1.

Red ochre ware, Painted grey ware and Northern black polished ware (during Buddhism)
2. Chandragupta Maurya Jainism, Bimdusar Aajivika, Ashoka Shaivism then Buddhism
3. Pushyamitra shunga brahmanism Patanjali Mahabhashya in his court
4. Mahameghavahana king kharavela hathigumpha prashasti first mention of Bharatvarsh
5. 50 BC to 50 AD period of Roman trade with India
6. Vikram Samrat 58 bc, Shaka era 78ad, kalachuri era 249ad abhira ishvarasena, Gupta era
Chandragupta 320ad, harsh era 606ad, Lakshman era 1191ad
7. Kashyapa Matanga and Guru Padmasambhava introduced Buddhism to China and Tibet
8. Foreign travellers visited India:- Fa-hien Chandragupta 2, megasthenes Chandragupta Maurya
Indika, Hsuan Tsang Harsha (visited Nalanda University), Al Masudi Mahipala, Venetian Marco
Polo Pandyas king Madurai and Kakatiya port motupalli, Nicolo conti(devraya), Domingo
Paes(vira Narasimha),
9. 1807 slave trade abolished in british Empire, 1813 Christian missionaries permitted to preach
in british India, 1835 Bentick’s resolution on education presented Macaulay minute, 1854 Sir
Charles woods education dispatch, 1869 opening of Suez Canal, 1868 India’s first evening
paper the Madras mail, 1884 hunter education commission on education, 1891 first factory
act and age of consent to marriage act the famous marriage legislation, 1892 petroleum
discovered in Assam, 1893 Durand boundary agreement, 1916Sadler commission on higher
education, 1937 Abbott and Wood submitted a report on technical education
10. 483BC first Buddhist council immediately after the death of Buddha- sattapani-
mahakashyapa-Vinay pitaka(upali), sutta pitaka(ananda); 3803BC 2nd Buddhist council at
Vaishali- Sabakami-sthaviravadins and mahasanghikas; 250 BCthird Buddhist council at
Pataliputra(ashoka)-mogaliputta tissa- Abhi Dhamma pitaka attempt to maintain unity in
Buddhist Sangha; first and second century AD fourth Buddhist council(Kanishka)- vasumitra
and Ashvaghosha - Hinayana and Mahayana(started image worship and the first image of
Buddha was carved out in the style of Gandharva school of Art)
11. The ability to make stone tools is a cultural act. The classification of early human cultures is
thus based on the types of tools they made and used. Based on tool making it is divided into
Palaeolithic(based mainly upon Flake industry- bhimbetaka, Adamgarh hills)
Mesolithic(characterised by the reduction in the size of established tools, blade making, long
parallel blades, microliths:- bagor, Morhana pahar-Rock shelters with rock paintings, Crude
handmade pottery) and neolithic(cultivation animal husbandry and settled life). In South India
neolithic sites appeared at a later date (2500 bc/7000bc). Neolithic is further divided into
ceramic and a ceramic neolithic(mehragarh, burzahom realms of religion are developed,
concepts like life after death transmigration of soul and cycle of rebirth, Burial with grave
goods, houses of mud bricks, pottery was handmade and ill fired, evidence of rice.) Floral and
faunal remains give us idea about the subsistence pattern where as the burials and rock
paintings give us ideas about the development of religious practises. Rich art of painting
crayoning rather than painting hunting scenes animals are frequent subjects deer and
antelope are frequently represented bows arrows spears animal aided human figures social
activities like sexual union childbirth burial ceremony
12. Chalcolithic copper-ahar culture, kayatha ware, malwa ware, jorwe ware, savalda ware, nal
and kulli culture:-Village farming the base of modern rural India crop patterns dependence on
cattle
13. Iron age is associated with painted grey ware
14. Indus civilisation:- from Suktagendor to Alamgirpur and from Manda to Bhagtrav. Bronze Age,
Population was heterogeneous and comprise of four different racial types that is Auto
Australia and Mediterranean Alpinoid and mongoloid. It is different from Sumerian city as they
were developed around the temple and followed a circular pattern
1. Citadel(parallelogram and walls are reinforced by bastions[to defend Township from
strong attacks but where 50 major from robbers and cattle raiders], stood on
platform, located at West,) and lower city, Great bath, great granary. Main streets
dividing the area into blocks of roughly equal size and approximately rectangle in
shape. Noteworthy features water supply and drainage system. Knew the art of
water conservation(Dholavira), dockyard and tidal port(Lothal), standardisation of
brick size, Town planning and sanitation, Use of burnt bricks for important
structures, degree of uniformity in town planning and structural plans, Accuracy
and uniformity of denomination, shapes and weights
2. Gold silver lead arsenic antimony Nickel was known. More use of copper and
bronze. Other material used is Ivory lapidary steatite shells stoneware.
 3. Womb of mathematics concept of numbers(decimal), the numerical system,
mathematical manipulation addition and multiplication, world’s first tidal port,
knowledge of tide and ebb
4. Stone sculptures are limited because it is rarely available and expensive.
Pashupatinath seal, mother goddess seal, Phallic and yoni worship, animal
worship, tree worship, worship associated with fire
5. Urban society high level of social stratification- specialised crafts, variation of
house sizes, disposition of dead bodies in the grave social hierarchy. Presence of
ruling class, pastoral groups, rural population, village craft, agriculturists, menial
workers
6. Economic life:-subsistence patterns, trade, livestock resources, Crops and craft,
means of transport
7. Survival and continuance:- pashupati shiva, lingam, science, Numerical and
decimal system help Vedic mathematics, Harappan ways of making pottery bricks
and jewellery was adopted in later civilisations, Cotton cultivation, india’s trade
relations with Central and West Asia, But art of writing and Town planning was
petered out. Weights were divided into 16 or its multiples the tradition of 16 has
continued in India up to modern times and till recently 16 Anna constituted one
rupee

