WHAT IS FOOD SCIENCE?

Food Science is the discipline in

which biology, physical
sciences, and engineering are
used to study the nature of
foods, the causes of their
deterioration, and the principles
underlying food processing.

1
WHAT IS FOOD TECHNOLOGY?

© 2007 Institute of Food Technologists

Food Technology is the
application of food
science to the selection,
preservation,
processing, packaging,
distribution, and use of
safe, nutritious, and
wholesome food. 2
 1.Make foods have a longer expiration period
 Food Technology often, let’s say, make food material A,
processed to become food material B, which later will
have longer expiration period. For example, a food
product with milk as its raw material which later on is
processed in such a way and well packed so that it
becomes another product like cheese and yogurt that
can last a long time.
 Another example is milk which later is processed to be
milk powder or packaged milk that we know has a
longer expiration period if we compare it with milk that
hasn’t gone through any processing. This will make the
products can be distributed to various places which
means more people can consume them.
 2.Keep foods nutrition locked properly
 Other than making the shelf life of food products
last longer, food technology also makes it possible
for a food product to keep its nutrition well even
though it has been processed in a such away.
 For example, canned fish which has the fish
preserved and packaged in a certain effective way,
not dangerous for human body, and make the fish
still have nutrition that is well kept.
 3.Eliminate bacteria or disease from the food
 Besides the two reasons that have been told above,
another benefit from the application of food technology is
making bacteria or another disease that probably exist in
food materials are destroyed. It’s because there is a high-
level heating technology or other technologies that can
kill dangerous microorganisms inside food materials.
 For example, milk processing with pasteurization
technology or UHT (Ultra High Temperature). This
method is greatly effective to kill harmful bacteria in raw
milk so later it will be free from dangerous materials and
can also last a long time. On top of that, with special
packaging, this milk product will be of even higher
quality.
 WHAT DOES A FOOD SCIENTIST DO?
A Food Scientist studies the physical, microbiological, and
chemical makeup of food. Depending on their area of
specialization, Food Scientists may develop ways to process,
preserve, package, or store food, according to industry and
government specifications and regulations.

7
 FOOD PROCESSING
 Food processing is the set of methods and
techniques used to transform raw ingredients into
food for consumption.
 Examples of food processing methods include:
 Chopping
 Mixing
 Homogenizing
 Cooking
 Pastuerizing
 Emulsifying
 Spray-drying
8
 FUNCTIONS OF FOOD PROCESSING
 Traditional food processing had two functions: to make
food more digestible and to preserve food during times
of scarcity as most crops are seasonal. By processing
food, it can be customized to suit the nutritional
requirements of groups such as the elderly, pregnant
women, infants, young children and athletes.
 Modern food processing has three major aims:

 To make food safe (microbiologically, chemically).

 To provide products of the highest quality (flavor, color,

texture)
 To make food into forms that are convenient (ease of use)
 Makes food edible
 Grain crops, for example wheat and corn, are not edible in their
natural state. Processing techniques, such as milling and grinding, turn
them into flour, after which they can be made into breads, cereals,
pasta and other edible grain-based products. There are 3 types of
flours depending on the processing level, choose wholegrain when
possible.
 Safety, shelf life, and preservation
 Processing improves or even ensures food safety by removing harmful
microorganisms. The main methods are pasteurisation, air-tight
packaging, and the use of preservatives.
 Nutritional quality
 Food processing can affect the nutritional quality of foods in both
ways: it can enhance it, for instance by adding components that were
not present, like vitamin D (through ‘fortification’), or by lowering
fat, salt or sugar. It can also cause some fibre and vitamins and
minerals to be lost, for example through excessive refining, heating or
freezing.
 Convenience
 Processing and packaging technologies help to answer modern
day time-constraints by providing a range of convenient foods:
ready meals, bagged salads, sliced and canned fruits and
vegetables that take little time to prepare and can be consumed
“on the go”.
 Price

 Food processing can decrease the cost of foods. For example,

frozen vegetables have a similar nutritional value as fresh ones,
but at a lower price, as they have already been prepared, do not
contain inedible parts, can be bought in bulk, and can last
longer. This way, processing increases the shelf life of food, and
decreases the amount of waste, reducing thereby the overall
costs of food production.
FOOD PROCESSING
From Farm To Table

© 2007 Institute of Food Technologists

?
Whey protein, a by-product
of cheese manufacturing, is
13
used in energy bars and drinks!
 FOOD PRESERVATION

 Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food

in such a way as to stop or greatly slow down spoilage to
prevent foodborne illness and extend its shelf-life.
 Food processing methods that are used to preserve foods
include:
 Refrigeration and freezing
 Canning
 Irradiation
 Dehydration
 Freeze-drying
 Pickling
 Pasteurizing
 Fermentation

14
FOOD PRESERVATION
 How a food is processed can
affect its appearance, odor, IQF or Individual Quick Freezing
has improved the quality

© 2007 Institute of Food Technologists

flavor, and texture. of frozen fruits and vegetables
 Over the years many food
preservation methods have
been improved to increase the
shelf-life of foods while
minimizing changes to the
quality and nutritional
content.

