the next section, Measurement and Instrumentation. This section,
Protection, focuses on the protective devices that receive the signals from the measurement
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devices. These protective devices ensure safe and nearly continuous operation of the electrical
power supply.

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The topic of Protection is vast and some engineers may spend their entire careers as a
Protection Engineer for a utility and may never learn all the intricacies of various protection
schemes. However, the exam will not test this level of detail and should only cover the main
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concepts and skills in the topic of Protection. These topics include basic knowledge of the
protective devices available, overcurrent protection calculations, protective relaying devices,
relay and device coordination and the most common protection schemes for busbars,
transformers, transmission lines, motors and generators.

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11-17 out of 80 problems
 Figure 2: This figure shows two circuits each with a re-closer and a sectionalizer.

If the top re-closer has operated 5 times in the past 5 minutes, then the sectionalizer will switch
open and will stop the current from flowing to the loads. The bottom re-closer has only operated
2 times in the past 5 minutes, so its corresponding sectionalizer remains closed.

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Figure 3: The top re-closer has operated too many times, so when the re-closer has broken the
circuit, the corresponding sectionalizer will open. When the re-closer closes the circuit again,
the sectionalizer will have already opened the circuit, so no current will flow to the loads in that
circuit.

A re-closer must be robust in order to stop a large amount of current, but the sectionalizer only
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operates when there is no current flowing. The sectionalizer does not need to be robust.

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3.0 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
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In order to protect electrical equipment and to limit the damage of short circuit current,
overcurrent protection devices (OCPD) are installed to break the circuit and stop the flow of the
current. As an electrical engineer in the power field, you will most likely be required to size an
OCPD. These devices must be sized to meet (1) the rated current, (2) the rated voltage and (3)
the interrupting current.

 (1) Voltage Rating: The voltage rating is the rated voltage at the location of the
overcurrent protection device. If a bus is operating at 240 V then the OCPD must be at
least equal to or greater than 240 V.
 (2) Current Rating: The current rating must be less than the rating of the conductor that
connects the OCPD. However, conductors are usually rated for very high amperes
when compared to the OCPD. In order to get the current rating of the OCPD you should
check the NEC section. An OCPD usually has a current rating of 125% of the
continuous load current on the conductor.

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 𝑀𝑉𝐴 , 12.5 7.53 20.03 𝑀𝑉𝐴

Finally, use the voltage at the fault location to find the short circuit current.

20.03 ∗ 1000 𝑘𝑉𝐴

𝐼 837 𝐴
√3 ∗ 13.8 𝑘𝑉

3.2.2 Example 2 – Fault at Transmission Line

In this example, the fault current is found at the end of the transmission line. This is shown as
fault location 3.

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Figure 7: Next, find the MVA short circuit at location 3. Remember that the motor is acting as a

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generator in this problem. If the motor does not act as a generator, then only the generator and
transmission short circuit MVA’s will apply.
SA

1 1
𝑀𝑉𝐴 , 9.41 𝑀𝑉𝐴 ;
12.5 38.1

1 1
𝑀𝑉𝐴 , 9.38𝑀𝑉𝐴
16.7 21.4

Next add the MVA short circuit upstream and downstream values in parallel.

𝑀𝑉𝐴 , 9.41 9.38 18.79 𝑀𝑉𝐴

Finally, use the voltage at the fault location to find the short circuit current.

18.79 ∗ 1000 𝑘𝑉𝐴

𝐼 , 786 𝐴
√3 ∗ 13.8 𝑘𝑉

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In the previous figure, a CT-2 measures current through a conductor with a ratio of 1000:1. The
current transformer communicates the value to the relay and when the value is over 3A, then
the relay trips the circuit breaker. A value of 3A in the relay circuit corresponds to a value of
3000A in the conductor.

4.1.2 Overvoltage/Undervoltage Relays

In an overvoltage or undervoltage relay, a potential (voltage) transformer measures the voltage
at a certain spot at a conductor. A relay will take this value and will open the circuit breaker if
the voltage is below or above a pre-determined threshold.

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Figure 11: Overvoltage/Undervoltage relay
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4.1.3 Directional Relays
A directional relay is used on distribution and transmission lines to distinguish the direction of
the fault. There may be multiple overcurrent protection devices in a transmission distribution
system. If a fault were to occur, then all of them could potentially trip. By determining the
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direction of the fault current, the protection devices will know which devices the fault falls in
between and the appropriate overcurrent protection devices can be tripped to isolate the fault.

Figure 12: A directional relay is often used to protect a transmission line.

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5.5 DEFINITE TIME OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
The next type of relay is the definite time overcurrent protection relay. In this relay the current
must reach a certain value but it must maintain that amperage for a certain number of seconds.
This type of relay can be used as a backup to the previous relay. If the first relay didn’t trip
instantaneously, then this relay could be activated after current is maintained for four seconds in
the graph below.

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Figure 23: This figure shows a definite time relay that is set at 4 seconds and a PSM of 2.5.

The time can also be adjusted up and down, so this relay can be adjusted to an instantaneous
overcurrent protection relay. Historically, the time value was adjusted via a dial, so the time
value is often called a time dial setting.
M

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5.6 INVERSE TIME OVERCURRENT PROTECTION (51)
An inverse time overcurrent protection relay has a curve on the time current coordination graph.
It is downward sloping, thus at higher currents, the time to trip is much smaller than it is at lower
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currents. The degree of inversion of this curve can be adjusted or different types of circuit
breakers can be selected with varying degrees of inversion. The common types are moderately
inverse, inverse, very inverse and extremely inverse. The difference in time to trip between
smaller and larger currents is much greater for the extremely inverse curve. For the moderately
inverse curves, the difference in time is much smaller.

An inverse time relay follows the ANSI device number 51. This relay trips when the alternating
current exceeds a pre-determined value, which is the same as the previous relay 50. Except,
the operating time is inversely related to the magnitude of the current.

The following graphs show the inverse relationship between time and current.

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6.3 PROBLEM 3 – TCC
A short circuit calculation indicates that a phase to phase fault will cause a short circuit current
of 500 A. When will circuit breaker-1 trip, if it has the following characteristics shown in the
below graph?

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The answer is most nearly?

(a) Instantaneous

(b) 1 second

(c) 10 seconds

(d) 100 seconds

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7.15 SOLUTION 15 – PROTECTIVE RELAYS
One of the best ways to solve this problem is to first graph the mho circle, line impedance and
the load impedance on an X/R graph.

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PL
Figure 28: This figure was graphed by first drawing the line impedance line at 110% of the line
impedance. This value is equal to 11 angle 75 degrees. This line serves as the diameter of the
mho circle. Next, you can draw the circle from the midpoint of the mho circle’s diameter. Next,
draw the load impedance line as 25 angle 15 degrees. The intersection of the load impedance
line and the mho circle is the answer to this problem.

You will need some geometry to find out that the angle between the red and green line is 60
degrees and that a right triangle can be formed with the diameter of the circle and the lines
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connecting the ends of that specific diameter.

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SA

Figure 29: This shows how the angle between the two lines is found.

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A
O
ANSI/IEEE Standard Device Table ꞏ 15
Arc Fault Current Interrupter ꞏ 26 OCPD ꞏ 6
Ohmic method ꞏ 14
overcurrent ꞏ 18
B overcurrent protection devices ꞏ 6
overvoltage ꞏ 19
Backup relaying ꞏ 28

P
C

E
Per-Unit Method ꞏ 12
Circuit Breakers ꞏ 5 pilot relay ꞏ 26
Coordination ꞏ 27 Primary Relaying ꞏ 28
Protective relaying ꞏ 14

D
differential relay ꞏ 20
Differential Relay ꞏ 34, 46
directional relay ꞏ 19
Distance relays ꞏ 21

F
PL R
Re-closers ꞏ 5

S
Short Circuit Current ꞏ 7, 34, 46
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Fuses ꞏ 4
T

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G TCC ꞏ 35, 36, 47, 48
Time-Current Coordination Graph ꞏ 28, 30, 31
Generator/Motor Fault ꞏ 8 Transformer Fault ꞏ 7
Ground fault current interrupter ꞏ 21 Transmission Line Fault ꞏ 8
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Ground Fault Current Interrupter ꞏ 27 tripping devices ꞏ 4

M U

measurement device ꞏ 4 undercurrent ꞏ 18

MVA Method ꞏ 9 undervoltage ꞏ 19

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8 – Measurement & Instrumentation

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Instrument transformers | Insulation testing | Ground resistance testing

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 Section 8.0 – Measurement & Instrumentation
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 2
2.0 Instrument transformers ..................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Current Transformers ..................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Equivalent Circuit .................................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Simplified Equivalent Circuit .................................................................................... 5
2.1.3 Excitation Graph ...................................................................................................... 6
2.1.4 Knee & Saturation Point .......................................................................................... 8
2.1.5 Error Calculation ...................................................................................................... 9

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2.1.6 Tap Settings ............................................................................................................ 9
2.1.7 Accuracy Ratings .................................................................................................. 10
2.1.8 Rating Factor ......................................................................................................... 11
2.2
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.0
PL
Potential Transformers ................................................................................................. 12
Wattmeters ....................................................................................................................... 13
One-Wattmeter Method ................................................................................................ 13
Two-Wattmeter Method ................................................................................................ 14
Three-Wattmeter Method ............................................................................................. 15
VOM Metering .................................................................................................................. 18
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4.1 Voltmeter ...................................................................................................................... 18
4.2 Ammeter ....................................................................................................................... 18