Vedic and later vedic age(sapta sindhava-Himalaya and Tibet in the East, Turkistan in the north,
Afghanistan in the west and Aravali in the South)

1. Traits of Aryan culture- Horse it’s domestication and diffusion war Cheruiyot spoke wheels bit
dwelling cremation Fire cult animal sacrifice cult of Soma language
2. Vedic tribes the famous battle of 10 Kings, Non aryan tribes called as Dasas and
Dasyus(selfish, non-sacrificing and notorious cattle lifters), trasadasyus,
3. Religious ideas-Solely theists, No scientific outlook, concept of one in many, worship various
forces of nature, believe in the basic unity of nature, worship many gods for gaining their
favours, hymns are mostly sung to appease them and to glorify them. Natural phenomena are
conceived as the expression of some spiritual being this led to the rise of mythology. Famous
God swear Indra Agni Soma Varuna. Philosophy of golden embryo hymn of creation, Sacrifice
grihkarmani rajsuya vajpeya ashvamedh sulugava,
4. Polity- concept of territory was completely absent, tribal chief Rajan/Janasya gopa, purohita,
slaves, did not have elaborate administrative machinery because economy could not support
it, King and his officials receive only Bali that is offering to a prince or to a God. No regular
taxation.
1. Tribal assemblies:- Vidhatha, Sabha(judicial authority), Samiti
2. Later vedic quality changed due to transition to a territorial government, changes in
the material basis, expansion and shift in the centre of activity, iron tools and
weapons, small community emerged to become larger unit, regular taxes, society
became differentiated on the basis of Varna hierarchy, nature of kinship was
transform, Kingship became hereditary, Sabha and Samiti got an aristocratic
flavour and monopolised by male gender
5. Vedic society:- Family was primary unit of production and consumption, Griha for family and
Kulapa for eldest member, fourfold Varna system, position of women was much
better( Ghosha, Apala, Lopamudra, Vishvawara), no child marriages, widow Marriage, allowed
to offer sacrifices on their own, girls consent for marriage( sapta paid and Panigrahana), No
system of sati,
1. Oral system of education and art of writing was not developed, Gayathri mantra.
Woman allowed opinion system subjects where Veda spiritual knowledge grammar
ethics astronomy and military science
2. Social changes- brahmanas Became predominant, growth of the cult of sacrifice
status was decided by birth, Vaishyas the majority of population, shudra were
oppressed. Institution of gotra became important
6. Vedic economy- primary pastoral and agricultural Domesticated animals specially cattle which
was main medium of exchange, Arts and craft importance of agriculture grew.
7. Difference between Indo and vedic culture- sources archaeological versus literary, original
inhabitants versus Aryan invasion, urban versus rural, Town planning versus Messi, trade
 versus agrarian, Copper bronze culture versus Iron Age, Horse, Peaceloving versus war, gods
and worship, Black or red pottery versus painted grey ware, ethnic city, food consumption,
language