15
FOOD PRESERVATION
 Many food preservation methods have
also been used to create foods for

© 2007 Institute of Food Technologists

astronauts and for the armed forces.
These foods must remain safe to eat over
a long shelf-life.
 It is reported that M & M’s were
developed when Forrest Mars, Sr. saw
soldiers eating candy coated chocolate.
The chocolate pellets that the soldiers
Bags of Space Station
were eating were coated in sugar to
food and utensils on a tray.
increase their shelf-life in hot climates
and prevent the chocolate from sticking
to the soldier’s fingers! 16
FOOD PRESERVATION
 So, how does food preservation work?
 All of the food preservation processes work by slowing
down the activity and growth of disease causing bacteria,
or by killing the bacteria all together. They also slow
down or stop the action of enzymes which can degrade
the quality of the food.
 Temperature

 Water Activity

 pH

17
FOOD PRESERVATION
 How a food is packaged also influences its shelf-life.
 It is also important that foods are handled properly by the
consumer at home.
 Check “Use By” or expiration dates.
 Follow storage or preparation instructions.

18
 FRUITS: Fruits are the edible fleshy part of a tree
or a plant that contains seeds. Fruits come in a
variety of flavors, including sweet, sour,
bittersweet, and many more. They are great sources
of many nutrients required by our body.
 Botanically, are mature ovaries and seed bearing
parts of plants . On a usage basis those that
commonly eaten alone or as a dessert are
considered fruits.
 Include:

Cucumbers, olives , mangoes, peppers,

tomatoes, citrus, bananas
grapes, strawberry, pineapple,
BOOST ENERGY

By eating fruits, supply of energy

increases in no time; this is one of the
prime benefits of fruits that we can
utilize in our busy schedules.
This is the reason why athletes often
eat fruit during and after exercise and
why diets for pregnant mothers
almost always involve fruits.
HEART HEALTH

 Fruits like apricot, apple, banana, berries,

grapefruit, and orange are great for protecting
your heart as they are rich in flavonoids,
carotenoids, fiber, potassium, and magnesium.
 Fruits also contain vitamins like vitamin A,
vitamin B6, vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin K,
and folate, all of which aid in regulating
cholesterol levels and preventing diseases like
stroke, atherosclerosis, and heart attack.
 DIABETES
 Type 2 diabetes is a condition troubling a
majority of people around the globe. While
fruits are healthy for everyone, the ones with
greater carb content are not recommended for
diabetics. Fruits like apple, avocado, cherry,
banana, orange, peach, plum, etc., have a low
glycemic index (GI) – less than 55, and they
help in controlling the blood sugar levels. Also,
processed and canned fruits are not healthy as
they contain artificial sweeteners, so always eat
fresh fruits to reap maximum benefits.
CANCER

 Vitamin-rich fruits are great for prevention

and treatment of many types of cancer like
liver cancer and breast cancer. These
include soursop, goji berry, camu camu
and citrus fruits like oranges, tangerines,
etc., When consumed regularly, fruits have
the ability to show hepatoprotective
properties which help in driving away
cancer.
BLOOD PRESSURE

Potassium-rich fruits like banana,

apple, melons, plums, pear, apricots,
and mango help in lowering
hypertension.
This mineral has been connected to
regulating blood pressure owing to its
vasodilating properties.
KIDNEY STONES