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4.3 Ohmmeter ..................................................................................................................... 19
5.0 Insulation Testing ............................................................................................................. 19
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5.1 Megger Basics .............................................................................................................. 19

5.2 Three Types of Measured Currents .............................................................................. 20
5.2.1 Capacitance Charging Current .............................................................................. 21
5.2.2 Dielectric Absorption Current ................................................................................ 21
5.2.3 Leakage Current .................................................................................................... 22
5.3 Factors Affecting Insulation Resistance Measurements ............................................... 22
5.4 Short-Time or Spot Reading Test ................................................................................. 22
5.5 Time Resistance Method Test ...................................................................................... 23
5.5.1 Dielectric Absorption Ratio .................................................................................... 24
5.5.2 Polarization Index .................................................................................................. 24

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 5.6 Megger in Normal Mode ............................................................................................... 24
5.7 Megger in Guard Mode ................................................................................................. 26
6.0 Ground Resistance Testing .............................................................................................. 27
6.1 Soil Resistivity Testing .................................................................................................. 27
6.2 Factors Affecting Measurements .................................................................................. 28
6.2.1 Ground Rod Length & Diameter ............................................................................ 28
6.2.2 Soil Properties ....................................................................................................... 29
6.2.3 Season and Weather ............................................................................................. 29
6.2.4 Number of Ground Rods ....................................................................................... 30
6.3 Fall of Potential Method ................................................................................................ 30

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6.4 Equally Spaced 4-Pin Method ...................................................................................... 32
6.5 Unequally Spaced 4-Pin Method .................................................................................. 33
6.6 Variation in Depth Method ............................................................................................ 33
6.7
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
PL
Ground Resistance Testing Practical Knowledge ........................................................ 34
Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 35
Practice Problem 1 – Current Transformer ................................................................... 35
Practice Problem 2 – Potential Transformer ................................................................. 35
Practice Problem 3 – Wattmeters ................................................................................. 36
Practice Problem 4 - Wattmeters .................................................................................. 36
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7.5 Practice Problem 5 – Ground Resistance Testing ........................................................ 37
8.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 38

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8.1 Solution 1 – Current Transformer ................................................................................. 38
8.2 Solution 2 – Potential Transformer ............................................................................... 38
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8.3 Solution 3 – Wattmeters ............................................................................................... 39

8.4 Solution 4 – Wattmeters ............................................................................................... 39
8.5 Solution 5 – Ground Resistance Testing ...................................................................... 40

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The section, Measurement & Instrumentation, accounts for approximately 4‐6
questions on the Power Engineering, Electrical PE exam.

Measurement and Instrumentation is focused on the equipment and the use of the equipment to
measure current, voltage, resistance, power and power factor. This topic is a good example of
how the exam focuses on the application of electrical concepts rather than on theory. In this

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4-6 out of 80 problems
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PL
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Figure 4: This figure shows the relationship between the exciting voltage and exciting current
for various CT ratios.

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As an example, assume a 500:5 CT with a current of 500 A and a burden of 6.12 ohms. The
corresponding excitation voltage is 30 V.

30 𝑉
SA

𝐼 0.1 𝐴 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 ; 𝐼 4.9 𝐴

6.12 Ω

𝐼 4.9 0.1 5𝐴

Remember that the primary current causes the excitation voltage, which will then cause the
secondary current. You want to make sure that the primary current is only causing secondary
current.

Now, let’s see if the exciting voltage is increased to 1,100 V. The excitation current can be
found from the graph and the secondary current can be found from Ohm’s law.

1,100 𝑉
𝐼 100 𝐴 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 ; 𝐼 180 𝐴
6.12 Ω

𝐼 100 180 280 𝐴

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 E
Figure 16: This figure shows the testing of the insulation of conductor A.

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Although you are intending on testing the insulation around conductor A, you may also indirectly
test the insulation between conductors A & B. Some of the current may travel through the
insulation of A & B and to the conductor of B, where a parallel path would be created to the
ground. This will change the resistance measured by the megger.
M

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SA

Figure 17: This figure shows the equivalent circuit of the previous figure. Current travels from
the 1st lead of the megger and through the insulation of both A & B and then to the ground
connection, where it is picked up by the second lead of the megger.

If the resistance between A & B is sufficiently large, then the extra current traveling through the
parallel circuit may be minimal. But if the current is large, then you will get lower resistance
measurements. If this is the case, then you should use the guard mode.

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 Figure 22: Increasing the length of the ground rod will increase the surface area and thus lower

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the resistance. As a rule of thumb, doubling the length will decrease the resistance to 60% of its
original value.

The complex governing equation is shown below. You shouldn’t need this equation, you just
need to know that the length has a bigger effect on the resistance than the diameter.

𝑅
𝜋 𝐷 2𝑡
𝜌 𝑡

6.2.2 SOIL PROPERTIES

𝐿 𝑡
PL 𝜋 𝐷

𝑅
2𝑡

𝜌
2𝜋𝐿
𝜌 𝑡

ln
8𝐿
𝐷
𝐿 𝑡

1
⋯
𝜋 𝐷 2𝑡
𝜌 𝑡
𝐿 𝑡
;
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The type of soil will affect the resistivity of the soil. First, the size of the individual soil particles

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will affect the resistivity. If the soil has smaller particles, then the resistivity will be less. The
more air gaps there are between pieces of soil, the higher the resistivity. Rocky soil will have a
higher resistivity and fine gravel will have a lower resistivity. Second, the amount of dissolved
salts will increase the conductivity and thus reduce the resistivity.
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Average Soil Average Soil

Type of Soil Type of Soil
Resistivity (ohm-m) Resistivity (ohm-m)
Moist sandy
Moist gravel 500 150
soil
Dry sandy
Dry gravel 1,000 300
soil

6.2.3 SEASON AND WEATHER

The season and weather will also affect the ground resistivity. As moisture increases, the
conductivity of the soil will increase and thus the resistivity will decrease. If there is significant
moisture in the soil, then the temperature will also affect the soil resistivity. As the temperature
increases, the water resistivity will decrease and thus cause the soil resistivity to decrease.

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4-6 out of 80 problems
7.5 PRACTICE PROBLEM 5 – GROUND RESISTANCE TESTING
The fall of potential method is used to test the grounding electrode resistance. The testing
results in the following values. The test used a test current of 2 A. The current electrode is
placed at a distance of 200 feet. What is the effective ground resistance?

Distance (ft.) Voltage

20 1V
40 6V
60 10V
80 13V
100 15V
120 16V
140 16.5

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160 N/A
180 N/A
200 N/A

The answer is most nearly,

(a) 3.5 Ω

(b) 8 Ω

(c) 11 Ω

(d) 16 Ω
PL
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4-6 out of 80 problems
8.0 SOLUTIONS
8.1 SOLUTION 1 – CURRENT TRANSFORMER
A current transformer with a current ratio of 100:1A is used to monitor a 480V, 1 PH system with
a maximum current of 400A. If the CT is reading 2.5A, then what is the current in the system?

You are given the current ratio which is always in terms of Primary: Secondary.

100: 1 → 𝐼 :𝐼

You should convert the ratios to fractions as shown below and solve for the primary current
which will equal the current in the system.

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100 𝐴 𝐼
1𝐴 2.5 𝐴

𝐼 250 𝐴

PL
The correct answer is most nearly, (c) 250 A.

8.2 SOLUTION 2 – POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

A potential transformer with a turns ratio of 100:1 is used to monitor the line to line voltage of the
secondary feeds of a 480/120V wye-wye transformer. What is the phase voltage of the
transformer secondary when the PT reads 1V?
M
𝑉 100
𝑉 1

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Therefore the primary voltage is 100V (line to line). You just need to convert the voltage to
phase voltage. Since the transformer has a wye secondary, there will be a root3 conversion.
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𝑉 , 100𝑉

100𝑉
𝑉 , 57.8𝑉
√3

(a) 1V

(b) 58V

(c) 100V

(d) 120V

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A
O
ammeter ꞏ 18
ohmmeter ꞏ 19
one-wattmeter method ꞏ 13
C
CT ꞏ 3 P
Current Ratio ꞏ 4
current transformer ꞏ 3 potential transformer ꞏ 12
Current Transformer ꞏ 35, 38 Potential Transformer ꞏ 35, 38
Power factor tables ꞏ 17

E
PT ꞏ 12
D
Delta Connected Load ꞏ 14 S
Soil Resistivity Testing ꞏ 27
F
Fall of Potential Method ꞏ 30

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Ground Resistance Testing ꞏ 27, 37, 40
T
three-wattmeter method ꞏ 15
Turns Ratio ꞏ 4
two-wattmeter method ꞏ 14

V
M
I
voltmeter ꞏ 18

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Instrument transformers ꞏ 3 Volt-Ohm-Milli-ammeter ꞏ 18
Insulation Testing ꞏ 19 VOM ꞏ 18

M W
SA

megaohmmeter ꞏ 19 wattmeter ꞏ 13
Megger ꞏ 19 Wattmeters ꞏ 36, 39
Wye Connected Load ꞏ 15

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9 – Applications

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Lightning protection| Surge protection | Reliability | Illumination/lighting and energy

Grounding

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efficiency | Demand calculations | Energy management | Engineering economics |

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 Section 9.0 – Applications
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4
2.0 Lightning & Surge Protection ............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Design Standards ........................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Risk Assessment ............................................................................................................ 5
2.2.1 NFPA 780 Lightning Protection Risk Assessment................................................... 6
2.3 Lightning Protection Systems ......................................................................................... 8
2.3.1 Elevated Strike Device ............................................................................................ 9