State formation- Mahajan pada

1. Reasons- Social stratification emergence of urban centres ideological support Jainism and
Buddhism Iron(war and clearing forests and plough-clayey soil) NBPW, Fields were divided
according to their productivity, irrigation was provided, agricultural calendar based on six
seasons, new plants and fruit varieties, demographic revolution, beginning of written tradition,
wooden houses, use of coins(Silver and copper punched mark coins with various kind of
symbols which allowed development of organised commerce and exchange system has it
made savings easy and tax collection easy gave birth to money lenders)
2. Major urban centres-Champa, Bhrigukachchha, Rajgriha, Saketa, Kaushambi. Grew around
the intersection of two main highways all along the river bank
3. Trade- Brisk foreign and inland trade in terms of cloth luxury goods silk armour for a few in
ivory jewellery. Voyages to Sri Lanka and Burma from Tamralipti and to west from
Bhrigukachhcha.
4. Society- Mini heterodox sects Jainism Buddhism Ajivikism. Knowledge of writing earliest
script Brahmi. Social equation turned in the favour of Kshatriya. Varna was not significant
society was largely demarcated into land owners and workers.
1. Caste system which became social reality. Land grant to Brahmins in monarchical
states. With expansion of trade artisans organise themselves into gilds and came
to be commonly referred as Shreni.
2. Guild in habited a particular section of a town and work together developing a
close knit relationship this ultimately resulted in transformation of guild into Jati and
all these occupational castes where allotted a shudra status in the traditional Varna
hierarchy
3. Slavery and untouchability(antyajas and Bahyas)

Jainism and Buddhism

1. Factors behind the rise
1. Introduction of new agricultural techniques Iron- existing social order did not favour
these developments
2. Opposition to sacrifices is significance in the context of agriculture- doctrine of
nonviolence
3. Rise of urban settlements city population trade and industry. Society’s attitude was
not favourable. Traders who dealt in liquids perfumes clothes leather and
foodgrains where particularly look down(this most converts were recruited from
trading class)
4. Approval of Sea voyages
5. Concept of debt
6. Class of alienate it women who took prostitution as a source of livelihood
7. Buddhist texts accorded the first place to Kshatriyas and 2nd to Brahmins
8. Economic inequalities
9. Contrast between lifestyle of monks and greedy life of Brahmins. Vedic philosophy
lost its purity
10. Opposition to slave trade by Buddhism
11. Buddhism was endorsed by the state
12. Reaching in the language of masses Sanskrit was beyond the comprehension of
masses
13. Brutality of caste dominance of Brahmins
14. Common background of Aryan culture and where motivated by the philosophy of
Upanishad. Their idea about karma rebirth moksha had been inspired by
Upanishad.
2. Jainism- ahimsa, asatya, Asateya, aparigraha, brahmachrya( 5 vows). 12 angas, not a founder
but a reformer of a win established creed. Simple life ultimate aim to attain Nirvana/Kaivalya.
Not oppose the theory of caste system did not approve the restrictions. Did not believe in the
existence of God and salvation depends on his own act. Believe in Karma. Jiva and Atma.
 KFC. Royal patrons- Ashokas grandson Sampriti, Kharavela, Ganga, kadamba, Chalukya,
rashtrakuta-jinasena, amoghvarsha became Jain monk wrote Ratnamalika. Badami, Aihole.
1. Contribution- Prakrit and Ardgamagadhi, STupa, hathigumha caave, udaigiri
and khandgiri cave, Kushana mathura, Bahubali- shrawan and Karkala..
Ranakpur dilwara. Gold dust western Indian school of painting. Development of
language philosophy architecture sculpture and painting.
3. Buddhism- triratra, four noble truth(suffering, its cause, cessation, and the path leading to the
cessation of suffering-eight fold path). No permanent immortal soul. Sangha.
4. Similarity between Jainism and Buddhism- both the law of karma, against the corruption of
Brahmanism, differed from orthodox Hinduism, Common language of people, denounced
caste system, advocated equality of men and women, both were kShathriya princess, drawing
inspiration from Upanishad, Patronised by kings
5. Differences between Jainism and Buddhism- Jains gave prominent place to laity while
Buddhism relied mainly on monastic order, Conept of Nirvana was fundamentally different
6. Buddhism proved to be one of the greatest civilising forces which India gave to the
neighbouring countries. The isolation of India and established an intimate contact between
India and foreign countries it is the greatest gift to the outer world

