The Locomotive

An Analysis of Transformer Failures,

Part 2 – Causes, Prevention and
Maximum Service Life

By William H. Bartley, P.E., The Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and

Insurance Company

Introduction
Over the years, Hartford Steam Boiler has investigated
thousands of transformer failures, compiling an extensive
database of loss information. In part one of this article, the
author used data from HSB’s latest 10-year study of
transformer claims to examine the types of breakdowns,
frequency, severity, and the issue of transformer age. In part
two, he discusses the causes of transformer failures,
recommends a maintenance program and concludes with
ways to help achieve maximum service life.

Cause of Failure
Hartford Steam Boiler has collected information about
"There are a number of factors which affect the life
transformer failures for decades. Analysis has shown that
expectancy of insulation and these should receive the careful
while aging trends and utilization may change (see part 1),
consideration of persons responsible for the operation of
the basic causal factors of these failures remain the same. In
electrical equipment. These factors include:
the article "Factors Affecting the Life of Insulation of Electrical
Apparatus," published in the July 1949 issue of The
Locomotive, HSB’s J.B. Swering, chief engineer of the − Misapplication
Electrical Division, wrote: − Vibration
− High Operating Temperature

© 1996-2013 The Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company

All rights reserved. http://www.hsb.com/Thelocomotive

All recommendations are general guidelines and are not intended to be

exhaustive or complete, nor are they designed to replace information or
instructions from the manufacturer of our equipment. Contact your equipment
service representative or manufacturer with questions.
The Hartford Steam Boiler
Inspection and Insurance Company
The Locomotive

Page 2

− Lightning or Line Surges transformers failures. This category includes switching

− Overloading surges, voltage spikes, line faults/flashovers, and other
− Care of Control Equipment transmission and distribution (T&D) abnormalities. This
− Lack of Cleanliness significant portion of transformer losses indicates that more
− Care of Idle or Spare Equipment attention should be given to providing surge protection, or
− Improper Lubrication testing the adequacy of existing surge protection.
− Careless or Negligent Operation
Poor Workmanship/Manufacturer
It’s still good advice, a half-century later. Table 3 shows the In the 1998 HSB study, only a few percent of the total claims
primary cause of transformer failures reported to HSB over were attributed to Poor Workmanship or Manufacturer’s
the last several decades, and identifies those areas where Defects. Among the conditions found were such things as
failure-reducing efforts can best be directed. The table lists loose or unsupported leads, loose blocking, poor brazing,
the most common causes of failures and the percentage of inadequate core insulation, inferior short circuit strength, and
all the failures they represent for the studies conducted in foreign objects left in the tank.
1975, 1983 and 1998. However, the 1998 study did not use
the same methodology for categorizing the causes. The Deterioration of Insulation
information is presented here for comparison purposes, but Insulation Deterioration was the second leading cause of
no conclusions on trends should be made. failure over the past 10 years. The average age of the
transformers that failed due to insulation deterioration was
17.8 years — a far cry from the expected life of 35 to 40
years! In 1983, the average age at failure was 20 years.

Overloading
This category pertains to those cases where actual
Overloading could be established as the cause of the failure.
It includes only those transformers that experienced a
sustained load that exceeded the nameplate capacity.

Often, the overloading occurs when the plant or the utility

slowly increases the load in small increments over time. The
capacity of the transformer is eventually exceeded, resulting
Table 3: Cause of Transformer Failures in excessive temperatures that prematurely ages the
insulation. As the transformer’s paper insulation ages, the
Lightning strength of the paper is reduced. Then, forces from an
Lightning surges are considerably less than previous studies, outside fault may cause a deterioration of the insulation,
because of our changes in categorizing the cause. Today, leading to failure.
unless we have confirmation of a lightning strike, a surge
type failure is categorized as "Line Surge." This is one of the Moisture
departures from the previous studies. The Moisture category includes failures caused by floods,
leaky pipes, leaking roofs, water entering the tanks through
Line Surges leaking bushings or fittings, and confirmed presence of
According to our database, the Line Surge (or Line moisture in the insulating oil.
Disturbance) is the number one cause for all types of

© 1996-2013 The Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company All rights reserved.
http://www.hsb.com/Thelocomotive

All recommendations are general guidelines and are not intended to be exhaustive or complete, nor are they designed to replace information or
instructions from the manufacturer of our equipment. Contact your equipment service representative or manufacturer with questions.
The Hartford Steam Boiler
Inspection and Insurance Company
The Locomotive