Fruits are rich in vitamin C, which

helps in treating kidney stones. Citrus
fruits like oranges and lemons are
great for reducing your chances of
suffering from kidney stones. Also,
fruits are low in sodium, which is
great news for people suffering from
the painful condition.
 Bone Health
 Fruits like grapefruit and orange are rich in
calcium and vitamin K, both of which aid
in maintaining healthy bones and also help
improve the bone mineral density.
 Multi-morbidity
 A 2014 research published in the Clinical
Nutrition journal suggests that greater
consumption of vegetable, whole grain
products, and fruits may lower the risk of
multimorbidity.
 PREVENT DISEASES
 The combination of powerful flavonoids, antioxidants,
minerals, vitamins, phytochemicals, and the countless micro
and macronutrients make fruits very advantageous for our
health.
 The daily consumption of fresh fruits lowers the risk of
strokes, high blood pressure, indigestion, cancer, heart
disease, diabetes, and other chronic diseases.
 Some fruits like bananas contain vital chemicals such as
potassium, which helps prevent strokes, high blood
pressure, and anxiety.
 Fruit consumption basically eliminates vitamin and mineral
deficiencies and their associated symptoms.
 Fruits also have high quantities of water and fiber in them,
which helps keep our digestive tract clean and our weight
under control.
 AID IN DIGESTION
 Fibrous fruits aid the digestive process in the
body. The skin of some fruits is also rich in
dietary fiber, which is a major contributing factor
in proper digestion and the excretion process of
your body, while simultaneously keeping you
safe from problems like gastritis and constipation.
However, in some cases, the skin is thick, like in
lemons, bananas, melons, and oranges, and
cannot be consumed by humans. In those cases,
the edible part of the flesh within the skin has
plenty of fiber as well.
The fiber content in fruit not only has a
brilliant laxative effect but also makes you
feel full by adding bulk nutrition to the
diet. Fibrous fruits also benefit conditions
like heart diseases by reducing
hyperlipidemia and hypertension, diabetes
mellitus and obesity. Owing to this fibrous
composition, fruits also have anti-
carcinogenic properties and are known to
prevent colon cancer and fight bowel
irregularity disorders.
 WEIGHT LOSS
 Once we start including a significant amount of fruits in our diet,
we will begin to see that our weight is being controlled and our
health is improving. However, fruits alone cannot reduce our
weight. We also need to exercise regularly.
 Many surveys done in America showed effective weight
reduction after fruits were included in the family’s diet. Also,
fruits are composed of 90-95% water, having a powerful diuretic
effect on your body, thereby flushing out the nitrogenous wastes
and unwanted toxins from the body.
 One example of this is lychee, a fruit that is a great laxative with
a negligible amount of calories, and no saturated fats or
cholesterol. It also helps to cut down excess body weight. Except
for a few fruits like coconuts, avocados, and olives, fruits are
usually fat-free
 SKIN CARE
 Fruits keep skin supple and hydrated, and nourish it
with essential vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. In
fact, if you are tired of using the commercial anti-
pimple creams, just try including fruits like berries,
apples, or bananas into your daily diet and see the acne
disappear quite quickly.
 Acne is one of the most irritating skin disorders that
can affect people of any age. With a good amount of
fruit in your diet, you can naturally curb this problem
rather than opting for expensive dermatological
creams. Acne mostly occurs from skin infections and
dermatological issues, but there are other reasons for
such eruptions as well.
 Apples are the best option for treating acne; eat the skin of the
apple, which has a high level of pectin that helps control
constipation, which can be a trigger for acne.
 Bananas also help to alleviate acne, as they are high in fiber that
again relieves constipation.
 Berries have excellent cleansing properties and keep you protected
from skin disorders. If you eat grapes during the day, it helps to
cleanse your skin and body.
 Papayas rejuvenate your skin and repair minor damage that you
may not even notice, lemon juice slowly eliminates the signs and
scars from acne spots.
 Apart from including fruits in your diet, try to watch your other
food habits as well. Reduce caffeine consumption since it
increases certain hormones in your body and thus increases acne.
Cut down on red meat and dairy intake as well, since they
aggravate your hormonal generation, resulting in acne.
 HEALTHY HAIR
 Just as fruits enhance the radiance of skin, they also
contribute greatly to long and healthy hair.
 Vitamin A brings luster to your hair and also softens its
texture. If you have fruits on an empty stomach, it will
prevent hair loss and premature graying. Citrus fruits are
excellent hair stimulants.
 The vitamin C content in citrus fruits prevents hair loss
and keeps your hair shiny and healthy. Fruits like kiwis,
strawberries, and pineapple are also known for aiding
hair growth. Fruits even ensure healthy hair growth and
keep your locks lustrous and soft.
 the benefits of fruit for your hair health can also be
enjoyed through hair masks. Melon and banana hair
masks are recommended by many beauty professionals
for hair care at home.
 You can also make a paste of lemon juice and aloe vera
and apply it to your hair.
 Keep the paste on for approximately 45 minutes and then
thoroughly wash your hair with mild shampoo. These
packs not only improve hair quality but also eliminate
scalp disorders like dandruff and itching. Avocado has an
impressive amount of vitamin E, which is widely known
to be very good for hair. Avocado hair masks strengthen
hair and delay premature graying of your hair. Coconuts
are also very good for healthy hair growth. Coconut oil is
used extensively throughout the tropical world for hair
TYPES OF FRUIT

Fruit is the sweet, fleshy, edible part

of a plant. It generally contains seeds.
Fruits are usually eaten raw, although
some varieties can be cooked. They
come in a wide variety of colours,
shapes and flavours. Common types
of fruits that are readily available
include:
 Apples and pears
 Citrus – oranges, grapefruits, mandarins
and limes
 Stone fruit – nectarines, apricots, peaches
and plums
 Tropical and exotic – bananas and
mangoes
 Berries – strawberries, raspberries,
blueberries, kiwifruit and passionfruit
 Melons – watermelons, rockmelons and
honeydew melons
 Tomatoes and avocados.
BASIC MANGO JAM