The Mauryan Empire

1. Sources of modern history:- Epigraphical evidences- Girnar Rock edict construction of a dam
for irrigation by Pushyagupta(14 major rock edicts, minor rock edicts, seven pillar edicts),
literary sources-religious(Jataka, Ashokavadana, Divyavadana) and secular(Arthashastra,
Mudrarakshasa Vishakhadatta, Rajatarangini) literature(Script and language used was
Kharoshti, Brahmi, Prakrit, Aramaic, Greek), foreign sources (Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny the
elder, Deimachus), archaeological excavations, Art evidences, numismatic evidences(neither
bear the name of any ruler nor do they carry any date, most of them have symbols like the sun
moon mountain animals birds)
2. Ashokas Dhamma-Basic unity of all religions, Equal respect to all, Dhamma was not a religion
but a moral law, common code of conduct and ethical order. Various measures to propagate
Dhamma( Dhamma lipi, Dhamma Yatra, Dhamma mahamatra, admin measures, welfare
measures, public works specially irrigation, Census, public health. He held that if people
behaved well they would go to heaven but never said that they would attain Nirvana which
was the goal of Buddhism Asoka‘s teachings where does intended to maintain the existing
social order on the basis of tolerance.
3. Mauryan administration:- centralised government gave death knell to Republic, King did not
claim any divine origin rather be the representative of God (devanampriya), Kautilya characters
of King, bureaucracy, superintendents or Adhyakshas, Develop intelligence and espionage,
Well organised army into infantry, cavalry, chariotry, elephantary, Navy and commissariat (war
council), revenue (Bali-religious tribute and bhaga-on agricultural produce and cattle at the
rate of 1/6).
4. Society:- more or less similar to later vedic period. Rarely Sati, freedom to widow. Inroads
made by foreign elements from North West frontier. New ideas and forms of arts were
introduced and thus began a fusion of different cultural elements. Ultimately resulted into the
formation of composite culture of India.
5. Economy:- Political unification gave great flip to economy. agriculturen(janpadnivesha), trade
routes, trade, contact with west, organisation of trade, state control over traders, shipbuilding
industry, textiles, forest produce, mining and metal work. Great network of trade both Inland
and external increase the power and position of Mercantile class(Increased importance of
guilds- Yajnavalkya Smriti)
6. Mauryan art:- first organised arts activity in India. Give the country a visible unity of culture.
Indian art was raised from the position of the handicraft and primitive art to the status and
dignity of fine art. royal palace, sculptures-pillars highly polished that had hardly any parallel in
the world except in ancient Iran, court art.
1. Pillar- excellent crafts Manship, shining polish and majestic animal capitals. Red
and white sandstone from Mathura and hard grey sandstone from Chunar near
Varanasi. Eg Sarnath, Lauriyanandangarh single Lion, Rampura Garuda.

Post Mauryan Period

1. Shunga, Kanava, meghavahana, satvahana, Indo Greek(milindpanho), Shaka(kshatrapal
system), Pahlava/Parthians, kushana( Vima kadphises II introduced gold coins in India and
was a convert of Shaivism, Kanishka-from Ganga to Oxus-silk route controlled all three
branches
2. They did not have their own script written language or any organised religion they adopted
these components from India and became an integral part of Indian society. Introduced better
cavalry popularise the use of saddles turban trousers heavy long coatHelmet cap boot
3. Administration- decentralisation, revival of small kingdoms and few republics. Feudatory
relations with smaller kingdoms(eg satvahanas with maharathis and Ikshvakus), kshatrapal
system, Stands between greek Shaka parthian and system on one hand and Gupta system on
the other. Practice of dual governorship in the province. To counter centrifugal forces
proclaimed association of divine elements with the king(Devputra and devkula)
4. Discovery of monsoon. Trade through Khyber pass Bolan pass. Merv, Herat, Bactria,
Samarkand, bamiyan, Uttaroatha, dakshinpatha. Tamralipti, uraiyur, Amaravati, Shravasti,
purushpura, Vidisha, kaushambi, sakala, mathura, champa etc. trade with Sri Lanka and
south-east Asia (suvarnabhumi-sandalwood clove pepper tin iron pearls tortoise shell)
5. Increased importance of guild- State should honour the laws of the guilds, guild officers held
in High esteem, sometimes perform public functions most of the times act as trust and banks,
Some of them have their own seals, have their own rules of work and laws.
6. Change in social status of vaishya and shudra, Known as Kali age. Caste system emerged
through fragmentation and consolidation as well as incorporation of tribals and foreign
communities. Nirvasitas and anirvasitas(chandala, Hadi, doma). Purity and pollution, Anglo a
and pratiloma marriage(mixing of jati). Raise in economic status shudras refuse to perform
their duties Manu reaffirms the old theory that the king should compel the vaishya to trade and
a shudra to serve three upper varnas. Satavahana’s declared themselves to have been the
restorer of Varna Ashram Dharma.
7. Culture:- substantial reduction in state patronage and increased patronage by diverse social
groups and consequent spread of art activities all over India. Use of non-perishable materials.
Constant integration of foreign elements. Inspiration from Jainism and Buddhism, art is free
from the overpowering influence of the court and it reached a large section of people. Origins
of regional scripts, secular architecture(cities, protecting walls, watchtower, gateways, royal
palaces) and religious architecture(stupa-Sanchi,purushpura; rock Cut architecture cave(Karle,
kanheri, nagrjunkona)
8. Sculpture:- reach to people hence known as classical movement.
1. Gandhara school of art-North West province is and part of Afghanistan Bamiyan,
swat Valley. From sixth century BC to4 centuryAD. Influence of greek kushana
shaka parthian.. hybrid culture. Dark grey slate in the beginning and terracotta later.
First time anthropomorphic shape. Resembles the greek God Apollo. Representing
scenes from the life of Buddha minute details. Influence of Hellenistic art.
2. Mathura school of Art- converging point of many trade routes. Not see a meteoric
rise witnessed continuous development. Red sand stone from Sikri. Abhay Mudra.
Artist show awareness of Gandara art. Evidenced by drapery, curls on head, full
eyes and lips with sharp cuts and heavy upper eyelid. Brahmanical Images also
belong here, no greek Hellenistic influence, highly decorated hello, bold figures,
hey sis are round and smiling,
3. Amravati school of art- From 200 BC to 400AD. Patronised by Satavahana and
later by Ikshvakus, Krishna Godavari Valley including Nagarjuna Konda, contain
images from the life of Buddha and Jataka tales. Dream of Maya before Buddha‘s
birth
4. Haranath school of art flourished during Gupta age Little ornamentation simple and
supply plane transparent drapery
9. Element of wall paintings in Ajanta and Ellora.
10. Language and literature:- Development of regional languages like Magadhi, Surneni,
Maharashtri, Avanti,paisachi. Languages of Vedas became obsolete and cultivated only by
priests. Pali. Attempt to simplify the grammar and vocabulary of Sanskrit( katyayana and
Patanjali), words borrowed from non-Aryan languages. Ashvaghosha 1st to use Sanskrit for
composition of plays. Shakas 1st to introduce Sanskrit inscription. Brahmi and kharoshti
script. Ramayana and Mahabharat were enlarged and finalised. Paishachi-bihatkatha
gunadhya, Bharata natyashastra, hala gathasaptasati, bhasa-swapnavasavadattam and
urubhangam, smritis almost completed
11. Scientific development- Metallurgy, simple machines to spray water for cooling purposes-
variyantra, engineering skills dance relations geometry fire altars, seven days division of a
week and names of satellites Roman borrowings. Dear medicine surgical equipments 25 types
of nine needles. Charaka charaksamhita(kanishka), iron pillar of Mehraul, Gold coinage
number of weapons shipbuilding

