Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Module No. 5

MODULE TITLE
Soil Chemistry

MODULE OVERVIEW

This module provides a comprehensive understanding of soil chemistry, covering essential topics
related to soil components, soil pH, reactions in soil, and the impact of human activities on soil chemistry.
Students will learn about the composition of soil, including mineral matter, organic matter, water, and air, and
how each component influences soil properties and nutrient availability. The module also delves into soil pH
and its significance in nutrient uptake, exploring acidic and alkaline soils, buffering capacity, and chemical
reactions in soil. Additionally, students will explore the role of human activities, such as agriculture and
pollution, in altering soil chemistry, as well as laboratory techniques for soil analysis and remediation methods.
By the end of this module, students will have a solid foundation in soil chemistry, enabling them to assess and
manage soil health effectively.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, the students should be able to:

• Identify the key components of soil, including mineral matter, organic matter, water, and air.
• Describe the concept of soil pH and its importance in nutrient availability for plant growth.
• Recognize common chemical reactions that occur in soil, such as acid-base reactions and
precipitation reactions.
• Understand the impact of human activities on soil chemistry and the importance of soil testing in
assessing soil health.

LEARNING POINTS
I. Soil Components
II. Soil pH and Reactions in Soil
III. Human Impact in Soil Chemistry
IV. Solid Waste Management

LEARNING CONTENTS

Soil Chemistry
• It is the study of the chemical characteristics of soil.
• Traditionally focused on the chemical reactions in soils that affect plant growth and plant nutrition.

Soil chemistry is a branch of soil science that deals with the chemical composition, chemical
reactions and chemical properties in soils. Abiotic phases of the soil include solids (organic matter and
inorganic minerals), liquids (soil water), and gases (soil air), while the biotic phase consists of living
organisms. Soil, therefore, is a dynamic living system in which ions and molecules constantly may move from
one phase to the other, while interacting with each other.

Soil is often overlooked even though it is the foundation of a successful vegetable garden. Growing
vegetables can be tough on the soil as they are very greedy plants and take all the nutrients and minerals
from it. This leaves the soil tired, used and almost useless for growing in.

TRIVIAS ABOUT SOIL

• There are more microorganisms in a handful of soil than there are people on earth.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

• It takes 500 years to produce just under an inch of topsoil, this is the most productive layer of soil.
• Soil acts as a filter for underground water, filtering out pollutants.

I. Soil Components

refers to the different constituents or elements that make up the composition of soil. Soil is not a
homogeneous substance but rather a mixture of various materials, each with its own characteristics and
functions. Understanding the meaning of soil components helps in comprehending the physical, chemical, and
biological properties of soil and their roles in supporting plant growth. Lets Understand the basic components
that make up soil, including mineral matter, organic matter, water, and air.

• Mineral Matter: The mineral are extremely variable in size. Some are as large as the smaller
rock fragments, other such as colloidal clay particles are so small that they cannot be seen
without the aid of an electron microscope.

• Organic Matter: It represents partially synthesized plant and animal residues. Such material is
continuously being broken down by the action of soil micro- organism. Organic matter
influences soil properties and consequently on plant growth. It improves the physical condition
of the soil, it increases the water holding capacity of the soil and is a measure source of nutrient
for the plants. It is also a main source of energy for soil micro- organism.

• Soil Water: It is a major component of the soil in relation to plant growth. The water is held
within the soil pores, if the moisture content of the soil is optimum then the plants can readily
absorb the soil water. Not all the water which soil holds is available to plants. Much of the water
remains in the soil as a thin film.

• Soil Air: A part of the soil volume that is not occupied by soil particles known as pore space is
filled partly with soil water and partly with soil air. The pore space is occupied by both air and
water. Volume of the air varies inversely with that of water. As the moisture content of the soil
increases, the air content decreases and vice-versa.

Components of soil
The volumetric composition of mineral (inorganic) soil is :
a. Mineral matter 45%
b. Organic matter 5%
c. Soil water 25 %
d. Soil air 25%

II. Soil pH and Reactions in Soil

Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is measured in pH units.
Soil pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH scale goes from 0 to
14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. As the amount of hydrogen ions in the soil increases the soil pH decreases
thus becoming more acidic. From pH 7 to 0 the soil is increasingly more acidic and from pH 7 to 14 the soil is
increasingly more alkaline or basic.

