UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION AND LIQUID-BASED RAPID PROTOTYPING

SYSTEMS

 Explain briefly about additive manufacturing.

Additive manufacturing is also known as rapid prototyping, popularly known as 3D

printing. Various manufacturing industries, uses the word rapid prototyping to indicate the
process of generating a model at faster rate. Resulting model forms basis to intermittent models
that are created before end product is obtained and is called prototype.

As the technology of rapid prototyping advances day-to-day the term rapid prototyping is
not enough to describe the modern uses of this technology. The output prototype has become
very resembled with final product, due to enhancement of output prototype quality. Outputs from
the prototyping machines cannot be termed as prototypes, because most of the components can
be directly manufactured using this type of machines. Additive manufacturing is the basic
principle, followed by these machines while fabricating the components. This aspect is also not
mentioned by the term Rapid prototyping. Thus, there exists a need to adopt a new term to
replace rapid prototyping. Adopted term should describe all the aspects overlooked by rapid
prototyping. Additive manufacturing is the term in use as per recent consensus adopted by
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM International), but complete replacement is
in debate phase.

Basic principle of additive manufacturing technology involves, creating a 3D model in

CAD software and then part is fabricated using information of CAD model. Thus, this
technology does not require process planning. In order to manufacture, the component using
other method, the geometry of the component has to analyzed in detail so as to evaluate
parameters such as processes to be followed, tools to be used, need of special fixtures and order
of fabricating various features. But, fabrication through additive manufacturing technology
requires CAD model data which includes dimensions of the component, and knowledge about
materials employed for producing the components and working principle of additive
manufacturing machine.

The CAD model can be fabricated by adding very thin layers of material one above the
other. Each layer is same as that of cross section of the desired shape and such layers are
generated as per CAD data. The resultant product must be an exact replica of the CAD model
with finite thickness. The layers must be as thin as possible to make the product appear much
similar to the original one.

Layer-based manufacturing is employed in each and every commercially available

additive manufacturing machines. Process of generation of layers, bonding mechanism between
the layers and different materials which can be employed are the parameters which enables, to
classify machines and to evaluate the manufacturing time for each part, mechanical and material

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 properties, end component accuracy, extent to which post-processing is to be done, cost of the
process, cost and size of the machine.

 What is a Prototype?
A prototype is an important and vital part of the product development process. In any
design practice, the word “prototype” is often not far from the things that the designers will be
involved in. In most dictionaries, it is defined as a noun, e.g. the Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary of Current English [3] defines it as (see Figure 1.1)

However, in design, it often means more than just an artefact. It has often been used as a verb,
e.g. prototype an engine design for engineering evaluation, or as an adjective, e.g. build a
prototype printed circuit board (PCB). To be general enough to be able to cover all aspects of the
meaning of the word prototype for use in design, it is very loosely defined here as: An
approximation of a product (or system) or its components in some form for a definite purpose in
its implementation. This very general definition departs from the usual accepted concept of the
prototype being physical. It covers all kinds of prototypes used in the product development
process, including objects like mathematical models, pencil sketches, foam models, and of
course the functional physical approximation of the product. Prototyping is the process of
realizing these prototypes. Here, the process can range from just an execution of a computer
program to the actual building of a functional prototype.

 Types of Prototypes (or) Classification of Prototypes:

The general definition of the prototype contains three aspects of interests:

(1) The implementation of the prototype; from the entire product (or system) itself to
its sub-assemblies and components. The implementation aspect of the prototype covers the range
of prototyping the complete product (or system) to prototyping part of, or a sub-assembly or a
component of the product. The complete prototype, as its name suggests, models most, if not all,
the characteristics of the product. It is usually implemented full-scale as well as being fully
functional. One example of such prototype is one that is given to a group of carefully selected