Gupta
1. Coincided with an overwhelming revival of Brahmanism. Brahmins dominated various other
levels of state structure as well. Proud parambhagavatas. Concept of empire. Death blow to
Republican form of government. Both of agriculture and trade maintenance of Varna Ashram
dharma. Repeatedly compared to different gods. Caste and family where important
considerations in the recruitment of officers. Less burden of taxation. Did not maintain large
administrative establishments as done by Maria. Coercive role of state. Clear line between civil
and criminal law(Brihaspati Smruti- dhanamula and hinsamula). Gupta king was not so
powerful as Maurya. Army bureaucracy and taxation system was not as elaborate as those of
the Maurya. Systematic provincial and local administration, elevation of village administration
to a higher position.
2. Samudragupta defeated Rudra Sena Vakataka Dynasty to commemorate his victory erected
Vishnu Temple at Eran. Prayag prashasti Allahabad pillar inscription poet harisena. Kaviraja-
Krishna charitam. Ashvamedha sacrifice, vasubndhu his court. Title Vikramaditya. What is
regarded as equal to gods Kubera, Varuna, Indra, Yama.
3. Chandragupta II Vikramaditya Kalidas. Fahien. Shakari. Simha Vikrama.
4. Budhhagupta- Visible decay, huna invasion, coins also so decline gold coins are very
rare(desperate attempt to maintain gold currency by reducing the content of pure gold). Rise
of Feudatory tendencies and consolidation of samantas. practice of land grants, surrender of
revenue and administrative rights resulted in huge loss of revenue. Difficult to maintain huge
armies.Growth of royal family, polygamy, Number of claimants, Energy is wasted in court
affairs. Lucrative foreign trade diminished considerably(Migration of a Guild of silk weavers
from Gujarat to Malwa and their adoption of non-productive professions show that there was
not much demand for clothes produced by them). Declining economic resources
5. House of Pushyabhuti:-Thaneshvar, bhandi, defeated by Pilkeshi2, hsuen tsang,
Harshavardhana- harshacharitra by Banbhatta, Nagananda, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika. peace
for more than 30 years and efficient administration. Took active part in administration. One
fourth of his revenue towards intellectual eminence and one for gifts to various sects. Nalanda.
Signs of transition from ancient to mediaeval times.
6. Pallava- narasimhavarman1- pulkeshi2 vatapikonda, invaded Ceylon, ram’s conquest!!! Hiuen
tSang, Badami hinduism Jainism and Buddhism. Great builder Seaport Mamallapuram.
Sanskrit poet Dandin
7. New epoch in the history of Sanskrit literature. It reached its perfection in both form and
content. Sanskrit replaced Prakrit in heterodox sects like Jainism and Buddhism. Became
lingua franca of India. Purana, smriti, Kalidasa, bharavi(kiratarjuniya), bhatti(Bhattikavya),
magha(shishuoalavadha), shudrak(mrichhakatika)
8. Mathematics and astronomy Varāhamihira(brihatsamhita) and Aryabhata(Aryabhattiya-
geometry, area of triangle, theorem on similarity of triangle, area of circle, value of pi to 4
places, algebra in mathematics, formula for some of arithmetic progression, rotation of the
earth, functions in astronomy, discovered the accurate formula to measure the decrease or
increase the duration of two consecutive days, epicyclic theory to explain variations in
planetary motion method of finding the duration of an eclipse accurate calculation for the
length of the year).
9. Need of Temple age of experiments.
10. Office of Kayastha. Gradual elevation in the social status of shudras. Social status of
Vaishya(due to decline of commerce) was downgraded. Antyajas. Sati and widow no
remarriage. polygamy. Lowering of marriageable age of girls. Multiplication of caste rigidity of
caste system of Verna and caste begin to regarded as synonyms. Foreign elements which
cannot be put in any three higher classes where naturally designated as shudra. Strong
localism transformation of craft into caste. Political influence of royal ladies can be traced in
the records of Deccan and South India(princesses becoming governors of provinces queen
ballamahadevi of Alupa Dynasty Karnataka)
11. Gupta coins were not as pure as Kushanas, Gupta copper coins are few in numbers this
suggests that the use of money did not touch the common people.