Soil pH provides various clues about soil properties and is easily determined. The most accurate
method of determining soil pH is by a pH meter. A second method which is simple and easy but less accurate
then using a pH meter, consists of using certain indicators or dyes.(litmus paper, phenolphthalein, and
red cabbage juice.)

Desirable Soil pH for Optimum Crop Production pH Range :

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 2

Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

The desirable pH range for optimum plant growth varies among crops. While some crops grow best
in the 6.0 to 7.0 range, others grow well under slightly acidic conditions. Soil properties that influence the need
for and response to lime vary by region. A knowledge of the soil and the crop is important in managing soil pH
for the best crop performance.

Soils become acidic when basic elements such as calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium held
by soil colloids are replaced by hydrogen ions. Soils formed under conditions of high annual rainfall are more
acidic than are soils formed under more arid conditions. Thus, most southeastern soils are inherently more
acidic than soils of the Midwest and far West.

Soils formed under low rainfall conditions tend to be basic with soil pH readings around 7.0.
Intensive farming over a number of years with nitrogen fertilizers or manures can result in soil acidification. In
the wheat-growing regions of Kansas and Oklahoma, for example, which have soil pH of 5.0 and below,
aluminum toxicity in wheat and good response to liming have been documented in recent years.

pH Range for some plants

a. 5.0 – 5.5
Blueberries , Irish Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes
b. 5.5 – 6.5
Barley, Bluegrass, Corn, Cotton, Peanuts, Rice, Soybean, Watermelon, Wheat
c. 6.5 – 7.0
Alfalfa, Some Clovers, Sugar Beets

Factors Affecting Soil pH

1. Rainfall
Rainfall contributes to a soil’s acidity. Water (H2O) combines with carbon dioxide (CO2) to form a
weak acid — carbonic acid (H2CO3). The weak acid ionizes, releasing hydrogen (H+) and bicarbonate
(HCO3). The released hydrogen ions replace the calcium ions held by soil colloids, causing the soil to become
acidic. The displaced calcium (Ca++) ions combine with the bicarbonate ions to form calcium bicarbonate,
which, being soluble, is leached from the soil. The net effect is increased soil acidity.

2. Nitrogen Fertilizers
Nitrogen levels affect soil pH. Nitrogen sources — fertilizers, manures, legumes — contain or form
ammonium. This increases soil acidity unless the plant directly absorbs the ammonium ions. The greater the
nitrogen fertilization rate, the greater the soil acidification. As ammonium is converted to nitrate in the soil
(nitrification), H ions are released. For each pound of nitrogen as ammonium, it takes approximately 1.8
pounds of pure calcium carbonate to neutralize the
residual acidity. Also, the nitrate that is provided or formed can combine with basic cations like calcium,
magnesium and potassium and leach from the topsoil into the subsoil. As these bases are removed and
replaced by H ions, soils become more acidic.

3. Plants
Legumes like soybeans, alfalfa and clovers tend to take up more cations in proportion to anions.
This causes H ions to be released from plant roots to maintain the electrochemical balance within their
tissues. The result is a net soil acidification.

4. Subsoil Acidity
Even if the top 6 inches of soil show a pH above 6.0, the subsoil may be extremely acidic. When
subsoil pH's drop below 5.0, aluminum and manganese in the soil become much more soluble, and in some
soils may be toxic to plant growth. Cotton and, to some extent, soybeans are examples of crops that are
sensitive to highly soluble aluminum levels in the subsoil, and crop yields may be reduced under conditions of

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 3

Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

low subsoil pH. If you’ve observed areas of stunted plants in your field, take a subsoil sample in these areas.
If the soil pH is extremely acidic (below 5.2), lime should be applied early in the fall and turned as deeply as
possible.