 Ingredients
 6 to 7 large mangoes

 1 cup (200 g) of sugar

 4 tablespoons (59 ml) of lemon juice

 2 tablespoons (25 g) of powdered pectin

 Makes 2 cups (650 g) of jam

 Slice the flesh from 6 or 7 large mangoes. Rinse the
mangoes and put them on a cutting board. Hold a mango
against the board and carefully cut down 1 side of it. Try
to cut as close to the seed in the center, so you're able to
remove the most fruit. Then, slice down the other side of
the mango. Scoop the flesh from both pieces and chop it
into 1⁄2 inch (1.3 cm) pieces.[1] Use a small knife to trim
the flesh around the seed itself.
 You should get around 4 cups (660 g) of mango pieces.
 Put the mango pieces in a pot with sugar, lemon juice, and
pectin. Place the chopped mango in a large pot on the stove.
Add 1 cup (200 g) of sugar, 4 tablespoons (59 ml) of lemon
juice, and 2 tablespoons (25 g) of powdered pectin.[2] The
pectin helps the jam set up. If you prefer a looser jam, you
can leave the pectin out.
 Stir the mixture and cook it over low heat until the sugar
dissolves. Stir well so the mango pieces are coated with the
sugar. Continue to stir the mixture every few minutes until
the sugar dissolves and becomes liquidy.[3] It should take
about 3 to 4 minutes for the sugar to dissolve.
 Bring the jam to a boil over medium-high heat. Turn the
burner up so the liquid becomes syrupy and starts to bubble
vigorously. Stir the jam occasionally to prevent it from
sticking to the pot or boiling over.[4] It's important to use a
large pot so the jam doesn't bubble over as it cooks.
 Cook the mango jam until it reaches 220 °F (104 °C).
Clip a candy thermometer to the side of the pot or
occasionally insert an instant-read thermometer into the
jam to see if the jam has reached the setting temperature
of 220 °F (104 °C). Stir the jam occasionally as it
bubbles and thickens.[5] Skim off foam that floats to the
top of the jam and discard it since becomes rubbery if
you leave it in the jam.
 Tip: If you don't have a thermometer, place a small plate
in the freezer when you begin to make the jam. To test if
the jam has set, spoon a coin-sized amount onto the
chilled plate and push your finger into it. The jam should
wrinkle and hold its shape.
 Spoon the jam into sterilized jars. Get out 2 sterilized half-
pint jars and place a funnel on a jar. Carefully spoon the
mango jam into the jar and leave 1⁄4 inch (0.64 cm) headspace.
Place a sterilized lid on the jar and screw on a band until it's
finger tight.[6] Although you can soften the lids in hot water
before pressing them on the jars, you don't have to in order to
get a good seal.
 Process the jars or store them in the refrigerator. For long-
term storage, place the jars in a water bath so they're covered
by at least 1 inch (2.5 cm) of water. Boil the jars for 10
minutes and then set the jars aside until the jars are at room
temperature. If you don't want to can the jam, put the jars in
the refrigerator and use them within 3 weeks.[7] If you process
the jam, store the jars at room temperature for up to 1 year.
Press down on the lid to check that the seal doesn't pop back
up before you open the jar and eat the jam.
 The processing of fruits and vegetables will double in next
decade as India is the 2nd largest producer of Fruit and
vegetable and market of fruit spreads will grow during 2017-
2025. Jam, jelly & marmalade attract consumer due to its high
fruit and content and good nutrition value. Fruits such as
orange, mango, berries, apple, banana, papaya are mostly
utilized for jelly and marmalade making.Fruit Jelly means the
product prepared by boiling fruit juice or fruit (s) of sound
quality, with or without water, expressing and straining the
juice, adding nutritive sweeteners, and concentrating to such a
consistency that gelatinization takes place on cooling. The
product shall not be syrupy, sticky or gummy and shall be
clear, sparkling and transparent. Lets go deep into ‘How to
make jelly’.
 Jelly Should Have Following Requirements |How To Make Jelly
 Total soluble solids not less than 65%
 Fruit content should not less than 45%
 An important consideration in the jelly making is pectin, acid
content, sugar content, and end point detection. Pectin is present in
the form of Calcium Pectate which is responsible for firmness in
fruits. Under suitable conditions, pectin forms a gel with sugar and
acid. Both immature and over ripe are not suitable for jelly.
 The pH and sugar are important parameters for settling of jelly. The
amount of pectin can be determined by alcohol test or jelmeter test
which helps to indicates how many parts of sugar are to be added to
one part of juice. The final jelly should contain at least 0.5 % acid
but not more than 1% because more amount of acid leads to
syneresis in jelly. Sugar imparts sweetness as well as body. If the
level of sugar is high jelly retains less water which results in stiff
jelly because of dehydration. Prolonged boiling of jelly leads to
inversion of sugar and destruction of pectin. The end point of boiling
can be judged by sheet or flake test, drop test, or temperature test.
 The process of jelly making is of 2 types batch process and
continuous process
 Batch process of Jelly Making
 The ingredients water, fruit juice or fruit pulp are poured into
the vessel and then the mixture is stirred. A separation should
be prevented when using a pectin-sugar mixture. The boiling
point of the solution is maintained till pectin is added. The
mixture is boiled till total soluble solids are reached. Then it is
cooled to 80℃. And flavor color, is added at the end of the
process.
 Continuous Process
 In continuous production instead of pectin powder pectin
solution is used which is s mixed with sugar, sugar syrup,
water and fruit juice or fruit pulp and are heated to dissolve
the ingredients and mixed in vacuum station.
 Problems in Jelly Making | How To Make Jelly
 Failure to set- more amount of sugar, lack of acid /pectin,
coking below or above end point leads to settling problem in
jelly.
 Cloudy or foggy jellies are due to non clarified extract,
immature fruit for jelly making, scum is not removed.
 An excessive amount of sugar leads to the formation of
crystals in jelly.
 Syneresis of jelly is caused due to excess of acid, low
concentration of sugar, fermentation of sugars etc.
CITRUS FRUITS
DEFINITION
 citrus fruit - any of numerous fruits of the genus Citrus having