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people with special interest, often called a focus group, to examine and identify outstanding
problems before the product is committed to its final design. On the other hand, there are
prototypes that are needed to study or investigate special problems associated with one
component, sub-assemblies or simply a particular concept of the product that requires close
attention. An example of such a prototype is a test platform that is used to find the comfortable
rest angles of an office chair that will reduce the risk of spinal injuries after prolonged sitting on
such a chair. Most of the time, sub-assemblies and components are tested in conjunction with
some kind of test rigs or experimental platform.
(2) The form of the prototype; from a virtual prototype to a physical prototype. The form
of the prototype takes into account how the prototype is being implemented. On one end, virtual
prototypes that refers to prototypes that are nontangible, usually represented in some form other
than physical, e.g. mathematical model of a control system. Such prototypes are usually studied
and analyzed. The conclusions drawn are purely based upon the assumed principles or science
that has been understood up to that point in time. An example is the visualization of airflow over
an aircraft wing to ascertain lift and drag on the wing during supersonic flight. Such prototype is
often used when either the physical prototype is too large and therefore takes too long to build, or
the building of such a prototype is exorbitantly expensive. The main drawback of these kinds of
prototypes is that they are based on current understanding and thus they will not be able to
predict any unexpected phenomenon. It is very poor or totally unsuitable for solving
unanticipated problems. The physical model, on the other hand, is the tangible manifestation of
the product, usually built for testing and experimentation. Examples of such prototypes include a
mock-up of a cellular telephone that looks and feels very much like the real product but without
its intended functions. Such a prototype may be used purely for aesthetic and human factors
evaluation.
(3) The degree of the approximation of the prototype; from a very rough
representation to an exact replication of the product. The degree of approximation or
representativeness of the prototype. On one hand, the model can be a very rough representation
of the intended product, like a foam model, used primarily to study the general form and
enveloping dimensions of the product in its initial stage of development. Some rough prototypes
may not even look like the final product, but are used to test and study certain problems of the
product development. An example of this is the building of catches with different material to find
the right “clicking” sound for a cassette player door. On the other hand, the prototype can be an
exact full scale exact replication of the product that models every aspects of the product, e.g. the
pre-production prototype that is used not only to satisfy customer needs evaluation but also
addressing manufacturing issues and concerns. Such “exact” prototypes are especially important
towards the end-stage of the product development process. Figure 1.2 shows the various kinds of
prototypes placed over the three aspects of describing the prototype. Each of the three axes
represents one aspect of the description of the prototype. Note that this illustration is not meant
to provide an exact scale to describe a prototype, but serves to demonstrate that prototypes can
be described along these three aspects. Rapid prototyping typically falls in the range of a

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physical prototype, usually are fairly accurate and can be implemented on a component level or
at a system level. This is shown as the shaded volume shown in Figure 1.2. The versatility and
range of different prototypes, from complete systems to individual components, that can be
produced by RP at varying degrees of approximation makes it an imp
important
ortant tool for prototyping
in the product development process. Adding the major advantage of speed in delivery, it has
become an important component in the prototyping arsenal not to be ignored.

 Discuss the functions/ Roles of the Prototypes.

The roles that prototypes play in the product development process are several. They
include the following:
(1) Experimentation and learning
(2) Testing and proofing
(3) Communication and interaction
(4) Synthesis and integration
(5) Scheduling and markers

(1) Experimentation and learning:

To the product development team, prototypes can be used to help the thinking, planning,
experimenting and learning processes w while designing the product. Questions and doubts
regarding certain issues of thee design can be addressed by building and studying the prototype.
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For example, in designing the appropriate elbow-support of an office chair, several physical
prototypes of such elbow supports can be built to learn about the “feel” of the elbow support
when performing typical tasks on the office chair.

(2) Testing and proofing:

Prototypes can also be used for testing and proofing of ideas and concepts relating to the
development of the product. For example, in the early design of folding reading glasses for the
elderly, concepts and ideas of folding mechanism can be tested by building rough physical
prototypes to test and prove these ideas to see if they work as intended.
(3) Communication and interaction:
The prototype also serves the purpose of communicating information and demonstrating
ideas, not just within the product development team, but also to management and client (whether
in-house or external). Nothing is clearer for explanation or communication of an idea than a
physical prototype where the intended audience can have the full experience of the visual and
tactile feel of the product. A three-dimensional representation is often more superior than that of
a two-dimensional sketch of the product. For example, a physical prototype of a cellular phone
can be presented to carefully selected customers. Customers can handle and experiment with the
phone and give feedback to the development team on the features of and interactions with the
phone, thus providing valuable information for the team to improve its design.

(4) Synthesis and integration:

A prototype can also be used to synthesize the entire product concept by bringing the
various components and sub-assemblies together to ensure that they will work together. This will
greatly help in the integration of the product and surface any problems that are related to putting
the product together. An example is a complete or comprehensive functional prototype of
personal digital assistant (PDA). When putting the prototype together, all aspects of the design,
including manufacturing and assembly issues will have to be addressed, thus enabling the
different functional members of the product development team to understand the various
problems associated with putting the product together.