Liming Soil Pays

• Correcting soil acidity by the use of lime is the foundation of a good soil fertility program. Lime does
more than just correct soil acidity. It also:
• Supplies essential plant nutrients, Ca and Mg, if dolomitic lime is used
• Makes other essential nutrients more available
• Prevents elements such as Mn and Al from being toxic to plant growth.

Lime is usually added to acid soils to increase soil pH. The addition of lime not only replaces
hydrogen ions and raises soil pH, thereby eliminating most major problems associated with acid soils but it
also provides two nutrients, calcium and magnesium to the soil. Lime also makes phosphorus that is added to
the soil more available for plant growth and increases the availability of nitrogen by hastening the
decomposition of organic matter. Liming materials are relatively inexpensive, comparatively mild to handle
and leave no objectionable residues in the soil.

Some common liming materials are: (1) Calcic limestone which is ground limestone; (2) Dolomitic
limestone from ground lime

Liming Materials
Liming is the application (to soil) of calcium- and magnesium-rich materials in various forms,
including marl, chalk, limestone, or hydrated lime. In acid soils, these materials react as a base and neutralize
soil acidity. This often improves plant growth and increases the activity of soil bacteria, but oversupply may
result in harm to plant life.

Liming materials contain calcium and/or magnesium in forms, which when dissolved, will neutralize soil
acidity. Not all materials containing calcium and magnesium are capable of reducing soil acidity. For instance,
gypsum (CaSO4) contains Ca in appreciable amounts, but does not reduce soil acidity. Because it hydrolyzes
in the soil, gypsum converts to a strong base and a strong acid as shown in the following equation:

CaSO4 + 2H2O = Ca (OH)2 + H2SO4

The formed Ca (OH2) and H2SO4 neutralize each other, resulting in a neutral soil effect. On the other hand,
when calcitic (CaCO3) or dolomitic lime (Ca Mg (CO3)2) is added to the soil, it hydrolyzes (dissolves in water)
to a strong base and a weak acid.

CaCO3 + 2H2O = Ca (OH)2 + H2CO3

Calcium hydroxide is a strong base and rapidly ionizes to Ca++ and OH- ions. The calcium ions replace
absorbed H ions on the soil colloid and thereby neutralize soil acidity. The carbonic acid formed (H2CO3) is a
weak acid and partially ionizes to H+ and CO2-2 ions. Therefore, the net effect is that more ca than H ions are
released in the soil, and consequently, soil acidity is neutralized.

III. Human Activities and Soil Laboratory

The way people use land can affect the levels of nutrients and pollution in soil. Any activity that
exposes soil to wind and rain can lead to soil loss. Soil is a non-renewable resource that once it is eroded it is

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 4

Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

not renewed. Soil erosion is the permanent change of the main characteristics of soil that could see it lose its
fertility, pH, colour , humus content or structure.

Soil erosion occurs naturally by wind or harsh climatic conditions but human activities include
overgrazing, over cropping and deforestation. Since soil is so vital to human life, humans have to move and
manipulate it in order to utilize it. This, however, can lead to environmental problems, soil loss, and
degradation. Soil degradation is a human-induced or natural process which impairs the capacity of soil to
function. As an example, in 3000 BC, the Sumerians built large cities in the deserts of Southern Mesopotamia.
Using irrigation, they farmed the desert soils and created large food surpluses that made their civilization
possible. But around 2200 BC, the civilization collapsed. Scientists debate why, but one reason may be tied to
the soil. Irrigating in dry climates can cause a buildup of salt, a process called salinization. Few crops can
tolerate salt. The soil in this region still remains too salty to grow crops. Other activities that degrade the soil
include contamination, desertification, and erosion.