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2.3.2 Conductors Connecting Strike Device and Grounding System ............................... 9
2.3.3 Grounding System ................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Lightning Protection Design and Surge Protection ......................................................... 9

3.0
3.1
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.4
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SPD Installed in Normal Mode .............................................................................. 10
SPD Installed in Common Mode ........................................................................... 11
SPD Voltage Rating .............................................................................................. 11
SPD Class ............................................................................................................. 12
Reliability .......................................................................................................................... 12
Redundancy in Bus Arrangements ............................................................................... 12
3.2 Reliability Engineering .................................................................................................. 15
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3.2.1 Mean Time to Failure & Repair ............................................................................. 15

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3.2.2 Parallel Components ............................................................................................. 16
3.2.3 Series Components ............................................................................................... 17
4.0 Illumination engineering ................................................................................................... 17
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4.1 Basics ........................................................................................................................... 18

4.2 Lumen Method or Zonal Cavity Method ....................................................................... 19
4.2.1 Determine Cavity Ratio ......................................................................................... 19
4.2.2 Determine Effective Cavity Reflectance ................................................................ 20
4.2.3 Select Coefficient of Utilization .............................................................................. 21
4.2.4 Compute Average Illuminance Level ..................................................................... 21
4.3 Point to Point Method ................................................................................................... 22
4.3.1 Cosine Law ............................................................................................................ 23
4.3.2 Light Manufacturer Photometric Diagrams ............................................................ 24
4.3.3 Lighting Uniformity ................................................................................................. 25

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 4.3.4 Lighting Temperature ............................................................................................ 26
5.0 Demand and Energy Management/Calculations .............................................................. 26
5.1 Demand Factor ............................................................................................................. 27
5.1.1 Utility Company Demand Factor Perspective ........................................................ 27
5.1.2 Customer Demand Factor Perspective ................................................................. 29
5.2 Demand KW Calculations ............................................................................................. 29
6.0 Economic Analysis ........................................................................................................... 30
6.1 Interest Rate & Time Value of Money ........................................................................... 30
6.2 Annual Value/Annuities ................................................................................................ 31
6.3 Equipment Type Questions .......................................................................................... 32

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6.4 Convert to Present Value ............................................................................................. 33
6.5 Convert to Future Value ............................................................................................... 34
6.6 Convert to Annualized Value ........................................................................................ 35
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.9.1
6.9.2
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Convert to Rate of Return ............................................................................................. 35
Factor Tables ................................................................................................................ 36
Additional Economics Topics ........................................................................................ 37
Break Even Analysis ............................................................................................. 37
Simple Payback ..................................................................................................... 38
6.9.3 Depreciation - Straight Line ........................................................................................ 38
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6.9.4 Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS) ............................................ 39
6.9.5 Sum of Years Digits (SYD) ......................................................................................... 40

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6.9.6 Depreciation Comparison ...................................................................................... 41
7.0 Grounding ........................................................................................................................ 41
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7.1 Solid Grounding ............................................................................................................ 43

7.2 Low Resistance (or Reactance) Grounding .................................................................. 44
7.3 High Resistance (or Reactance) Grounding ................................................................. 45
7.4 Ungrounded .................................................................................................................. 45
7.5 Substation Grounding ................................................................................................... 46
7.5.1 Establishing Grounding Grid Requirements .......................................................... 46
7.5.2 Grounding Grid Design .......................................................................................... 48
8.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 50
8.1 Problem 1 - Lighting ..................................................................................................... 50
8.2 Problem 2 - Lighting ..................................................................................................... 50

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 8.3 Problem 3 - Economics ................................................................................................ 51
8.4 Problem 4 - Economics ................................................................................................ 51
8.5 Problem 5 - Grounding ................................................................................................. 52
8.6 Problem 6 – Lightning Protection ................................................................................. 52
8.7 Problem 7 - Grounding ................................................................................................. 53
8.8 Problem 8 – Demand Calculation ................................................................................. 53
9.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 54
9.1 Solution 1 - Lighting ...................................................................................................... 54
9.2 Solution 2 - Lighting ...................................................................................................... 54
9.3 Solution 3 - Economics ................................................................................................. 55

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9.4 Solution 4 - Economics ................................................................................................. 56
9.5 Solution 5 - Grounding .................................................................................................. 56
9.6 Solution 6 – Lightning Protection .................................................................................. 57
9.7
9.8
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Solution 7 - Grounding .................................................................................................. 58
Solution 8 – Demand Calculations ............................................................................... 59
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 Actual Lightning Frequency ND Tolerable Lightning Frequency NC
(Describes the building’s possible lightning (Describes the building’s resistance and
frequency) avoidance of lightning)
1.5 𝑥 10
𝑁 𝑁 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶 10 𝑁
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

𝐼𝑓 𝑁 𝑁 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚.

𝐼𝑓 𝑁 𝑁 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑.

2.3 LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEMS

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The fundamental principle in the protection of life and property against lightning is to provide a
means by which a lightning discharge can enter or leave the earth without resulting damage or
loss. A low-impedance path that the discharge current will follow in preference to all alternative
high-impedance paths offered by building materials such as wood, brick, tile, stone, or concrete

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should be offered. When lightning follows the higher impedance paths, damage can be caused
by the heat and mechanical forces generated during the passage of the discharge. Most metals,
being good electrical conductors, are virtually unaffected by either the heat or the mechanical
forces if they are of sufficient size to carry the current that can be expected. The metallic path
should be continuous from the grounding electrode to the strike termination device. Care should
be exercised in the selection of metal conductors to ensure the integrity of the lightning
conductor for an extended period. A nonferrous metal such as copper or aluminum will provide,
in most atmospheres, a lasting conductor free of the effects of rust or corrosion.
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Figure 2: An overall view of a lightning protection system

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Reflectance values are provided in the IES and below are a sample of some of the most
common room surfaces. Reflectance values are provided in percentages, which indicate how
much of the light that hits the surface is reflected and the inverse of these values represents
how much of that same light is absorbed.

Roof Surface Reflectance Value Surface Reflectance Value

White ACT 70% – 80% Reflective Aluminum 85% – 95%
Carpet 10% – 30% White Walls 40% – 60%

4.2.3 Select Coefficient of Utilization

Now that you have the reflectance values of the room and you have the shape of the room with
the cavity ratios, you can now find the coefficient of utilization. This value is found on IES tables

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and indicates the percentage of the lighting levels that reach the work space.

The table below is an example of a coefficient of utilization table for a specific light fixture type.
In the table, ρ is the effective reflectance for the ceiling cavity (cc), floor cavity (fc), and wall (w).
You can interpolate between the values in this table to match your exact conditions.

% ρcc
% ρw

RCR
1
2
3
4
70%

1.092
1.079
1.070
1.062
50%

1.082
1.066
1.054
1.045
PL 80%
30%

1.075
1.055
1.042
1.033
10%
For 30% ρfc

1.068
1.047
1.033
1.024
70%

1.077
1.068
1.061
1.055
50%

1.070
1.057
1.048
1.040
70%
30%

1.064
1.048
1.037
1.029
10%

1.059
1.039
1.028
1.021
5 1.056 1.038 1.026 1.018 1.050 1.034 1.024 1.015
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6 1.052 1.033 1.021 1.014 1.047 1.030 1.020 1.012
7 1.047 1.029 1.018 1.011 1.043 1.026 1.017 1.009

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8 1.044 1.026 1.015 1.009 1.040 1.024 1.015 1.007
9 1.040 1.024 1.014 1.007 1.037 1.022 1.014 1.006
10 1.037 1.022 1.012 1.006 1.034 1.020 1.012 1.005
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4.2.4 Compute Average Illuminance Level

Once you have the coefficient of utilization, then you apply a light loss factor based on the
previously mentioned factors. Finally, take the values and input them into the equation below.
Typically, you are given a foot-candle value that you must meet in accordance with IES. You
will also have your area, CU and LLF. This will result in the total amount of lumens required for
the space. You can use these total lumens and calculate how many lights you need and what
lumens per lamp will be required.

# 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 ∗ 𝐶𝑈 ∗ 𝐿𝐿𝐹

𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑡

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As previously stated, the most important thing in engineering economic analysis is to convert

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all monetary gains and costs to like terms , whether it is present value, future value, annual
value or rate of return. Each specific conversion will be discussed in the following sections.

Each of the sections will use the same example in order to illustrate the difference in converting
between each of the different terms.

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Example: A new chiller has an initial cost of $50,000 and a yearly maintenance cost of $1,000.
At the end of its 15 year lifetime, the chiller will have a salvage value of $5,000. It is estimated
that by installing this new chiller, there will be an energy savings of $5,000 per year. The
interest rate is 4%.
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6.4 CONVERT TO PRESENT VALUE

What is the Present Value (Present Worth) of this chiller?

The first term, initial cost is already in present value.

𝑃𝑉 $50,000

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8.0 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
8.1 PROBLEM 1 - LIGHTING
A room has dimensions 20’ x 20’ x 10’. The lights in the room are located 1’ below the ceiling.
The room is a conference room, which requires 40 FC at a desk height of 3’ above the floor.
You previously calculated a coefficient of utilization as 0.8 and a ballast factor is 0.95 for the
light fixtures to be used. What are the total lumens required in the room by the light fixtures?