thick rind and juicy pulp; grown in warm regions
 Citrus fruits are native to southeastern Asia and are among the
oldest fruit crops to be domesticated by humans. They are
widely grown in all suitable subtropical and tropical climates
and are consumed worldwide. The most important of the
citrus fruits commonly eaten include sweet oranges,
mandarins, lemons, limes, grapefruits, and pummelos.
These are eaten fresh, juiced, and in processed products. Citrus
fruits have well-documented nutritional and health benefits as
well as industrial uses. Their beauty and utility were well
described by Georges Gallesio in 1811:
NUTRITIONAL VALUE:
 Citrus is most commonly thought of as a good source of
vitamin C. However, like most other whole foods, citrus fruits
also contain an impressive list of other essential nutrients,
including both glycaemic and non-glycaemic carbohydrate
(sugars and fibre), potassium, folate, calcium, thiamin, niacin,
vitamin B6, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, riboflavin,
pantothenic acid and a variety of phytochemicals. In addition,
citrus contains no fat or sodium and, being a plant food, no
cholesterol. The average energy value of fresh citrus is also low
, which can be very important for consumers concerned about
putting on excess body weight. For example a medium orange
contains 60 to 80 kcal, a grapefruit 90 kcal and a tablespoon
(15 ml) of lemon juice only 4 kcal.
 HEALTH BENEFITS
 1. They're Rich in Vitamins and Plant Compounds
 Citrus fruits are an excellent source of vitamin C, a nutrient that
strengthens the immune system and keeps skin smooth and elastic
 In fact, just one medium orange has all the vitamin C need in a day
 Citrus fruits also have good amounts of other vitamins and minerals
that body needs to function properly, including B vitamins,
potassium, phosphorous, magnesium and copper
 Additionally, they are rich in plant compounds that have various
health benefits, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects.
 These compounds include over 60 varieties of flavonoids, carotenoids
and essential oils, and they are responsible for many of citrus fruit's
health benefits
 2. They're a Good Source of Fiber
 Citrus fruits are a good source of fiber. Just one cup of orange
segments contains four grams of fiber
 To put that in perspective, it's recommended that you consume 14
grams of fiber for every 1,000 calories you eat. It's estimated that
only 4% of men and 13% of women in the US get that amount
 Fiber has several health benefits, including improving digestive
health and aiding weight loss.
 Oranges are particularly high in soluble fiber, the kind of fiber
that helps lower cholesterol levels
 Compared to other fruits and vegetables, citrus fruits are unique in
that they have a higher ratio of soluble to insoluble fiber
 3. Citrus Fruits Are Low in Calories
 If you're watching your calorie intake, citrus fruits are a good choice.
 They're low in calories, yet their water and fiber contents help fill
you up.
 Here's how many calories the main kinds of citrus fruits contain
 1 small clementine: 35
 1 medium orange: 62
 1/2 pink grapefruit: 52
 1/2 white grapefruit: 39
 Juice from 1 lemon: 12
 What's more, a 2015 study that looked at people's eating habits and
weight over 24 years found that eating citrus fruits was linked to
weight loss
 4. They May Reduce Risk of Kidney Stones
 Kidney stones are painful mineral crystals.
 They can form when urine is very concentrated or when have
higher-than-normal amounts of stone-forming minerals in
urine.
 One type of kidney stone is caused by low levels of citrate in
urine.
 Many fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits, can raise the
levels of citrate in urine, lowering the risk of kidney stones
 Drinking citrus juices and eating these fruits can offer a natural
alternative to potassium citrate supplements.
 According to data on American eating habits over the last 40
years, kidney stones are more common in people who eat fewer
citrus fruits
 5. They May Help Fight or Protect Against Cancer
 Many studies have linked citrus fruits to a reduced risk of certain
cancers
 In one study, people who ate one grapefruit or drank one serving of
grapefruit juice daily had a lower risk of lung cancer
 Other studies have suggested that citrus fruits may also protect against
esophageal, stomach, breast and pancreatic cancers
 These fruits contain a host of plant compounds, including flavonoids,
that may help protect against cancer
 Some of these flavonoids act as antioxidants and may block the
expression of certain genes that are responsible for some degenerative
diseases, including cancer
 Citrus fruits may also help fight cancer by suppressing cancers,
blocking the formation of new cancers and making carcinogens
inactive
 6. They Contain Nutrients That Boost Heart Health
 Eating citrus fruits could be good for your heart.
 In fact, a Japanese study found that people who ate higher
amounts of these fruits had lower rates of heart disease and
stroke
 Furthermore, a 2017 review suggests that grapefruits are
linked to a decrease in systolic blood pressure
 Several compounds in citrus fruits can improve markers of
heart health.
 For example, their soluble fiber and flavonoids may improve
cholesterol levels by raising "good" HDL cholesterol and
lowering "bad" LDL cholesterol and triglycerides
 And many of the flavonoids in citrus fruits, including one
called naringin, are strong antioxidants that benefit the heart in
several ways
 7. They May Protect Brain
 The flavonoids in citrus fruits may help ward off
neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and
Parkinson's, which result from the breakdown of cells in the
nervous system.
 In part, these diseases are caused by inflammation.
 Flavonoids found in citrus fruits have anti-inflammatory
capabilities that are thought to help protect against the chain of
events that causes the nervous system to deteriorate
 Specific types of flavonoids, including hesperidin and apigenin,
have been shown to protect brain cells and improve brain
function in mice and test-tube studies
 Several studies in older adults have also shown that citrus juices
may boost brain function
THE DOWNSIDE OF CITRUS FRUITS
 While the overall picture of citrus is pretty rosy, there are a few
potential downsides.
 High Amounts Could Cause Cavities