HUMAN ACTIVITIES AFFECTING SOIL

a. OVERGAZING
Overgrazing occurs when farmers stock too many animals such as sheep, cattle or goats on their
land. The animals damage the soil surface by eating the vegetation and either digging into wet soil or
compacting dry soil with their hooves. This can prevent grass growing and slow down the percolation of water
through the soil. This leads to the damaging of the soil structure as the level of nutrients is removed and the
air between peds is compressed out. This then can reduce the amount of water between the soil crumbs as
the weight and movement of the animals flattens and compresses the soil. Soils with less vegetation become
exposed, drier and prone to further erosion by the wind and rain. Soils that become drier tend to be
vulnerable to the winds blowing the top soil away

PREVENTION
"Forage utilization is a measure of the percent of the plant that has been consumed or
destroyed by grazing animals," says Miranda Meehan, NDSU Extension livestock environmental
stewardship specialist. "Utilization should be monitored throughout the grazing period to ensure you
achieve proper utilization, maintain plant health and prevent overuse of key species."

According to Fara Brummer, area extension livestock systems specialist at NDSU's Central
Grasslands Research Extension Center, total plant weight — not height — determines proper
utilization. Generally, proper utilization is accomplished when 50% of the total plant weight of key
species has been utilized, she says.

When determining utilization, take measurements during the grazing period and within three
days of livestock being removed, to make sure you meet target grazing goals. For accuracy, take
measurements from grazed and ungrazed plants of the same species on the same date, in order to
gather data from plants at the same stage of growth.

b. OVER CROPPING
Over cropping is when the land is being continuously under cultivation and is not allowed to lie fallow
between crops. This constant farming of the land reduces the soils ability to produce valuable humus for soil
fertility as it is constantly being ploughed or stripped for crop growth. The soil becomes drier and less fertile.
While humus is primarily needed for the addition of nutrients and minerals it is also a valuable source of air
and water needed by soil to keep it moist and aerated. With less humus the soil dries out and is open for wind
and rain erosion. Usually over cropping occurs in areas where there is a demand for crops either for market
or a large local population. Many farmers attempt to restore soil fertility by adding fertilizers or artificial
nutrients but some countries do not have this opportunity due to poverty or lack of education. In South
America soya is a quick-growing and valuable crop. The leading producers of soya in this region are Brazil
and Argentina. Despite some artificial fertilisers being added the soil is not allowed enough time to recover its
fertility or structure and is ultimately being eroded by this human activity.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 5

Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

PREVENTION:

Follow Crop Rotation

Farmers should make use of environment savvy techniques like crop rotation. Crop rotation
involves using the same piece of land to grow two different kinds of crops, instead of growing the
same in two different pieces of land. This saves land plus makes it more fertile too, lessening the
need to convert forest land into farmland.

Adopt Vegetarianism
Be a vegetarian. If you cannot give up on meat, reduce its intake to the minimum, as a
whole lot of crops and plants get wasted in feeding the animals. When animals are left to graze in the
forests, plants and trees get destroyed. So, as much as possible, make your diet from fruits and
vegetable. This will save the environment and keep you in the best of health too.

Whether it is food to eat, oxygen to breathe or beauty to see, humans derive all these things
and pleasures from trees and forests. That's why, following the above suggested tips on preventing
deforestation and saving the environment are very necessary. Saving trees means lesser
catastrophes and lesser pollution, both of which are beneficial for the survival of the human race.
Ultimately, it is individual human effort and an undeterred strive to change things on part of each one
of us, that will yield the desired results in this direction!

c. DEFORESTATION
Deforestation is the cutting down of large areas of forests leaving an open, exposed landscape.
Deforestation occurs for many reasons such as the sale of wood, charcoal or as a source of fuel, while
cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantations of commodities, and settlements. The removal of
trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity (drying of
soil)

PREVENTION:

Grow Trees
To reverse the damage that has been done due to deforestation, grow more trees.
Individuals should start this initiative by growing trees in their own backyards. Also, cutting of trees
should be checked. If at all trees need to be cut, it should be old and dead trees which are going to
collapse anyway, while the younger ones should be allowed to grow. The government on its part
should enforce a ban on cutting of trees. Fines and punishments should be imposed if rules to
safeguard trees are broken by anybody.

Spread Awareness
The government should stage campaigns and spread awareness on how deforestation has
affected humans adversely. Presentations should be made in schools and colleges on
safeguarding forests. Children should be involved in "save the forests" campaigns, because if
such beliefs are ingrained from childhood itself, the chances of them being carried forward to
adulthood, increase manifold. Along with the Government, various nongovernmental and community
organizations, should take it upon themselves, to involve the people in putting an end to cutting of
trees.