(a) 2,000 lumens

(b) 10,000 lumens

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(c) 20,000 lumens

(d) 21,050 lumens

8.2 PROBLEM 2 - LIGHTING PL

A walkway shall be lit by an exterior wall-mounted light. The walkway extends from 0 ft to 5’
away from the wall. You must provide a minimum of 10 FC at all points along the walkway. The
wall mounted light is located 10’ above the walkway. The light cut sheet indicates 1,500
candela at all angles. What are the foot-candle values at 0’ from the wall and 5’ from the wall?
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(a) 8 fc and 10 fc

(b) 12 fc and 15 fc
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(c) 12 fc and 60 fc

(d) 60 fc and 60 fc

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A
I
Annual Value ꞏ 31
Average Illuminance ꞏ 21 IEEE ꞏ 4
Illuminance ꞏ 19
Illumination ꞏ 17
B Illumination Engineering Society ꞏ 17
Interest Rate ꞏ 30
Ballast Factor ꞏ 18 isokeraunic ꞏ 6

C L

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Candela ꞏ 19 Light Loss Factor ꞏ 18
Cavity Ratio ꞏ 19 Lighting ꞏ 50, 54
Coefficient of Utilization ꞏ 21 Lighting Temperature ꞏ 26
Common Mode ꞏ 11 Lightning protection ꞏ 4
conductors ꞏ 9 Lightning Protection Design ꞏ 9

D
Demand Factor ꞏ 27, 29
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double bus, double breaker arrangement ꞏ 13

E
Lightning Protection Systems ꞏ 8
load profile ꞏ 28
Low Resistance (or Reactance) Grounding ꞏ 44
Lumen ꞏ 19
Lumen Method ꞏ 19
Luminous Flux ꞏ 18
Luminous Intensity ꞏ 18
Lux ꞏ 19
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Economic Analysis ꞏ 30
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Economics ꞏ 51, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59

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Effective Cavity Reflectance ꞏ 20 Mean Time to Failure ꞏ 15
Elevated Strike Device ꞏ 9 mean time to repair ꞏ 15
MTTF ꞏ 15
MTTR ꞏ 15
F
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Factor Tables ꞏ 36
N
Footcandle ꞏ 19
NFPA 780 ꞏ 9
Normal Mode ꞏ 10
G
Grounding ꞏ 41
P
grounding system ꞏ 9
Photometric Diagrams ꞏ 24
Point to Point Method ꞏ 22
H
High Resistance (or Reactance) Grounding ꞏ 45
R
Rate of Return ꞏ 35, 37, 38

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redundancy ꞏ 12
T
Reliability ꞏ 12
Risk Assessment ꞏ 5
Time Value of Money ꞏ 30
transient voltage surge suppressors ꞏ 10
S
U
Salvage value ꞏ 32
Single bus ꞏ 12
Ungrounded ꞏ 45, 46
Solid Grounding ꞏ 43
Uniformity ꞏ 25
SPD ꞏ 10
unreliability ꞏ 16
Surge Protection ꞏ 4

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Zonal Cavity Method ꞏ 19

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10 – Codes & Standards

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National Electrical Code | National Electrical Safety Code | Standard for Electrical

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Safety in the Workplace: Shock and Burns | Hazardous area classification

Study Guide
www.engproguides.com
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 Section 10.0 – Codes & Standards
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4
2.0 National Electric Code 2017 ............................................................................................... 5
2.1 Additional Resources .......................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Chapter 1: General ........................................................................................................ 6
2.3 Chapter 2: Wiring & Protection ...................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Article 220 Load Calculations .................................................................................. 7
2.3.2 Article 240 Overcurrent Protection .......................................................................... 7

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2.3.3 Article 250 Grounding .............................................................................................. 7
2.4 Chapter 3: Wiring Methods & Materials ......................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Tables 310.15 & 310.60 Set .................................................................................... 9
2.5

2.6

2.7
2.5.1
2.5.2

2.6.1
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Chapter 4: Equipment for General Use ....................................................................... 10
Article 430 Motors, Motor Circuits and Controllers ................................................ 11
Article 450 Transformers ....................................................................................... 13
Chapter 5: Special occupancies .................................................................................. 13
Article 500 – Hazardous Locations ........................................................................ 14
Chapter 6: Special Equipment ..................................................................................... 15
2.8 Chapter 7: Special Conditions ..................................................................................... 16
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2.9 Chapter 8: Communication Systems ........................................................................... 17

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2.10 Chapter 9: Tables ........................................................................................................ 17
2.10.1 Table 8 & 9 Conductors ......................................................................................... 18
2.11 NEC Practical Skills ...................................................................................................... 18
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2.11.1 Determine Branch Circuit Load – Article 220.10 to 40 .......................................... 18

2.11.2 Determine Feeder Load – Article 220.40 thru 80 .................................................. 19
2.11.3 Determine Receptacle Location and Number – Article 210.50 to 210.71.............. 19
2.11.4 Conductor Sizing – Article 310 .............................................................................. 20
2.11.5 Grounding Conductor or Bonding Jumper Sizing – Article 250 ............................. 22
2.11.6 Overcurrent Protection Sizing – Article 240 .......................................................... 23
2.11.7 Conduit Sizing – Article 314 .................................................................................. 23
2.11.8 Junction Box Sizing – Article 314 .......................................................................... 24
2.11.9 Motor Conductor Sizing – Article 430 Part II ......................................................... 25
2.11.10 Motor Overcurrent Protection Sizing - Article 430 Part V................................... 25

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 2.11.11 Motor Disconnect Sizing - Article 430 Part IX .................................................... 25
2.11.12 Motor Overload Sizing - Article 430 Part III ....................................................... 25
3.0 National Electric Safety Code .......................................................................................... 26
3.1 2017 National Electrical Safety Code© (NESC©) .......................................................... 26
3.2 Outline .......................................................................................................................... 27
3.3 Part 1: Electric supply stations and equipment ............................................................ 27
3.4 Part 2: Overhead Electric Supply and Communication Lines ...................................... 27
3.5 Part 3: Underground Electric Supply and Communication Lines ................................. 28
3.6 Part 4: Rules for the operation of electric supply and communication lines and
equipment................................................................................................................................ 28

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3.7 Appendices ................................................................................................................... 28
4.0 Electrical safety ................................................................................................................ 28
4.1 NFPA 70E – Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace ...................................... 29
5.0
5.1

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Hazardous Area Classifications ....................................................................................... 29
NFPA 497 – Recommended Practice for the Classification of Flammable Liquids,
Gases, or Vapors and of Hazardous (classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in
Chemical Process Areas ......................................................................................................... 29
5.2 NFPA 499 – Recommended Practice for the Classification of Combustible Dusts and of
Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Areas ....... 30
5.3 NFPA 30B – Code for the Manufacture and Storage of Aerosol Products ................... 30
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6.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 32
6.1 Problem 1: Conductor Size ........................................................................................... 32

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6.2 Problem 2: Locked-Rotor Current ................................................................................. 32
6.3 Problem 3: Voltage Drop .............................................................................................. 33
6.4 Problem 4: Overload Device ......................................................................................... 33
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6.5 Problem 5: Disconnect Switch ...................................................................................... 34

6.6 Problem 6: Junction Box .............................................................................................. 34
6.7 Problem 7: Receptacles .............................................................................................. 35
6.8 Problem 8: Receptacles .............................................................................................. 35
6.9 Problem 9: Conduit Sizing ........................................................................................... 36
6.10 Problem 10: Equipment Ground Conductor Sizing ...................................................... 36
6.11 Problem 11: Motor Conductor ..................................................................................... 37
6.12 Problem 12: Conductor Serving Multiple Motors ......................................................... 37
7.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 38

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7.1 Solution 1: Conductor Size .......................................................................................... 38
7.2 Solution 2: Locked Rotor Current ................................................................................ 38
7.3 Solution 3: Voltage Drop .............................................................................................. 39
7.4 Solution 4: Overload Device ......................................................................................... 40
7.5 Solution 5: Disconnect Switch ...................................................................................... 40
7.6 Solution 6: Junction Box ............................................................................................. 41
7.7 Solution 7: Receptacles .............................................................................................. 41
7.8 Solution 8: Receptacles ............................................................................................... 42
7.9 Solution 9: Conduit Sizing ........................................................................................... 42
7.10 Solution 10: Ground Conductor Sizing ........................................................................ 43

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7.11 Solution 11: Motor Conductor ...................................................................................... 43
7.12 Solution 12: Conductor Serving Multiple Motors ........................................................ 44

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Codes & Standards accounts for approximately 10‐15 questions on the Electrical &
Computer Power PE exam.

The codes and standards section of the exam is the section where most people do well on the
exam. Many of these questions simply test your familiarity with the NEC and NESC. You
should be well prepared to go to any section in the book, although some sections of the codes
are more used than others. The most common questions are highlighted in this section of the
book. Also included in this section is a technique that you can use to quickly navigate to the
correct part of the code to answer a question on the exam. This technique involves memorizing
the format of the book, such that if you are given a certain type of code question, you will know
exactly what section to look at in the book.

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Codes & Standards
10-15 questions




(NEC)

Resources
Outline
General
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National Electric Code National Electrical Safety




Codes (NESC)

Resources
Outline
Electric supply


Electric Shock and

OSHA
Burns

Arc flash
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 Wiring & protection stations and
 Wiring methods & equipment

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materials  Overhead electric
 Equipment for supply and
general use communication lines
 Special occupancies  Underground electric
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 Special equipment supply and

 Special conditions communication lines
 Communication  Appendices
systems
 Tables

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2.5.1 Article 430 Motors, Motor Circuits and Controllers
This article shows you how to size all electrical components serving motors. This includes the
feeder, conductor, disconnect, circuit breaker, starter and overload device.