Sangam literature
1. It is arranged in eight anthologies called Ettutokai.
2. Social evolution they show that the early Tamil people were primarily pastoral hunters and
fishermen do they also produced rice. Don’t swear meant primarily for war and hunting. Booty
what is an important source of livelihood. When a hero dies he is reduced to a piece of stone
this reminds of the circle of stone megalithic people raising hero stones known as virarkal
3. Tokkalapiyam, tirukural, manimekslai, silappadikaram.

Coins are more important than text however grammatical words of funny and Patanjali have
comparatively free from myths and legends and are therefore as important as coins inscriptions
and the results of excavation. Royal inscriptions contain exaggeration.

Early mediaeval India

1. Indian feudalism model
1. Political decentralisation- wide range of semi autonomous rulers
2. Emergence of landed intermediaries-due to practice of land grants
3. Naturalisation of economy changes from market economy to self-sufficient villages
that is ruralisation. Crystallisation of Jajmani system.
4. Subjection of peasantry-A mobility force labour payment of revenue at exorbitantly
high rate pattern of rural stratification
5. Proliferation of cost
6. Formation of regional cultural unit- chandlas khajuraho
7. Lack of inter-regional mobility and contacts were mainly confined to march of
soldiers and migration of monks-Regional languages regional script migration of
monks birth of new regional dialects and tantrism. Local gods and goddesses were
identified as incarnation of Vishnu Shiva and Durga
2. Turkish invasions Mahmud Ghazni.(17 expeditions from 1000 AD to 1027AD) generally left
Ghajini at the end of indien rainy season spring winter in India and return to Ghajini in March
April before beginning of next rainy season. Shahabuddin Mohammed Ghori. Alberuni(tahkik e
hind-talks about social conditions of India caste system marriage position of women and
festivals also political conditions and detailed account of the religious and economic life of the
period)
3. Literature and science- bhoja paramara(kavirajamarga, prashnottarmalika,
samarangansutrashar), rajatarangini, Gita Govindam Jayadeva, mammat, rajashrkhara, prose
literature(kathasaritassagar somadeva), drama (harikeli nataka-visaladeva, nalavilasa-
Ramachandra), astronomy and mathematics(bhaskaracharya-siddhanta Shiromani)
4. Rashtrakuta (Krishna 1 Kailash temple), Chola(rajaraja- shiva temple Tanjore, Rajendra 1-
gangaikondacholapuram)
5. Chola- Great builders irrigation projects excavating tanks across Cauvery, artificial lakes,
Grand trunk Road many temples massive Vimana(Rajarajeshwara temple, Nataraja temple
Chidambaram), patronise painting(pradakshina passage).
1. Chola administration- autonomous self sufficient villages village assemblies.
Uttaramerur inscription, local administration was entrusted to committees of 6
to 12 in number(variyam), rules for the election of various committees,
qualifications based on property age tax and knowledge, exclusion based on
previous elections improper previous working and crimes. Action by a lot
system. No payment was made for the service of committee members. Village
committee has rights over communal land, reclamation of forest and waste
lands, cooperation with royal officials, local revenue collection, land disputes,
surveys, maintenance of roads, maintenance of tanks etc. Little republics.
2. Role of south Indian temples- social economic and cultural. Bank, treasury,
fortresses, court houses, Park, fair, exhibitions, promotion of handicraft, patrons
of dance, music and diverse cultural activities, centres of learning, medical
treatments. Famine relief, employer Temple land landlord Temple and
moneylender.
6. Shankaracharya:- Advaitha school of Shaivism, divided India into four zones for better
administration and established Matha in each zone(jyotirmatha-Badrinath, sharadapitha
 Dwarka, govardhanamatha Puri and Sringeri), Brahmasutrabhashya, commentaries on
upnishadas, Bhagavadgita, Philosophy to the goal of liberation from the bonds of trance
migratory existence which arise from the consequences of our action. Kevaladvaita. Digvijaya,
Bharati school.