Recycle
Recycle the products made from paper, plastic and glass that you use, such as shopping
bags, bottles, books, etc. Also, buy products that are recycled. It is not just households, but even
businesses, who should focus on using recycled products, because if everybody starts doing this, it
will reduce the need for raw materials considerably and thus, less trees will be cut. On an individual
level, people should completely give up on using products that require trees to be cut. Another thing
that people can do is to avoid using firewood and coal in their fireplaces. No doubt, this is an
intelligent way to reduce your carbon imprint on this earth and prevent global warming and
deforestation as well.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 6

Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

REPUBLIC ACT No. 3701

AN ACT TO DISCOURAGE DESTRUCTION OF FORESTS, FURTHER AMENDING FOR THE PURPOSE
SECTION TWENTY-SEVEN HUNDRED FIFTY-ONE OF THE REVISED ADMINISTRATIVE CODE.
"Sec. 2751. Unlawful occupation or destruction of public forest. Without the written permission of the
Director of Forestry or his duly authorized representative, it shall be unlawful for any person willfully to enter
upon any public forest, proclaimed timberland, communal forest, communal pasture, and forest reserve and
occupy the same, or to make "caingin" therein or in any manner destroy such forest or part thereof, or to
cause any damage to the timber stand and other forest products and forest growth found therein, or to assist,
aid or abet any other person so to do. It shall also be unlawful for any person negligently to permit a fire which
has been set upon his own premises to be communicated, with destructive results, to any of the public forests
hereinabove described. Any person violating this section shall suffer

d. DESERTIFICATION
desertification, also called desertization, the process by which natural or human causes reduce the
biological productivity of drylands (arid and semiarid lands). Declines in productivity may be the result of
climate change, deforestation, overgrazing, poverty, political instability, unsustainable irrigation practices, or
combinations of these factors. The concept does not refer to the physical expansion of existing deserts but
rather to the various processes that threaten all dryland ecosystems, including deserts as well as grasslands
and scrublands.

e. MINING
Some methods of mining cause soil loss. For example,the digging of strip mines and open-pit mines
involvesthe removal of plants and soil from the surface ofthe ground.By exposing rocks and minerals to the air
and torainwater, these forms of mining speed up the rate of chemical weathering.In mining operations that
expose sulfide minerals, the increasedchemical weathering causes a type of pollution known as acid
drainage.Abandoned mines can fill with rainwater. Sulfide minerals react withthe air and the water to produce
sulfuric acid. Then the acid waterdrains from the mines, polluting the soil in surrounding areas

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7942

AN ACT INSTITUTING A NEW SYSTEM OF MINERAL RESOURCES EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT,
UTILIZATION, AND CONSERVATION
This Act shall be known as the "Philippine Mining Act of 1995." Stated that, All mineral resources in
public and private lands within the territory and exclusive economic zone of the Republic of the Philippines are
owned by the State. It shall be the responsibility of the State to promote their rational exploration,
development, utilization and conservation through the combined efforts of government and the private sector
in order to enhance national growth in a way that effectively safeguards the environment and

f. CONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

To make roads, houses, shopping malls, and other buildings, people need to dig up the soil. Some
of the soil at construction sites washes or blows away because its protective plant cover has been removed.
The soil that is washed or blown away ends up in nearby lowlying areas, in rivers and streams, or in
downstream lakes or reservoirs. This soil can cause problems by making rivers and lakes muddy and harming
the organisms that live in them. The buildup of soil on riverbeds raises the level of the rivers and may cause
flooding. The soil can also fill up lakes and reservoirs.

g. URBANIZATION
Urbanization is the transformation of unoccupied or sparsely occupied land into densely occupied
cities. Urban areas can grow from increases in human populations or from migration into urban areas.
Urbanization often results in deforestation, habitat loss, and the extraction of freshwater from the environment,
which can decrease biodiversity and alter species ranges and interactions. Human activities in urban areas,
such as the burning of fossil fuels and industrial waste also increases pollutants in the environment that can
affect the health of humans and other species.