Motor Feeder - Short-Circuit and Ground Fault Protection: 430.61 - 430.63

Motor Disconnect: 430.101 – 430.113. The ampere rating of the disconnecting shall not be
less than 115 percent of the sum of all currents at the full load condition. Small motors use
locked rotor current as 6X the full load current.

Stationary Motors (<1/8 HP) Use branch circuit OCPD

Stationary Motors (<2 HP) 2X FLC or FLC/0.8 or HP rating of motor

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Motors (<1,000 V) 115% of FLC rating of motor
Horsepower Rating FLC Rating (430.248, 249 or 250) and LRC
Rating (430.251A & B)
Ampere Rating 115% of FLC

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A disconnect for a motor branch circuit must be capable of interrupting the locked-rotor current
of the motor. This disconnecting means it must disconnect both the motor and the controller
from all ungrounded supply conductors, NEC Section 430-103.
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Figure 2: Motor one-line diagram
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Motor Branch - Short-Circuit and Ground Fault Protection: These devices are quick reacting
devices that are sized based on a percentage of full load current. The values for the
percentages are found in Table 430.52. More information on branch circuit short-circuit and
ground fault protection can be found in the following sections, 430.51 through 430.58.

Motor Overload Protection: These devices are slow reacting devices that protect motors from
overheating due to motor overloads and failure to start. The sections that cover motor overload
protection are 430.31 through 430.44. There are two main types of overload protection that are
provided, (1) Separate Overload Device and (2) Thermal Protector. The sizing for these
devices is described in the tables below based on various scenarios.

Separate Overload Device Sizing

Motors with service factor 1.15 or greater 125% nameplate full load current rating
Motors with a marked temperature rise 40 C or less 125% nameplate full load current rating
All other motors 115% nameplate full load current rating

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  Article 620 - Elevators, Dumbwaiters,  Article 670 - Industrial Machinery
Escalators, Moving Walks, Platform Lifts
and Stairway Chairlifts
 Article 625 - Electric Vehicle Charging  Article 675 - Electrically Driven or
System Controlled Irrigation Machines
 Article 626 - Electrified Truck Parking  Article 680 - Swimming Pools, Fountains
Spaces and Similar Installations
 Article 630 - Electric Welders  Article 682 - Natural and Artificially Made
Bodies of Water
 Article 640 - Audio Signal Processing,  Article 685 - Integrated Electrical
Amplification and Reproduction Systems
Equipment
 Article 645 - Information Technology  Article 690 - PV Systems

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Equipment
 Article 646 - Modular Data Centers  Article 692 - Fuel Cell Systems

 Article 647 - Sensitive Electronic  Article 694 - Wind Electric Systems

Equipment


2.8
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Article 650 - Pipe Organs

CHAPTER 7: SPECIAL CONDITIONS

 Article 695 - Fire Pumps

This chapter covers the requirements for the electrical systems under these special conditions.
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The requirements cover areas, like grounding, fault protections, testing/maintenance,
overcurrent protection, listing, controls and sizing/rating.

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The special conditions, which are shown below, describe scenarios where additional safety
requirements are necessary beyond the normal requirements which are included in Chapters 1,
2, 3 and 4. Please remember that the requirements in these earlier chapters will apply, unless
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overridden by the requirements in Chapter 7.

The special conditions include the installation of generators and other standby power systems,
healthcare systems, fire alarm systems and low voltage systems.

 Article 700 Emergency Systems  Article 725 Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3
Remote Control, Signaling and Power-
Limited Circuits
 Article 701 Legally Required Standby  Article 727 Instrumentation Tray Cable:
Systems Type ITC
 Article 702 Optional Standby Systems  Article 728 Fire Resistive Cable Systems
 Article 705 Interconnected Electric Power  Article 750 Energy Management
Production Sources Systems
 Article 708 Critical Operations Power  Article 760 Fire Alarm Systems
Systems

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4.1 NFPA 70E – STANDARD FOR ELECTRICAL SAFETY IN THE WORKPLACE
By NFPA

The Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace includes requirements to prevent accidents
from electrical systems in the field. Included in the appendix are the arc flash boundary
calculations, used to determine safe distances during an arc flash. There are two safety terms
that you should be familiar with for the exam, (1) Electric Shock and (2) Arc Flash.

Electric Shock: Electric shock is also known as electrocution. This occurs when an electric
current passes through the body. Electric shock can occur through either direct contact with a
conductor or indirect contact (no touching). A human can feel approximately 1 mA (AC) or 5 mA
(DC). The minimum amount of current that can seriously injure a person is around 1 amp.

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Arc Flash: In an arc flash, electricity is conducted from a high voltage point to a low voltage
point, like ground through the air. The energy released in this arc is huge. The temperatures of
the arc can exceed tens of thousands of degrees Celsius and can also result in an explosive
blast. An arc most commonly occurs when a circuit breaker is opened. The sudden break in
electricity will cause high voltage on one side of the circuit and no voltage on the other side, with

PL
air in-between. This potential difference causes an arc to occur, which is typically contained
within the circuit breaker device.

You may want to purchase the PDF version, so that you can simulate the actual exam
conditions.

Amazon Link1: NFPA 70E

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5.0 HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATIONS

Copyright © 2020 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
Hazardous area classifications are generally defined in the NEC (NFPA 70). Additional detailed
recommended practices or requirements for electrical installations in flammable and
combustible areas are provided in NFPA 497, 499, and 30B. These three codes are specifically
SA

referenced in the NCEES exam specifications and it is recommended that you bring all three to
the exam.

5.1 NFPA 497 – RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF

FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS, GASES, OR VAPORS AND OF HAZARDOUS (CLASSIFIED)
LOCATIONS FOR ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS IN CHEMICAL PROCESS AREAS
By NFPA

This document provides recommendations, and not code requirements, for hazardous
classifications in chemical process areas. It is intended to be used in conjunction with Article
500 of the NEC (NFPA 70E) to assist in identifying more specific hazardous classifications.

Codes & Standards - 29 www.engproguides.com

10-15 out of 80 problems
6.5 PROBLEM 5: DISCONNECT SWITCH
A 20-hp, three-phase, induction motor is operated at 230 V. The motor has a service factor of
1.15 and is a code letter B. What is the minimum size of a separate motor disconnect switch?
Assume that there is already a circuit breaker and this is a separate motor disconnect switch.

a) 50 A

b) 54 A

c) 63 A

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d) 108 A

6.6
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PROBLEM 6: JUNCTION BOX
Four #10 conductors enter a junction box. Three conductors are spliced with #12 conductors.
The remaining #10 conductor is terminated in the junction box. What is the minimum volume of
the junction box?
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Copyright © 2020 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
a) 16.75 in3
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b) 17.75 in3

c) 18.75 in3

d) 19.00 in3

Codes & Standards - 34 www.engproguides.com

10-15 out of 80 problems
6.11 PROBLEM 11: MOTOR CONDUCTOR
A passenger elevator is served by a continuous rated, 10 HP, 3 PH, 460 V induction motor. The
nameplate current is 12 A. What is the minimum rating of the conductor serving this motor?

a) 12.1 A

b) 16.8 A

c) 17.5 A

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d) 21.1 A

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6.12 PROBLEM 12: CONDUCTOR SERVING MULTIPLE MOTORS
A conductor feeds two identical motors, each motor is rated at 10 HP, 3 PH, 460 V induction
motor. What is the minimum current rating of the conductor serving these motors?
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a) 14 A

b) 17.1 A

Copyright © 2020 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
c) 28.6 A

d) 31.5 A
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Codes & Standards - 37 www.engproguides.com

10-15 out of 80 problems
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) 4 V.

7.4 SOLUTION 4: OVERLOAD DEVICE

A 1-hp, single-phase motor is operated at 208 V and has a nameplate full load current of 7.1 A.
The motor has a service factor of 1.15 and is a code letter B. What is the maximum size
separate overload device allowed for this motor?

Separate Overload Device Sizing

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Motors with service factor 1.15 or greater 125% nameplate full load current rating
Motors with a marked temperature rise 40 C or 125% nameplate full load current rating
less
All other motors 115% nameplate full load current rating

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Motors full load current 9 A or less
Thermal Protector Sizing

Motor full load current from 9.1 to 20 A

Motor full load current greater than 20 A.
170% nameplate full load current rating
156% nameplate full load current rating
140% nameplate full load current rating

Although the answer is in the above table, you should read the code to make yourself familiar
with this information.
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𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 125% ∗ 7.1 𝐴 8.9 𝐴

Copyright © 2020 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
a) 7.1 A

b) 8.8 A
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c) 10.2 A

d) 14.5 A

The correct answer is most nearly, (b) 8.8 A.

7.5 SOLUTION 5: DISCONNECT SWITCH

A 20-hp, three-phase, induction motor is operated at 230 V. The motor has a service factor of
1.15 and is a code letter B. What is the minimum size of a separate motor disconnect switch?
Assume that there is already a circuit breaker and this is a separate motor disconnect switch.