(5) Scheduling and markers:

Prototyping also serves to help in the scheduling of the product development process and
is usually used as markers for the end or start of the various phases of the development effort.
Each prototype usually marks a completion of a particular development phase, and with proper
planning, the development schedule can be enforced. Typically in many companies, the
continuation of a development project often hinges on the success of the prototypes to provide
impetus to management to forge ahead with it. It should be noted that in many companies,
prototypes do not necessary serve all these roles concurrently, but they are certainly a necessity

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 in any product development project. The prototypes created with Rapid Prototyping technologies
will serve most if not all of these roles. Being accurate physical prototypes that can be built with
speed, many of these roles can be accomplished quickly and effectively, and together with other
productivity tools, e.g. CAD, repeatedly with precision.
 Write about the historical development of prototyping.
(or)
Three Phases of Developmen
Development Leading to Rapid Prototyping.

Historical development:

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Three Phases of Developmen
Development:

Prototyping or model making in the traditional sense is an age age-old

old practice. The
intention of having a physical prototype is to realize the conceptualization of a design. Thus, a
prototype is usually required before the start of the full pr
production
oduction of the product. The fabrication
of prototypes is experimented in many forms material removal, castings, moulds, joining with
adhesives etc.. and with many material types aluminum,, zinc, urethanes, wood, etc. Prototyping
processes have gone through h three phases of development, the last two of which have emerged
emerg
only in the last 20 years.. Like the modeling process in computer graphics,, the prototyping of
physical models is growing through its third phase. Parallels between the computer modeling
process
ess and prototyping process ca
can be drawn as seen in Table.

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The three phases are described as follows .
First Phase: Manual Prototyping
Prototyping had began as early as humans began to develop tools to help them live.
However, prototyping as applied to products in what is considered to be the first phase of
prototype development began several centuries ago. In this early phase, prototypes typically are
not very sophisticated and fabrication of prototypes takes on average about four weeks,
depending
epending on the level of compl
complexity and representativeness.. The techniques used in making
these prototypes tend to be craft--based
based and are usually extremely labor intensive.
Second Phase: Soft or Virtual Prototyping
As application of CAD/CAE/CAM become more widespread, the early 1980s saw the
evolution of thee second phase of prototyping Soft or Virtual Prototyping. Virtual prototyping
takes on a new meaning as more ccomputer tools become available computer models can now be
stressed, tested,
ested, analyzed and modified as if they were physical prototypes. For example,
analysis of stress and strain can be accurately predicted on the product because of the ability to
specify exact material attributes and properties. With such tools on the computer,
compu several

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iterations of designs can be easily carried out by changing the parameters of the computer
models. Also, products and as such prototypes tend to become relatively more complex about
twice the complexity as before. Correspondingly, the time required to make the physical model
tends to increase tremendously to about that of 16 weeks as building of physical prototypes is
still dependent on craft-based methods though introduction of better precision machines like
CNC machines helps. Even with the advent of Rapid Prototyping in the third phase, there is still
strong support for virtual prototyping. Lee argues that there are still unavoidable limitations with
rapid prototyping. These include material limitations (either because of expense or through the
use of materials dissimilar to that of the intended part), the inability to perform endless what-if
scenarios and the likelihood that little or no reliable data can be gathered from the rapid
prototype to perform finite element analysis (FEA). Specifically in the application of
kinematic/dynamic analysis, he described a program which can assign physical properties of
many different materials, such as steel, ice, plastic, clay or any custom material imaginable and
perform kinematics and motion analysis as if a working prototype existed. Despite such strengths
of virtual prototyping, there is one inherent weakness that such soft prototypes cannot be tested
for phenomena that is not anticipated or accounted for in the computer program. As such there is
no guarantee that the virtual prototype is really problem free.

Third Phase: Rapid Prototyping:-

Rapid Prototyping of physical parts, or otherwise known as solid freeform fabrication
or desktop manufacturing or layer manufacturing technology, represents the third phase in the
evolution of prototyping. The invention of this series of rapid prototyping methodologies is
described as a “watershed event” because of the tremendous time savings, especially for
complicated models. Though the parts (individual components) are relatively three times as
complex as parts made in 1970s, the time required to make such a part now averages only three
weeks . Since 1988, more than twenty different rapid prototyping techniques have emerged.

 Describe the Fundamentals of Rapid Prototyping.