Page 3

Inadequate Maintenance − Install transformers in locations that are compatible with

Inadequate Maintenance was the fourth leading cause of their design and construction. If placed outdoors, make
transformer failures. This category includes disconnected or sure the unit is rated for outdoor operation.
improperly set controls, loss of coolant, accumulation of dirt − Protect transformers from surges and other external
and oil, and corrosion. Inadequate maintenance has to bear hazards.
the blame for not discovering incipient troubles when there
was ample time to correct it. Test the Oil
"The dielectric strength of transformer oil decreases rapidly
Sabotage and Malicious Mischief with the absorption of moisture. One part water in 10,000
This category is usually assigned when willful damage was parts oil has been known to decrease the dielectric strength
evident. Surprisingly, there were no reports of transformer 50 percent. Oil samples from each tank, except of course
damage in the last 10 years due to this cause. small distribution transformers, should be given a break-
down test at least once each year … so that moisture may be
Loose Connections promptly detected and removed by filtering." (From The
Loose Connections could be included in the Maintenance Locomotive, April 1925).
category, but there was a sufficient number of reports to list it
separately. This is another departure from previous studies. − Gas-in-oil analysis should be performed annually to
This category includes workmanship and maintenance in measure the dissolved gases in the oil that are created
making electrical connections. One problem is the improper by developing faults in the transformer. The specific gas
mating of dissimilar metals, although this has decreased
and the amount of gas can identify the type of fault. The
somewhat in recent years. Another problem is improper
fluid screen test should be performed annually to
torquing of bolted connections.
determine the oil’s ability to perform as an insulant.
These tests include dielectric breakdown, acidity,
All Others
interfacial tension, etc.
This category encompasses all that could not be attributed to
the above categories, including "Cause Undetermined."
Additional Maintenance
Summary − Keep the porcelain bushings and insulators clean.
A review indicates that a planned program of maintenance, − On liquid-cooled units, check the radiators for leaks, rust,
inspection and testing would significantly reduce the number accumulation of dirt, and any mechanical damage that
of transformer failures, and the unexpected interruption of would restrict the oil flow.
power. From a cost standpoint, not only has the cost of repair − Keep electrical connections tight.
increased dramatically, so has the cost of downtime. − Inspect tap changes on a regular basis. Check the
Rewinding or rebuilding a large power transformer can take contacts for tightness, burning, pitting, freedom of
six to 12 months. A good maintenance program should movement, and alignment.
include the following re-commendations to help achieve − The transformer windings, bushings, and arresters
maximum service life. should have a Power Factor test on a three-year basis.
− Check the ground connection on the surge arrester
Installation and Operation annually. The connection should be tight, and the lead
− Keep the electrical loading within the design range of the should be as short as possible. The earth resistance
transformer. In liquid-cooled transformers, carefully should be checked during the dry season, and should
monitor the top oil temperature. not exceed 5 ohms.

© 1996-2013 The Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company All rights reserved.
http://www.hsb.com/Thelocomotive

All recommendations are general guidelines and are not intended to be exhaustive or complete, nor are they designed to replace information or
instructions from the manufacturer of our equipment. Contact your equipment service representative or manufacturer with questions.
The Hartford Steam Boiler
Inspection and Insurance Company
The Locomotive

Page 4

− Consider on-line transformer monitor system for the most About the Author
critical transformers. There are a number of on-line William Bartley received a Bachelor of Science degree in
systems currently on the market. The system vendors electrical engineering from the University of Missouri at Rolla.
assemble a variety of probes and sensors, connect them Bill joined Hartford Steam Boiler as an electrical inspector in
to a data acquisition unit [DAU] and provide for remote 1971 and is now a Principal Engineer in HSB’s Engineering
telecommunications through a modem. The systems also Department, specializing in the assessment and analysis of
incorporate an "expert system" to diagnose the problem large electrical apparatus, primarily generators and
and distinguish between events that are harmless and transformers. He is responsible for developing standards,
events that are dangerous. OEM relations, fleet problems, large failure investigations,
repair procedure development, and new testing technologies.

© 1996-2013 The Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company All rights reserved.
http://www.hsb.com/Thelocomotive

All recommendations are general guidelines and are not intended to be exhaustive or complete, nor are they designed to replace information or
instructions from the manufacturer of our equipment. Contact your equipment service representative or manufacturer with questions.