Codes & Standards - 40 www.engproguides.com

10-15 out of 80 problems
A K
Article 430 ꞏ 11
AWG ꞏ 18 kcmil ꞏ 18

B L
Bare conductor ꞏ 9
Bonding Jumper Sizing ꞏ 22 Load Calculations ꞏ 7
Branch Circuit Load ꞏ 18 Locked Rotor Current ꞏ 38
Locked-Rotor Current ꞏ 32

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Class I Locations ꞏ 14
Class II Locations ꞏ 14 Motor Branch ꞏ 11
-Class III Locations ꞏ 14 Motor Conductor Sizing ꞏ 25
communication lines ꞏ 27 Motor Disconnect ꞏ 11
Conductor Size ꞏ 32, 38 Motor Disconnect Sizing ꞏ 25
Conductor Sizing ꞏ 20
Conduit Sizing ꞏ 23

D
Disconnect Switch ꞏ 34, 40

F
PL Motor Feeder ꞏ 11
Motor Overcurrent Protection Sizing ꞏ 25
Motor Overload Protection ꞏ 11
Motor Overload Sizing ꞏ 25

N
NEC ꞏ 5
NESC ꞏ 26
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NFPA 30B ꞏ 30
Feeder Load ꞏ 19 NFPA 497 ꞏ 29
Feeder Load Calculations ꞏ 7 NFPA 499 ꞏ 30

Copyright © 2020 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
Free air ꞏ 9 NFPA 70E ꞏ 29
full load current ꞏ 13

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G
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Overcurrent Protection ꞏ 7, 23
Grounding ꞏ 7 Overhead electric supply ꞏ 27, 28
Grounding Conductor ꞏ 22 Overload Device ꞏ 33, 40

I R

Insulated conductor ꞏ 9 Receptacle Location ꞏ 19

Isolated conduit ꞏ 9
Isolated in air ꞏ 9
V
Voltage Drop ꞏ 33, 39
J
Junction Box Sizing ꞏ 24

Codes & Standards - 45 www.engproguides.com

10-15 out of 80 problems
11 - Conclusion

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www.engproguides.com
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11.0 CONCLUSION
If you have any questions on this book or any other Engineering Pro Guides product, then
please contact me at my email below. Also if you are looking for more Power PE products, then
please visit the website and purchase the complete set of Power PE products. The website also
has a bunch of free information that you can use to facilitate your studying. Finally, each
webpage also has a section for you to ask questions on the product and to leave comments, in
addition the errata for each product is located on their respective webpages.

Power PE Textbook:
https://www.engproguides.com/pe-power-technical-study-guide.html

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Power PE Full Exam (80 unique questions):
https://www.engproguides.com/pe-power-practice-exam-prep.html

Power PE Final Exam (a different set of 80 questions):

PL
https://www.engproguides.com/pe-power-final-exam-prep.html

Power PE References Exam (50+ codes & standards specific problems):

https://www.engproguides.com/pe-power-supplemental-reference-exam-prep.html

Power PE Class: https://www.engproguides.com/online-power-pe-course.html

If you have any questions, please email me Justin Kauwale at [email protected]

M
Hi. My name is Justin Kauwale, the creator of Engineering Pro Guides. I will be happy to

Copyright © 2020 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
answer any questions you may have about the PE exam. Good luck on your studying! I hope
you pass the exam and I wish you the best in your career. Thank you for your purchase!
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Conclusion - 1 www.engproguides.com
12 – Cheat Sheets

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PL Study Guide
www.engproguides.com
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 Section 1.0 ‐ Basic/Common Equations
Term Equation Description
Waveforms
Max Voltage 𝑉
Root Mean 𝑉
𝑉
Square Voltage √2

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2∗𝑉
Average Voltage 𝑉
𝜋

Square Wave RMS

PL 𝑉 𝑉
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𝑉
Triangle/Sawtooth Wave RMS 𝑉
√3

Copyright © 2020 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
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1
Waveform RMS 𝑋 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇

Cheat Sheets ‐1 www.engproguides.com

Power, Circuits

𝑆 𝑃 𝑗𝑄
𝐼 ∠𝜃; 𝐼 ∗ ∠ 𝜃;
Apparent Power
𝑉
𝑆 𝐼∗ 𝑉
𝑍
𝐼 𝑍

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𝑃𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Power Factor 𝜃 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔

Power Factor
Adjustment
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝜃 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑉
𝑉
PL Power factor corrections where Reactive Power (Q) changes
and Real Power (P) remains the same
𝑃 𝑆 ∗ 𝑃𝐹
M
Real power represents real results (heat, mechanical work,
Real Power
𝑃 𝑆 ∗ cos 𝜃 light, etc.)
Reactive power represents power that oscillates back and
Reactive Power 𝑄 𝑆 ∗ sin 𝜃 forth. Produces AC magnetic field that is used by inductive

Copyright © 2020 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
devices (transformers, ballasts, induction motors, etc.)
𝑆
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Voltage 𝑉 𝐼𝑍 √𝑆𝑍
𝐼
𝑆 𝑆 𝑉
𝐼
Current 𝑍 𝑉 𝑅
𝐼
𝐼
√2
𝑉 𝑆 𝑉
𝑍
𝑆 𝐼 𝐼
Impedance

𝑍∠𝜃° 𝑅 𝑗𝑋
1
Admittance 𝑌
𝑍
𝜌𝐿 Where ρ = resistivity [Ω‐circ mil/ft], L = length [ft], A = cross
Resistance [Ω] 𝑅
𝐴 sectional area [circular mils]. An inductor is a consumer of

Cheat Sheets ‐2 www.engproguides.com

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PART I: GENERAL
ARTICLE 430- MOTORS
BASED ON NEC 2017 WWW.ENGPROGUIDES.COM
Find Motor FLA
430.6 Determine Amp & Motor Rating 230.6(A) Typical Motors
(not used for low speed <1200rpm, high torque, or multispeed
motors)

1) Size conductors, switches, branch‐circuit short circuit,

430.7 Locked‐Rotor Current (LRC) Code Letters (A, B, C, thru V) and ground fault protection: Use Tables 430.247 thru
Current during startup. Typically 300%‐600% of the FLA 430.250 to find amps (FLA), not the nameplate amp.
Locked Rotor KVA = Motor HP * Code Letter Value (KVA/HP) ARTICLE 215- FEEDERS
Locked Rotor Current, 3ph (A) = Locked Rotor kVA/[√(3)*kV] 2) Size individual motor overload protection: Use motor Feeders supply Branch Circuit Loads
nameplate amps (FLA).

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215.2(A)(1) Feeders ≤ 600V
230.6(B) Torque Motors Find FLA from branch circuit (multiple conductors). Calculated from Parts III, IV, V
from Article 220. Use larger of the two requirements below.
1) Size branch circuit conductors: Use nameplate locked‐
rotor current (LRC)
a. 𝑭𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝒎𝒑 𝑨 𝟏𝟐𝟓% ∗ ∑ 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 ∑ 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝑵𝒐𝒏

PL
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
230.6(C) A/C Adjustable Voltage Motors b. Feeder Amp (A) ≥ Max Load * Adjustment/Correction Factors

1) Size conductors, switches, branch‐circuit short circuit,

and ground fault protection: Use nameplate Maximum
Operating Current or Control Nameplate. If MOC is not
given, use 150% of Tatbles 430.249 and 430.350.

230.6(D) Valve Actuator Motor Assemblies Feeders are conductors that supply power from
service equipment to branch circuit panels. Branch

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2) Size conductors, branch‐circuit short circuit, and circuit conductors supply power from the panel to
ground fault protection: Use nameplate FLA. the load, such as motors and receptacles.

ARTICLE 310 - CONDUCTORS

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PART II: CONDUCTORS Find Conductor FLA Find Wire Size Adjust for Temperature and # of Wires
430.22 Single Motor Continuous Duty Article 310.15 310.15(B)(2) Temperature Correction Factor
Conductor (A) = 125%*FLA Lookup wire sizes based on motor FLA Multiply FLA rating based on correction factor for different
ambient temperatures.
Or not less than others listed in 430.22 (A)‐ Table 310.15(B)(16) – Conductor sizes based on 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝐹𝐿𝐴 𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝐹𝐿𝐴 ∗ 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
(G): For DC, Multispeed, Y‐Δ, Part Winding, temperature, wire type/material, FLA rating
Separate Terminal Enclosures, Small Motors Insulated wires, up to 3 current carrying conductors,  Table 310.15(B)(2)(a) ‐ Based on 30oC (86oF)
60o‐90oC, ≤2000V  Table 310.15(B)(2)(b) ‐ Based on 40oC (104oF)
Non‐Continuous Duty
Conductor (A) = Nameplate FLA*% from Table 310.15(B)(17)‐(21) – Other wire conditions
Table 430.22(E) 310.15(B)(3) Conductor Quantity Correction Factor
Multiply FLA rating based on correction factor for conductor qty.
Find Conductor FLA 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝐹𝐿𝐴 𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝐹𝐿𝐴 ∗ 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 %
430.24 Multiple Motors 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑨𝒎𝒑 𝑨 𝟏𝟐𝟓% ∗ 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑭𝑳𝑨𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝟒𝟑𝟎.𝟔𝑨 ∑ 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑭𝑳𝑨𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝟒𝟑𝟎.𝟔𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝟎% ∗ 𝑵𝒐𝒏 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒏𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝟏𝟐𝟓% ∗ 𝑵𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔  Table 310.15(B)(3)(a) – More than 3 Conductors
13 – Index

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PL Study Guide
www.engproguides.com
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A
AC to DC Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 27
Across the Line Rotating Machines ‐ 44
Active Elements Transmission & Distribution ‐ 47
actual speed Rotating Machines ‐ 27
Actual Speed of Induction Motor Rotating Machines ‐ 28
Alternating current Circuits ‐ 5, 19
ammeter Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 18
Angular frequency Circuits ‐ 20
Annual Value Applications ‐ 31