Common to all the different techniques of RP is the basic approach they adopt,
which can be described as follows:
(1) Development of Model:
A model or component is modeled on a Computer-Aided Design/ Computer-Aided
Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) system. The model which represents the physical part to be built
must be represented as closed surfaces which unambiguously define an enclosed volume. This
means that the data must specify the inside, outside and boundary of the model. This requirement
will become redundant if the modeling technique used is solid modeling. This is by virtue of the
technique used, as a valid solid model will automatically be an enclosed volume. This

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requirement ensures that all horizontal cross sections that are essential to RP are closed curves to
create the solid object.
(2)Conversion of Model:
The solid or surface model to be built is next converted in
into
to a format dubbed the “STL”
(Stereo Lithography) file format which originates from 33D D Systems. The STL file format
approximates the surfaces of the model by polygons. Highly curved surfaces must employ many
polygons, which means that STL files for curved parts can be very large. However, there are
some rapid prototyping systems which also accept IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange
Specifications) data, provided it is of the correct “flavor”.
(3)Dividing
Dividing and combining the Model Cross
Cross-Sections:
A computer program analyzes a STL file that defines the model to be fabricated and
“slices” the model into cross sections. The cross sections are systematically recreated through the
solidification of either liquids or powders and then combined to form a 3D model. Another
possibility is that the cross sections are already thin, solid laminations and these thin laminations
are glued together with adhesives to form a 3D model. Other similar methods may also be
employed to build the model. Fundamentally, the development of RP can be seen in four primary
areas. The Rapid Prototyping Wheel in Figure 1.3 depicts these four key aspects of Rapid
Prototyping. They are: Input, Method, Material and Applications.

Input:-

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 Input refers to the electronic information required to describe the physical object with 3D
data. There are two possible starting points — a computer model or a physical model. The
computer model created by a CAD system can be either a surface model or a solid model. On the
other hand, 3D data from the physical model is not at all straightforward. It requires data
acquisition through a method known as reverse engineering. In reverse engineering, a wide range
of equipment can be used, such as CMM (coordinate measuring machine) or a laser digitizer, to
capture data points of the physical model and “reconstruct” it in a CAD system.
Method:-
While they are currently more than 20 vendors for RP systems, the method employed by
each vendor can be generally classified into the following categories: photo-curing, cutting and
gluing/joining, melting and solidifying/fusing and joining/binding. Photo-curing can be further
divided into categories of single laser beam, double laser beams and masked lamp.
Material:-
The initial state of material can come in either solid, liquid or powder state. In solid state,
it can come in various forms such as pellets, wire or laminates. The current range materials
include paper, nylon, wax, resins, metals and ceramics.
Applications:-
Most of the RP parts are finished or touched up before they are used for their intended
applications. Applications can be grouped into (1) Design (2) Engineering, Analysis, and
Planning and (3) Tooling and Manufacturing. A wide range of industries can benefit from RP
and these include, but are not limited to, aerospace, automotive, biomedical, consumer, electrical
and electronics products.

 What are the Indirect and direct advantages of rapid prototyping systems.
Rapid prototyping have many advantages, which are grouped into indirect and direct
advantages.
Indirect Advantage:
Apart from the drafting and fabrication departments, there are also indirect benefits.
Advantages to marketing and consumers are referred as indirect advantages.
Advantages to Marketing:
Rapid prototyping systems offer new opportunities and capabilities to marketing
department. The marketing time is reduced greatly due to following reasons.
(i) Manufacturing products which fulfills customer’s needs accurately.
(ii) Producing products using latest technology and providing prices as per existing market value.
(iii) Sample products marketed in order to capture customer attention and market analysis, with
less expenses.
(iv)Estimation of factors such as requirements of customer and market dynamics for upcoming
years is not necessary.

2.Advantages to Customer:

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(i) Customers can choose the products which meets their requirements to a greater extent.
(ii) Customers can select the product from a wider diversity of products available.
(iii) The customer can order the product that can be generated as per order requirements at faster
rates with considerably lower price.

Direct Advantages:
Rapid prototyping systems have many advantages when employed for manufacturing
purpose in the industry, physical prototypes for experimentation can be generated at faster rate,
even though the shapes are much complex. The form and shape of products which are in use now
a days are very Complex when compared to that used twenty five years ago. Product complexity
is increasing day by day with time. For example, complexity of car bodies at present is three
times more complex when compared to that in 1970’s. But the time required for project
completion have not increased that much corresponding to complexity. In 1970, time of project
Completion is around four weeks. In 1980 the time consumption was raised to sixteen weeks.
Mean while the time period was reduced to eight weeks by using CNC technologies and
CAD/CAM, In 1995, origin of rapid prototyping technology caused the total time for project
completion to get reduced to three weeks.

Various activities involved in the production are carried out by respective personnel.
Advantages of using rapid prototyping systems is different for each personal depending on their
role.
Figure shown below represents different activities involved in full production of both
conventional and rapid prototyping systems. Upper part of the figure represents, full production
through conventional process and lower part indicates, full production using rapid prototyping
system.
Cost and time involved in production can be reduced within the range of 50% to 90%
depending on the production size.