Traditionally, the impact of soils and the environment in general has been seen as entirely negative through
pollution, salination soil sealing and the like. Urbanization is responsible for large environmental changes
worldwide.

h. EROSION
Erosion occurs when soil particles are detached, transported, and deposited. Erosion is a natural

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 7

Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

geologic process, examples of geologic erosion can be found in this animation by McDougal and Little;
however, humans can accelerate the process by removing cover. Accelerated erosion occurs at 10-1000
times the natural rate. Erosion can happen in all of the biomes on earth, and can be caused by removing trees
or grasses. Removing the soils generally leads to other types of degradation and reduced food production.
Soil can be eroded by wind or water.

i. ACIDIFICATION
Acidification occurs when the basic cations (like Calcium and Magnesium) leach from the soil, leaving
the acidic cations in the soil (Hydrogen, Aluminum, iron and manganese). The pH decreases and soil
becomes more acidic. This is a natural process in weathering. However, the use of certain fertilizers to
provide food, like anhydrous ammonia, causes soil to become more acidic much faster. This can occur in all
biomes.

IV. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

What is solid waste?

Solid waste are all the wastes arising from human and animal activities that are normally solid and that
are discarded as useless or unwanted waste (also known as rubbish, trash, refuse, garbage, junk, litter, and
ort) is unwanted or useless materials. In biology, waste is any of the many unwanted substances or toxins that
are expelled from living organisms, metabolic waste; such as urea and sweat.

What should be done to solid wastes?

There are the 3R's that should be applied to solid wastes to to manage and address residual solid wastes.
This are: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Solid Waste Flow Chart :

Industrial process

Waste reduction

Waste Generation
Re-use
Storage

Transfer/Transport Processing/Recover
Collection
y

Disposal Recycling Re-use

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Waste Reduction:Is a process that can be redesigned to reduce the amount of waste generated
Waste Generation:Waste generation encompasses those activities in which materials are identified as no
longer being of value and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal.
Reduce: is to bring down to a smaller extent, size, amount, number, etc.
Reuse:Waste may be diverted to reuse
Recycle: is to treat or process (used or waste materials) so as to make suitable for reuse
Disposal: is the act or means of getting rid of something

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 8

Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Types of solid waste

• Municipal Solid wastes: Solid wastes that include household garbage, rubbish, construction &
demolition debris, sanitation residues, packaging materials, trade refuges etc. are managed by any
municipality.
• Bio-medical wastes: Solid or liquid wastes including containers, intermediate or end products
generated during diagnosis, treatment & research activities of medical sciences.
• Industrial wastes: Liquid and solid wastes that are generated by manufacturing & processing units of
various industries like chemical, petroleum, coal, metal gas, sanitary & paper etc.
• Agricultural wastes: Wastes generated from farming activities. These substances are mostly
biodegradable.
• Fishery wastes: Wastes generated due to fishery activities. These are extensively found in coastal &
estuarine areas.
• Radioactive wastes: Waste containing radioactive materials. Usually these are byproducts of nuclear
processes. Sometimes industries that are not directly involved in nuclear activities, may also produce
some radioactive wastes, e.g. radio-isotopes, chemical sludge, etc.

PROCESSING QUESTIONS

1. How does the presence of organic matter in the soil contribute to its chemical composition and
fertility?
2. What are the main factors that influence soil pH, and how does pH affect nutrient availability to
plants?
3. Explain the buffering capacity of soil and its role in maintaining stable pH levels. How does buffering
capacity impact soil management practices?
4. Describe the chemical reactions involved in soil acidification and alkalization. How do these reactions
affect plant growth and soil health?
5. What are the potential impacts of human activities such as agriculture and industrial practices on soil
chemistry? How can these impacts be mitigated or minimized?
6. How can soil laboratory analysis help in assessing soil health and guiding appropriate soil
management practices? Describe the various techniques used in soil laboratory testing.
7. Discuss the different soil remediation techniques used to address soil contamination. What factors
should be considered when selecting a suitable remediation method for a specific soil contamination
issue?

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 9