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ANSI Device Circuits ‐ 68
ANSI/IEEE Standard Device Table Protection ‐ 15
apparent power Circuits ‐ 36, 37, 39, 40
Arc Fault Current Interrupter Protection ‐ 26
armature current
Article 430
Asymmetrical Faults
Autotransformer
Autotransformers
Average Illuminance
AWG
PLRotating Machines
Codes & Standards
Transmission & Distribution
Electric Power Devices
Electric Power Devices
Applications
Transmission & Distribution
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
10
11
32
4, 35, 39, 40
23
21
5
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AWG Codes & Standards ‐ 18

B
Backup relaying Protection ‐ 28
34, 35, 36, 59, 60, 63,
balanced Circuits ‐ 71, 79
Ballast Factor Applications ‐ 18
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Bare conductor Codes & Standards ‐ 9

Batteries Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 3, 4, 7, 27
Battery Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 61, 66
Bonding Jumper Sizing Codes & Standards ‐ 22
Branch Circuit Load Codes & Standards ‐ 18
Breakdown Torque Rotating Machines ‐ 50, 60
Buses Transmission & Distribution ‐ 47

C
Candela Applications ‐ 19
Capacitance Transmission & Distribution ‐ 8
Capacitance Circuits ‐ 27, 28
capacitor Circuits ‐ 27, 28, 42

Index ‐ 1 www.engproguides.com
Capacitors Electric Power Devices ‐ 29
Cavity Ratio Applications ‐ 19
Center Tapped Delta Circuits ‐ 47
Circuit Breakers Protection ‐ 5
Class I Locations Codes & Standards ‐ 14
Class II Locations Codes & Standards ‐ 14
Class III Locations Codes & Standards ‐ 14
CMIL Transmission & Distribution ‐ 5
Coefficient of Utilization Applications ‐ 21
Coil Losses Electric Power Devices ‐ 11

E
Cold Cranking Amps Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 11
Common Mode Applications ‐ 11
communication lines Codes & Standards ‐ 27
Complex numbers Circuits ‐ 23
Conductor Size
Conductor Sizing
conductors
Conduit Sizing
Coordination
Copper Losses
copper windings
core losses
PL Codes & Standards
Codes & Standards
Applications
Codes & Standards
Protection
Electric Power Devices
Rotating Machines
Electric Power Devices
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
32, 38
20
9
23
27
11
24
13
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Correcting a Lagging Power Factor Transmission & Distribution ‐ 17
Correcting a Leading Power Factor Transmission & Distribution ‐ 19
Coulomb Counting Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 11
C-Rating Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 7
CT Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 3
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Current Ratio Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 4

current transformer Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 3
Current Transformer Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 35, 38
Cycle Life Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 9

D
DC Bus Ripple Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 36
DC to AC Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 28
Delta Circuits ‐ 31, 32, 34, 35
Delta Connected Load Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 14
Delta-Delta Transformer Electric Power Devices ‐ 18
Delta-Wye Transformer Electric Power Devices ‐ 17, 41, 42
Demand Factor Applications ‐ 27, 29
Differential Relay Protection ‐ 20, 34, 46

Index ‐ 2 www.engproguides.com
Diodes Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 32
Direct Current Circuits ‐ 5
directional relay Protection ‐ 19
Disconnect Switch Codes & Standards ‐ 34, 40
Distance relays Protection ‐ 21
distorted waveform Transmission & Distribution ‐ 24
double bus, double breaker arrangement Applications ‐ 13
Double Line to Ground Fault Transmission & Distribution ‐ 29, 35
Droop Compensation Transmission & Distribution ‐ 49

E
Economic Analysis Applications ‐ 30
Economics Applications ‐ 51, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59
Eddy current Electric Power Devices ‐ 5
Effective Cavity Reflectance Applications ‐ 20
efficiency of a generator
Electrical Field Winding
Elevated Strike Device
Equivalent Circuit
Equivalent Circuit
Equivalent Circuits
E-Rating
PL Rotating Machines
Rotating Machines
Applications
Devices & Power Electronics
Rotating Machines
Transmission & Distribution
Devices & Power Electronics
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
18
5
9
5
10, 29, 51, 52, 61, 62
4
8
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excitation branch Rotating Machines ‐ 29
excitation current Transmission & Distribution ‐ 52

F
Factor Tables Applications ‐ 36
Fall of Potential Method Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 30
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Fault Current Analysis Transmission & Distribution ‐ 29

Feeder Load Codes & Standards ‐ 19
Feeder Load Calculations Codes & Standards ‐ 7
field current Transmission & Distribution ‐ 48
Field Current Rotating Machines ‐ 13, 14
Footcandle Applications ‐ 19
Free air Codes & Standards ‐ 9
frequency Circuits ‐ 20, 30
full load current Codes & Standards ‐ 13
full load losses Electric Power Devices ‐ 13
Full -Wave Rectifier Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 62
Full-Wave Rectifier Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 67
Full-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 40

Index ‐ 3 www.engproguides.com
 Full-Wave Rectifiers Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 34
Fuses Protection ‐ 4

G
Generator Control Rotating Machines ‐ 13
generator losses Rotating Machines ‐ 18
Generator Voltage Dip Rotating Machines ‐ 18
Generator/Motor Fault Protection ‐ 8
Geometric Mean Distance Transmission & Distribution ‐ 9, 65, 72
GMD Transmission & Distribution ‐ 9
Ground Fault Current Interrupter ‐ 21, 27

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Protection
Ground Resistance Testing Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 27, 37, 40
Grounding Codes & Standards ‐ 7
Grounding Applications ‐ 41
Grounding Conductor Codes & Standards ‐ 22

H
grounding system

Half-Wave Rectifier
Harmonics
High Leg Delta
High Resistance (or Reactance)
Grounding
Hysteresis
PL Applications

Devices & Power Electronics

Transmission & Distribution
Circuits
Applications
Electric Power Devices
‐

‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
9

33, 61, 66
23
47

45

10
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I
Ideal transformers Electric Power Devices ‐ 6
IEEE Applications ‐ 4
IGBTs Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 32
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Illuminance Applications ‐ 19
Illumination Applications ‐ 17
Illumination Engineering Society Applications ‐ 17
imaginary component Circuits ‐ 23, 24
Impedance Transmission & Distribution ‐ 10
29, 34, 59, 61, 63, 64,
impedance Circuits ‐ 66, 69, 76
impedance of a transformer Electric Power Devices ‐ 14
Inductance Transmission & Distribution ‐ 7
Inductance Circuits ‐ 27, 28
Induction Machines Rotating Machines ‐ 23
inductor Circuits ‐ 27, 28, 41, 42
Infinite Bus Transmission & Distribution ‐ 50
Inrush Current Rotating Machines ‐ 44

Index ‐ 4 www.engproguides.com
Instrument transformers Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 3
Insulated conductor Codes & Standards ‐ 9
Insulation Testing Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 19
Interest Rate Applications ‐ 30
Inverters Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 41
isokeraunic Applications ‐ 6
Isolated conduit Codes & Standards ‐ 9
Isolated in air Codes & Standards ‐ 9

J
Junction Box Sizing Codes & Standards ‐ 24

E
K
KCL Circuits ‐ 7, 8, 60
KCMIL Transmission & Distribution ‐ 5
kcmil
KVL

L
Ladder Logic
lagging
Lead Acid Battery

leading
PL
Codes & Standards
Circuits

Devices & Power Electronics

Circuits
Devices & Power Electronics
Circuits
‐
‐

‐
‐
‐
‐
18
7, 8, 10, 11

55, 58
38, 40, 41, 42, 70, 77
5
38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 70,
77
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Leakage Flux Electric Power Devices ‐ 10
Light Loss Factor Applications ‐ 18
Lighting Applications ‐ 50, 54
Lighting Temperature Applications ‐ 26
Lightning protection Applications ‐ 4
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Lightning Protection Design Applications ‐ 9

Lightning Protection Systems Applications ‐ 8
Line to Ground Fault Transmission & Distribution ‐ 29
Line to Ground Fault (with R) Transmission & Distribution ‐ 29
Line to Line Fault Transmission & Distribution ‐ 29, 33
Line/Load reactor Electric Power Devices ‐ 28
Lithium Battery Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 7
Load Calculations Codes & Standards ‐ 7
load profile Applications ‐ 28
Load Sharing Transmission & Distribution ‐ 48
Locked Rotor Current Codes & Standards ‐ 32, 38
Long Transmission Line Transmission & Distribution ‐ 16
Low Resistance (or Reactance)
Applications ‐ 44
Grounding

Index ‐ 5 www.engproguides.com
Lumen Applications ‐ 19
Lumen Method Applications ‐ 19
Luminous Flux Applications ‐ 18
Luminous Intensity Applications ‐ 18
Lux Applications ‐ 19

M
Mean Time to Failure Applications ‐ 15
Mean Time to Repair Applications ‐ 15
measurement device Protection ‐ 4
Measurement Transformers Electric Power Devices ‐ 4, 22

E
Mechanical Rotor Rotating Machines ‐ 5
Mechanical Stator Rotating Machines ‐ 5
Medium Transmission Line Transmission & Distribution ‐ 13
megaohmmeter Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 19
Megger
metal core
mil
Motor Branch
Motor Conductor Sizing
Motor Disconnect
Motor Disconnect Sizing
Motor Feeder
PL Measurement & Instrumentation
Electric Power Devices
Transmission & Distribution
Codes & Standards
Codes & Standards
Codes & Standards
Codes & Standards
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
19
5
5
11
25
11
25
11
‐
M
Codes & Standards
Motor Overcurrent Protection Sizing Codes & Standards ‐ 25
Motor Overload Protection Codes & Standards ‐ 11
Motor Overload Sizing Codes & Standards ‐ 25
MTTF Applications ‐ 15
MTTR Applications ‐ 15
SA