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Advantages of Product Designers
Designers:
(i) Based on the customer requirements the part design can be optimized. This is possible with
slight Increase in complexity of manufacturing processes.
(ii) with very small effect on parameters such as co
cost and
nd lead time, comparatively more complex
products can be designed.
(iii) The number of sub-parts
parts required is very less , since the features of individual parts
produced through conventional process are combined together to form a single piece. As number
of parts decreased, time consumed for activities such as faster selection, analysing of tolerance,
detailing assembly drawings and screw holes, decreases to larger extend.
(iv) While designing the component form, constraints such as parting lines, draft angles etc., can
be neglected. Thereby, restriction on form design decreases and enables to design components
with large, accurate thin walls and whose machining setup is difficult.
(v) The ratio of strength to weight can be optimized without concerning ab about
out the machining
cost.

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 Advantages to Manufacturing and Tooling Engineers:

(i) The costs of inventory assembly and purchasing expenses are reduced due to less number of
sub-parts. Due to lower fixed costs, the production of new products realizes profits quickly.
(ii) A Rapid prototyping system can produce subassemblies automatically once the 3D data is
provided unlike the conventional systems. Thereby, labor cost gets reduced as man power for
casting/machining is decreased, programming and part setup are not required , and consequent
decrease in assembly and inspection time.
(iii) Quality of scrap is decreased thereby reduction in cost of scrap disposal and costs of material
transportation and inventory for both finished parts and raw material.
(iv) When sales decreases or change in design occurs, wastage of material will be less.
(v) The rate of rejection of parts while inspection is reduced since lesser tight tolerance are
required for mating pans.
(vi) The misinterpretations in a design can be avoided.
(vii) Inventories for spare parts can be reduced.

 Explain the Commonly used terms in rapid prototyping.

As the technology advances day by day, the introduction and usage of new terms in the
engineering field is also increasing at very faster rate. Various terms used in rapid prototyping
are discussed below.
1.Most Common Term:
Rapid prototyping is the most popular term employed throughout the world. This term
describes main advantage of rapid prototyping. physical model generation at faster rate or
rapidly.
2. Less Common Terms
Instant manufacturing, desktop manufacturing and direct CAD manufacturing are less
popular terms. These processes are not completely instant or direct but these terms intend to
mean ease and speed of production. There is other term called ‘CAD oriented manufacturing’
which is less commonly used. It provides understanding of the orientation issue, which is a
parameter that effects the prototype’s output that is produced by using rapid prototyping methods
such as stereo lithography apparatus.

3.Terms Emphasizing Method of Rapid prototyping:

Term involving in this category are, layer manufacturing, material increase
manufacturing, material deposit manufacturing and material addition manufacturing.
Method employed by rapid prototyping involves addition of layers one upon another, which is
contrary to the conventional methods of manufacturing like machining in which the material is
removed gradually from a work piece.
4. Terms Emphasizing Final State and Form of Product:
'Solid Freedom Fabrication ' and 'Solid Freeform Manufacturing' are the two terms which
focus on final state and form of the product. Final state of product is emphasized by the word
solid.

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 Initially the material can be in any state such as laminates or individual pellets, powder or
liquid. Finally it has to be 3D object of solid state
state.. The term 'freeform' emphasizes on the rapid
prototyping method's ability, that generates complex shapes with small restriction on its shape or
form.

5. Term to be Used in Future:

Rapid Prototyping is in development stage to replace master pattern with prototype
prot for
tooling and manufacturing processes. When this technology comes in to practice, the term rapid
tooling and manufacturing will be used.

 Give the classification of rapid prototyping systems.

Types of rapid prototyping systems
systems:
Commercially there are many number of rapid prototyping systems. They can
classified in many ways. But the better way of classification is by the form of materials in its
initial stage before undergoing prototyping. Based on this criteria RP systems are categorized
into,
1. Liquid based rapid prototyping systems
2. Solid based rapid prototyping systems
3. Powder based rapid prototyping systems

1. Liquid Based Rapid Prototyping System

In this type of Rapid prototyping systems, the material that is going to process must be in
liquid state. The process is called "curing". The liquid processed is used to generated final
product in solid state.
Some of the liquid based rapid prototyping systems are as follows:

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 Discuss about 3D SYSTEMS STEREOLITHOGRAPHY APPARATUS(SLA)
Company:

Models and specifications of SLA:

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Process:

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Working Principle of SLA:

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Photopolymers:

Photopolymerization:

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Layering Technology, Laser and Laser Scanning:

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Advantages and Disadvantages:

Applications:

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 Discuss the case studies, on usage of SLA:

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 SGC (CUBITAL’S SOLID GROUND CURING):

Company:

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Models and specifications of SGC:

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Process:

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34
Principle:

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 Applications:

 Discuss about case studies of usage of SGC process:

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