Delhi Sultanat
1. Founded by Qutubuddin Aibak viceroy of Muhammad Gori. Iltumish declared Delhi capital,
Muhammad bin Tughluq declared Daulatabad and Sikandar Lodi declared Agra.
2. Five ruling dynasties ilbari, Khalji, tughluq,(Turkish) saiyid, Lodi(afghans)
3. Iltumish started the practice of IQTA As assignment of land in lieu of salary. Laid foundation of
Midival administration. Appointed his daughter as a ruler Razia.
4. Balban- ziliilahi, sizda, paibos, celebration of Persian New Year Navroz. Amir Khusarau
(khazain-up-futuh) Amir Hassan. Blood And iron policy
5. Allauddin Khilji-kingship knows no kinship, no Mansur from caliph called himself a deputy
Khalifa. Malik Muhammad Jayasi Padmaavat. Command of Malik kafur, Believe that truly
Islamic State was a utopia in India, revenue reforms(zabita-revenue regulation, Biswa, khalisa,
khum and ghanima, House tax Pasture tax) military reforms(paid in cash, Dagh and chehra),
market or economic regulations(to maintain a large and efficient army, but several
commodities were of little or no use to soldiers, zawabit, no hoarding, separate markets for
various commodities, vigilance, Removed intermediaries)
6. Muhammad bin Tughluq- Great scholar of Persian Arabic astronomy philosophy mathematics
medicine and logic. Religious discussions with Hindu Yogi and Jain sent such as Rajasekhar
and Jeena Prabha Suri. Visited tomb of Moinuddin Chishti at Ajmer, built mausoleum of
Nizamuddin Auliya at Delhi, offended ulema by curbing their political influence and tried to
resolve secular problems through secular methods, believed in geopolitical unity of India and
wanted to break all political as well as cultural barriers, all offices were open to talented
people. One of the wonders of the age in which he lived. 5 Ambitious projects(transfer of
capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, Introdction of token currency, planning an expedition for Iran
and khorasan, conquest of Qarachil, ibn-Batuta
7. Feroz Shah Tughlaq- populist policy, choose to abide by the Shariat, pacifiers ulema, abolition
of 23 taxes and substituted them with only four(kharaj, jakat, jeziah, khum), iqta hereditary.
Dept of slaves, civil works,
8. Polity- idea of kingship divine origin and representatives of God, Sultan supreme bound by no
law, nobility, ulema

Vijaynagar Empire
1. Founded by Harihara and Bukka. Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu.
2. Krishnadevaraya- Military leader great administrator, Amuktamalyada, Telugu, Sanskrit,
Abhinava bhoja, Ashta Diggaja, pedanna, Andhra pitamaha, town Nagalapuram, Gopurams
3. Nayaka. Village assemblies are not as strong as Chola assemblies. Every village has a
separate unit and its affairs were conducted by a body of 12 functionaries who were
collectively known as ayagaras.
4. Champions of protecting the caste system. Economic changes led to upward social mobility