 Eating lots of citrus fruits or juices could increase the risk of

cavities. That's because the acid in citrus fruits erodes tooth
enamel
 This is a particular risk if you sip on lemon water all day long,
bathing your teeth in acid.
 Interestingly, certain compounds in citrus peels may combat the
bacteria that cause dental cavities, although more research is
needed to see how that information could be used
 Fruit Juice Isn't as Healthy as Whole Fruit
 While orange and grapefruit juices contain lots of vitamin C and other nutrients
often found in whole citrus fruits, they're not quite as healthy.
 That's because a serving of juice delivers much more sugar and way less fiber than a
serving of whole fruit
 There are a couple reasons why that's a problem.
 First, more sugar per serving translates to more calories. Drinking fruit juice and
other high-calorie beverages can cause you to gain weight
 Second, when your body takes in large amounts of fructose (the type of sugar in fruit
juice), it is quickly absorbed into your bloodstream and delivered to your liver
 If your liver gets more fructose than it can handle, it turns some of the extra fructose
into fat. Over time, those fat deposits can cause fatty liver disease
 Getting fructose from whole fruit is not a problem, given that you're getting a
smaller amount at a time. Plus, the fiber found in fruit buffers the fructose, causing it
to be absorbed more slowly into your bloodstream
Vegetables: a plant or part of a plant
used as food, such as a cabbage,
potato, turnip, or bean.On usage basis
those plants that are generally eaten
with the main course of a meal are
often considered to be vegetables.
These are generally consumed,
processed in one form or the other and
part of main meal.
Post harvest changes in Fruits
and vegetable can be desirable
e.g Ripening of fruits, which
leads to changes necessary for
optimum eating quality, colour
change, taste and flavour
development
HARVESTING, HANDLING AND POSTHARVEST
CHANGES

Different harvest regimes for Fruits

and vegetables
Appropriate maturity stage required
for optimum quality
Respiration continue after harvest i.e
taking in O2 and giving off CO2, heat
and moisture
mechanical damage during harvesting
hastens respiration rate and spoilage
 Ripening: major post Climacteric Non-
Climacteric
harvest change in
fruits Apples Citrus
 Ripening pattern vary , Banana Cherry
2 categories Mango Pineapple
 Climacteric ripen after Peach melon
harvest strawberry
Plum
 Non Climacteric ripen
before harvest Pawpaw
avocado
Ripening involves
biochemical changes
Enzymic, hormonal
Leading to colour changes,
flavour development and
optimum eating quality
Storage of fresh produce must seek to
control post harvest changes
Controlled storage conditions ca
extend the shelf life of produce
 Modified atmosphere packaging:
Principle is to replace the internal
atmosphere of fresh produce by
flushing with nitrogen or carbon
dioxide and this will lead to
extension of shelf life
After flushing the material is sealed in
a package to prevent oxygen entry
Normal air composition (78%,
Nitrogen; 20% oxygen and 0.03%
carbon dioxide) is modififed within the
package to:
 Reduces respiration
 Retards growth of aerobic organisms
Controlled atmosphere storage:
Principle is similar to MA storage
involve modification of the gas
composition. Reducing oxygen and
increasing carbon dioxide in the
store
Combined with low temperature.
FOOD PROCESSING
WHY PROCESS FOODS?
1. EXTEND SHELF LIFE
2. MAINTAIN SENSORY PROPERTIES
3. MAINTAIN OR IMPROVE NUTRITIVE
PROPERTIES
4. ENSURE SAFETY
5. MAKE MORE CONVENIENT
6. BOTTOM LINE: $$ (ECONOMIC VALUE)
HEAT PROCESSING: Use of high
temperatures to destroy enzymes and
microorganisms that could reduce quality
and/or safety of food