MVA Method Protection ‐ 9

N
NEC Codes & Standards ‐ 5
negative sequence Circuits ‐ 61, 62
Negative-sequence Circuits ‐ 60
NESC Codes & Standards ‐ 26
NFPA 30B Codes & Standards ‐ 30
NFPA 497 Codes & Standards ‐ 29
NFPA 499 Codes & Standards ‐ 30
NFPA 70E Codes & Standards ‐ 29
NFPA 780 Applications ‐ 9
No Load Rotating Machines ‐ 33

Index ‐ 6 www.engproguides.com
Nominal π Circuit Transmission & Distribution ‐ 13
Nominal Τ Circuit Transmission & Distribution ‐ 14
Normal Mode Applications ‐ 10

O
OCPD Protection ‐ 6
Ohm’s Law Circuits ‐ 6
Ohmic method Protection ‐ 14
ohmmeter Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 19
one-line Circuits ‐ 64, 66
one-wattmeter method Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 13

E
open circuit Circuits ‐ 11
Open Circuit Test Electric Power Devices ‐ 13
Open Delta Circuits ‐ 48
overcurrent Protection ‐ 18
Overcurrent Protection
overcurrent protection devices
Overhead electric supply
Overload Device
overvoltage

P
parallel circuit
PL
Codes & Standards
Protection
Codes & Standards
Codes & Standards
Protection

Circuits
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐

‐
7, 23
6
27, 28
33, 40
19

10
M
Parallel Generators Transmission & Distribution ‐ 48, 67, 74, 75
Parallel Transformers Transmission & Distribution ‐ 54, 66, 73, 74
Passive Elements Transmission & Distribution ‐ 47
Per Unit Circuits ‐ 63, 69, 76
Percentage Impedance Transmission & Distribution ‐ 54
SA

Per-Unit Method Protection ‐ 12

Phase Angle Shift Transmission & Distribution ‐ 54
Phase Sequence Transmission & Distribution ‐ 54
phase voltage Circuits ‐ 31, 33, 34, 63, 79
phasor diagram Circuits ‐ 27, 28, 29, 39, 40, 41
Photometric Diagrams Applications ‐ 24
pilot relay Protection ‐ 26
Point to Point Method Applications ‐ 22
Polar form Circuits ‐ 24, 25, 26, 59
Polarity Transmission & Distribution ‐ 54
Poles Rotating Machines ‐ 9, 50, 60
Position of Tap changer Transmission & Distribution ‐ 54
Positive-sequence Circuits ‐ 60, 61, 62

Index ‐ 7 www.engproguides.com
Potential Transformer Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 12, 35, 38
36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41,
power factor Circuits ‐ 42, 70, 77, 78
Power Factor Correction Transmission & Distribution ‐ 17, 65, 72
Power Factor Correction Tables Transmission & Distribution ‐ 19
Power factor tables Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 17
Power Flow Transmission & Distribution ‐ 46
Power Flow Rotating Machines ‐ 49
Power Flow Between Voltage Sources Transmission & Distribution ‐ 25
Power Quality Transmission & Distribution ‐ 23
Power System Stability Transmission & Distribution ‐ 58

E
Primary Relaying Protection ‐ 28
Protective relaying Protection ‐ 14
PT Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 12

R
Rate of Return
Reactive Power

Reactive Power

Reactors
real component
real power
Real power
PL Applications
Transmission & Distribution
Circuits
Electric Power Devices
Circuits
Transmission & Distribution
Circuits
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
35, 37, 38
49, 52
23, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42,
77
28
23, 24
49
6, 36, 41
M
Real transformers Electric Power Devices ‐ 10
Receptacle Location Codes & Standards ‐ 19
Re-closers Protection ‐ 5
Rectangular form Circuits ‐ 24
Rectifiers Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 33
SA

Reduced Voltage Rotating Machines ‐ 44

redundancy Applications ‐ 12
Reliability Applications ‐ 12
Resistance Transmission & Distribution ‐ 4
Resistance Circuits ‐ 5, 27, 28
Risk Assessment Applications ‐ 5
RMS Transmission & Distribution ‐ 24
RMS Circuits ‐ 20, 21, 22
Rotor Rotating Machines ‐ 10

S
Salvage value Applications ‐ 32
series circuit Circuits ‐ 9

Index ‐ 8 www.engproguides.com
Shaft Speed Rotating Machines ‐ 13
short circuit Circuits ‐ 11, 12, 66
Short Circuit Rotating Machines ‐ 33
Short Circuit Current Protection ‐ 7, 34, 46
Short Circuit Test Electric Power Devices ‐ 13
Short Transmission Line Transmission & Distribution ‐ 10
Short-circuit faults Transmission & Distribution ‐ 29
Single bus Applications ‐ 12
single line to ground fault Transmission & Distribution ‐ 32
Single-Line Circuits ‐ 66, 67

E
single-phase Circuits ‐ 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 63
Single-Phase, Full-Wave Rectifier Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 37
Single-Phase, Half-Wave Rectifier Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 37
Slip Rotating Machines ‐ 27, 52, 63
slip factor
Soil Resistivity Testing
Solid Grounding
SPD
speed governor
Speed Regulation
Speed-Torque
Split Phase
PL Rotating Machines
Measurement & Instrumentation
Applications
Applications
Transmission & Distribution
Rotating Machines
Rotating Machines
Circuits
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
29
27
43
10
48
17, 51, 61
33
49
M
squirrel cage Rotating Machines ‐ 24
Starting Methods Rotating Machines ‐ 43
State of Charge Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 11
Stator Rotating Machines ‐ 10
steady state Rotating Machines ‐ 19
SA

steel laminations Rotating Machines ‐ 24

Step-Down Autotransformers Electric Power Devices ‐ 24
Step-Up Autotransformers Electric Power Devices ‐ 23
subtransient reactance Rotating Machines ‐ 19
Surge Protection Applications ‐ 4
Symmetrical Components Circuits ‐ 59
Symmetrical Faults Transmission & Distribution ‐ 30
Synchronous Generator Rotating Machines ‐ 9
Synchronous Generator – Lagging
Rotating Machines ‐ 12
Power Factor
Synchronous Generator – Leading
Rotating Machines ‐ 11
Power Factor
Synchronous Machines Rotating Machines ‐ 5
Synchronous Motor Rotating Machines ‐ 19, 23

Index ‐ 9 www.engproguides.com
Synchronous Motor - Lagging Power
Rotating Machines ‐ 21
Factor
Synchronous Motor - Leading Power
Rotating Machines ‐ 20
Factor
Synchronous Speed Rotating Machines ‐ 8, 27

T
Tap Setting Electric Power Devices ‐ 6
TCC Protection ‐ 35, 36, 47, 48
Temperature Effect Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 10
THD Transmission & Distribution ‐ 24
Three Line to Ground Fault Transmission & Distribution ‐ 29

E
three phase motor Rotating Machines ‐ 30
29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 70,
three-phase Circuits ‐ 78
Three-Phase, Full-Wave Rectifier Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 38
Three-Phase, Half-Wave Rectifier Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 38
three-wattmeter method
Thyristors
Time Value of Money

Torque
Transformer Arrangements
transformer efficiency
Transformer Fault
PL
Time-Current Coordination Graph
Measurement & Instrumentation
Devices & Power Electronics
Applications
Protection
Rotating Machines
Electric Power Devices
Electric Power Devices
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
15
32
30
28, 30, 31
43
36
12
7
‐
M
Protection
transformer impedance Electric Power Devices ‐ 14
Transformer Losses Electric Power Devices ‐ 34, 38
Transformers Electric Power Devices ‐ 4
transient reactance Rotating Machines ‐ 19
transient voltage surge suppressors Applications ‐ 10
SA

Transmission Line Fault Protection ‐ 8

tripping devices Protection ‐ 4
Turns Ratio Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 4
two-wattmeter method Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 14

U
unbalanced Circuits ‐ 30, 34, 35, 59, 60, 61
undercurrent Protection ‐ 18
undervoltage Protection ‐ 19
Ungrounded Applications ‐ 45, 46
Uniformity Applications ‐ 25
unreliability Applications ‐ 16

V Measurement & Instrumentation ‐

Index ‐ 10 www.engproguides.com
V/f method Rotating Machines ‐ 47
V/f ratio Rotating Machines ‐ 48
Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery
Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 6
(VRLA)
Variable Speed Drive Rotating Machines ‐ 47
Variable Speed Drives Devices & Power Electronics ‐ 31, 41
Voltage Drop Codes & Standards ‐ 33, 39
Voltage Regulation Rotating Machines ‐ 18, 32
Voltage Unbalance Rotating Machines ‐ 32
voltmeter Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 18
Volt-Ohm-Milli-ammeter Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 18

E
VOM Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 18

W
Wattmeters Measurement & Instrumentation ‐ 13, 36, 39
Winding resistance
Wye
Wye Connected Load
Wye- Wye Transformer
Wye-Delta Transformer

Z
zero component
PL Rotating Machines
Circuits
Measurement & Instrumentation
Electric Power Devices
Electric Power Devices

Circuits
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐

‐
29
31, 33, 34, 35
15
21
19

61
M
Zero-sequence Circuits ‐ 60
Zonal Cavity Method Applications ‐ 19
SA

Index ‐ 11 www.engproguides.com