1. BLANCHING - A mild heat treatment that

primarily destroys enzymes and reduces
microbial load (does not necessarily kill
pathogens), further preservation methods
needed to extend shelf life.
Example: Vegetables, frozen, canned
2. PASTEURIZATION - A mild
heat treatment used primarily to
destroy pathogenic organisms but
it also destroys enzymes and
reduces microbial load. Requires
an addition preservation method to
extend shelf life (example:
refrigeration, drying).
3. COMMERCIAL STERILIZATION –
A severe heat treatment that destroys
pathogenic and many microorganisms that
could spoil food. Extends shelf life, room
temperature stable. (canned foods)

4. STERILIZATION - A very severe heat

treatment that destroys all microorganisms.
BLANCHING OF FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES

OBJECTIVES:
1. Inactivate enzymes**
A. Metabolic
B. Maintain color
C. Texture
D. Flavor
E. Nutritive value
BLANCHING OF FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES

OBJECTIVES (cont.):
2. Lower microbial load (combination of rinsing action and
heat)
3. Aids in packaging – wilts vegetables and removes
respiratory gases
4. Removes dirt, leaves, etc.
5. Aids in peeling
 RECIVING

SOAKING AND WASHING

SORTING AND GRADING

BLANCHING

PEELING

FILLING
Exhausting

Sealing

Processing

Colling

Labelling

Packaging
 HARVEST HANDLING
MATURITY INDEX FOR FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

 The principles dictating at which stage of maturity

a fruit or vegetable should be harvested are crucial
to its subsequent storage and marketable life and
quality. Post-harvest physiologists distinguish three
stages in the life span of fruits and vegetables:
maturation, ripening, and senescence.
 Maturation is indicative of the fruit being ready
for harvest. At this point, the edible part of the fruit
or vegetable is fully developed in size, although it
may not be ready for immediate consumption.
 Ripening follows or overlaps maturation,
rendering the produce edible, as indicated by
taste.
 Senescence is the last stage, characterized by
natural degradation of the fruit or vegetable,
as in loss of texture, flavour, etc. (senescence
ends at the death of the tissue of the fruit).
Some typical maturity indexes are described
in following sections.
SKIN COLOR:
This factor is commonly applied to fruits,
since skin color changes as fruit ripens or
matures. Some fruits exhibit no perceptible
color change during maturation, depending on
the type of fruit or vegetable. Assessment of
harvest maturity by skin color depends on the
judgment of the harvester, but color charts are
available for cultivars, such as apples,
tomatoes, peaches, chilli peppers, etc.
 OPTICAL METHODS:

 Light transmission properties can be used to

measure the degree of maturity of fruits.
These methods are based on the chlorophyll
content of the fruit, which is reduced during
maturation.
 The fruit is exposed to a bright light, which
is then switched off so that the fruit is in
total darkness. Next, a sensor measures the
amount of light emitted from the fruit, which
is proportional to its chlorophyll content and
thus its maturity.
 SHAPE:
➢The shape of fruit can change during maturation and can
be used as a characteristic to determine harvest maturity.
➢For instance, a banana becomes more rounded in
cross-sections and less angular as it develops on the
plant.
➢Mangoes also change shape during maturation. As the
mango matures on the tree the relationship between the
shoulders of the fruit and the point at which the stalk is
attached may change. The shoulders of immature
mangoes slope away from the fruit stalk; however, on
more mature mangoes the shoulders become level with
the point of attachment, and with even more maturity
the shoulders may be raised above this point.
 Size:
❑ Changes in the size of a crop while growing are
frequently used to determine the time of harvest.
❑ For example, partially mature cobs of Zea mays
are marketed as sweet corn, while even less
mature and thus smaller cobs are marketed as
baby corn.
❑ For bananas, the width of individual fingers can
be used to determine harvest maturity. Usually a
finger is placed midway along the bunch and its
maximum width is measured with callipers; this is
referred to as the calliper grade.
Aroma:

Most fruits synthesize volatile chemicals as

they ripen. Such chemicals give fruit its
characteristic odor and can be used to
determine whether it is ripe or not. These doors
may only be detectable by humans when a fruit
is completely ripe, and therefore has limited use
in commercial situations.
LEAF CHANGES:

Leaf quality often determines when fruits

and vegetables should be harvested. In root
crops, the condition of the leaves can
likewise indicate the condition of the crop
below ground.
For example, if potatoes are to be stored,
then the optimum harvest time is soon after
the leaves and stems have died. If harvested
earlier, the skins will be less resistant to
harvesting and handling damage and more
prone to storage diseases.
 FIRMNESS:
A fruit may change in texture during maturation, especially
during ripening when it may become rapidly softer.
Excessive loss of moisture may also affect the texture of
crops. These textural changes are detected by touch, and the
harvester may simply be able to gently squeeze the fruit and
judge whether the crop can be harvested. Today
sophisticated devices have been developed to measure
texture in fruits and vegetables, for example, texture
analyzers and pressure testers; they are currently available
for fruits and vegetables in various forms. A force is applied
to the surface of the fruit, allowing the probe of the
penetrometer or texturometer to penetrate the fruit flesh,
which then gives a reading on firmness
Harvesting containers
Harvesting containers must be easy to handle for workers picking fruits and vegetables in the
field. Many crops are harvested into bags. Harvesting bags with shoulder or waist slings can be
used for fruits with firm skins, like citrus fruits and avocados. These containers are made from a
variety of materials such as paper, polyethylene film, sisal, hessian or woven polyethylene and
are relatively cheap but give little protection to the crop against handling and transport damage.
Sacks are commonly used for crops such as potatoes, onions, cassava, and pumpkins. Other types
of field harvest containers include baskets, buckets, carts, and plastic crates (Figure ). For high
risk products, woven baskets and sacks are not recommended because of the risk of
contamination.

Fig:Agricultural apple baskets, pear and corncob

carriers.
 Tools for harvesting:
❖Depending on the type of fruit or vegetable,
several devices are employed to harvest produce.
Commonly used tools for fruit and vegetable
harvesting are secateurs or knives, and hand held
or pole mounted picking shears.
❖When fruits or vegetables are difficult to catch,
such as mangoes or avocados, a cushioning
material is placed around the tree to prevent
damage to the fruit when dropping from high
trees.
❖ Harvesting bags with shoulder or waist slings
can be used for fruits with firm skins, like citrus
and avocados.
 They are easy to carry and leave both hands free. The
contents of the bag are emptied through the bottom into
a field container without tipping the bag.
 Plastic buckets are suitable containers for harvesting
fruits that are easily crushed, such as tomatoes.
 These containers should be smooth without any sharp
edges that could damage the produce.
 Commercial growers use bulk bins with a capacity of
250-500 kg, in which crops such as apples and cabbages
are placed, and sent to large-scale packinghouses for
selection, grading, and packing.
 Lemon Clipper
Citrus Clipper
Packing in the field and transport to packinghouse:
Berries picked for the fresh market (except blueberries and
cranberries) are often mechanically harvested and usually packed
into shipping containers. Careful harvesting, handling, and
transporting of fruits and vegetables to packinghouses are
necessary to preserve product quality.

Polyethylene bags:
Clear polyethylene bags are used to pack banana bunches in the
field, which are then transported to the packinghouse by means of
mechanical cableways running through the banana plantation. This
technique of packaging and transporting bananas reduces damage
to the fruit caused by improper handling.
 PLASTIC FIELD BOXES:

These types of boxes are usually made of polyvinyl chloride,
polypropylene, or polyethylene. They are durable and can last
many years. Many are designed in such a way that they can nest
inside each other when empty to facilitate transport, and can
stack one on top of the other without crushing the fruit when full
(Figure 2.4).
 WOODEN FIELD BOXES:
 These boxes are made of thin pieces of wood bound together with
wire. They come in two sizes: the bushel box with a volume of
2200 in3 (36052 cm3) and the half-bushel box. They are
advantageous because they can be packed flat and are inexpensive,
and thus could be non-returnable. They have the disadvantage of
providing little protection from mechanical damage to the produce
during transport. Rigid wooden boxes of different capacities are
commonly used to transport produce to the packinghouse or to
market. (Figure 2.5)
 BULK BINS:
Bulk bins of 200-500 kg capacity are used for harvesting
fresh fruits and vegetables. These bins are much more
economical than the field boxes, both in terms of fruit
carried per unit volume and durability, as well as in
providing better protection to the product during transport
to the packinghouse. They are made of wood and plastic
materials. Dimensions for these bins in the United States
are 48 × 40 in, and 120 × 100 cm in metric system
countries. Approximate depth of bulk bins depends on the
type of fruit or vegetable being transported (Table 2.5)
PACKAGING

According to Wills et al. (1989), modern packaging

must comply with the following requirements:
a) The package must have sufficient mechanical
strength to protect the contents during handling,
transport, and stacking.
b) The packaging material must be free of chemical
substances that could transfer to the produce and
become toxic to man.
c) The package must meet handling and marketing
requirements in terms of weight, size, and shape.
d) The package should allow rapid cooling of the contents.
Furthermore, the permeability of plastic films to respiratory
gases could also be important.
e) Mechanical strength of the package should be largely
unaffected by moisture content (when wet) or high humidity
conditions.
f) The security of the package or ease of opening and closing
might be important in some marketing situations.
g) The package must either exclude light or be transparent.
h) The package should be appropriate for retail presentations.
i) The package should be designed for ease of disposal, re-use,
or recycling.
j) Cost of the package in relation to value and the extent of
contents protection required should be as low as possible.