Indo Islamic culture

1. Association of Islam with India has been almost as old as its origin and not through the
invaders. Muslim scholars studied Hindu philosophy and sciences such as systems of yoga
and Vedanta medicine and astrology the Hindus learn from Muslims subjects like geography
arithmetic and chemistry. Mutual linguistic exchange led to the development of Hindi along
with Urdu. Marriages. Unlike previous invaders Turkish Musalman’s treated India as their own
home and not as a colony of foreign country they came to live here and share the way of life of
the land and adopted accordingly. Hindustani way of life.
2. Factors which have contributed to the growth of the Indo Islamic culture
1. System of common administration
2. Rise of common language
3. Sufi and bhakti movements
4. Development of Indo Persian literature
3. Hindus were employed in the state services spirit of mutual harmony and cooperation and
tolerance respect to Hindu saints and Sadhus donated money for the construction of temples.
4. Dowry system Parda system evil eye cast system Bhaktism Sufism horoscope latitudes
5. Vocabulary of Punjabi Hindi Bengali Gujarati Marathi was enriched. Second part of Raj
Tharangini(jonaraja), Persian writings were translated into Sanskrit(Love story of Yusuf and
Zuleikha, tutinama), Amir khusauro(sabakehindi, khajain-ul-futuh, nuh siphr, laila majanu,
tughluqnamah)
6. Architecture- utilitarian especially mosque(Qutub Minar, alai Darwaza, quwwat ul Islam
Mosque, Tughlaqabad how’s Khas Lodhi Garden Jami Masjid Who is Shah Kotla
1. Hindu architecture- solidity and Grace, Wall carving, Hindu motifs like then lots
swastika
2. Muslim architecture- arc dog Minar Jio metrical devices, simple austerity, earlier
beam was replaced by arc and Shikhar was replaced by dome, use of lime and
mortar, use of stone plastered with gypsum, calligraphy of Quranic saying, minars,
Mehrab, jali work.
7. Painting- painting of human figures or of anything representing human life was not agreeable
to the orthodox Muslim, number of Sub-Styles, Rajput style Pahari style Kangra style.
Predecessor to Mogul painting
8. Music- amir Khusro, invented a new raga, composed kavali and Khayal, adopted instruments
like sitar Tabla and Dhrupad style, Akbar was a great lover of music, new varieties of ragas like
Tarana Thumri Ghazal, translated Sanskrit works into Persian example Sangeet Ratnakar of
Sarang Dave, kathak, Raga Tharangini, Sangeeta Shiromani.

Sufism and bhaktism

1. Seeds are found in Upanishad Bhagwat Gita and Bhagwat Puran.
2. Various Sufi saints settle down in India ShaikhMoinuddinChishti Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya.
3. They freed the Indian society from the dogmatic believe ritualism caste and communal hatred
both movements prospered without any conflict and both contributed to each other’s ideas
and practices both are democratic movements preached simple religion Language of the
masses neither craved for political patronage nor bothered political development common
elements of intellectuality opposed ritualism and ceremonialism, Low and liberal values mystic
discipline moral advancement of the individual making them to rise above barrier of colour
creed wealth power and position. Concept of relationship between God and the soul as one
between the beloved And lover pacifism nonviolence Single minded devotion to one God,
Egalitarian movement.
4. Laid great emphasis on Tauba(repentance) and Tawakkul(trust in god), silsilahs, wahadutul
wujud(Unity of being), pir-muridi
5. Advaita, saguna and Nirguna Bhakti. Ramanuja Rama Nanda, Krishna Marg or Rama Margi,
guru Nanak Ravi Barca Kabira Namaha Deva Chetanya Mirabai Surdas and Tulsidas
6. Bhakti movement in Maharashtra-more profound unitary and far more liberal in the field of
social reform, Centred around Vithoba, so known as Pandharpur moment development of
Marathi literature modification of caste exclusiveness elevation of the status of woman spirit of
humanity toleration love and faith limitation of the excess of polytheism divided into two sets
varkari and dharkeari. Nivruttinatha, jnaneshwar(amrutanubhav, changdev pasasthi)
namadeva, Eknath, Tukaram, Ramdas greatest contribution in uniting people into a nation
which greatly helped in the rise of Maratha movement under Shivaji

Mughal Empire
1. Founded by Zaheer Uddin Mohammed Babar(tuzuk-I-baburi/babarnamah)
2. Akbar second battle of Panipat empire builder laid foundations of Mogul Rajput alliance
growth of composite culture liberal measures. Abolished pilgrim tax abolished Jezia, Open
translation department imperial offices to Hindus and Muslims alike, part in Hindu festivals
discourage child marriages and sati promote social reforms,Contact with Sufism annual
pilgrimage to shrine of Shaikh Moinuddin Chishti Ajmer, passionate for philosophical
discussions and spiritual quest and led to the foundation of Ibadat khana at Fatehpur Sikri.
Religious discussions 1st confined to Muslims later on became Parliament of religions. From
these discussions he concluded that no single religion could claim the monopoly of truth.
Replaces the power of ulema by the power of the Emperor. Formulated an order known as
DIn-I-ilahi. Basic purpose behind this was sul-I-kul it is universal harmony. Akbar:- The fame of
infallibility decree Mazharnamah, First jesuit mission from Goa, Faizi As a Mughal ambassador
 to Deccan courts. Administrative measures gave Mogul India one official language a uniform
administrative system a coinage common system of weight and measures. Whole revenue
system was overhauled under the supervision of Todar Mal. Known as Bando bust or Zabti
system. Subha was divided into Sarkar and each Sarkar into Parganas or Mahal. Growth of
Mansa Bidari system. Survived with minor changes in the final decline of the Mogul Empire.
3. Shahjahan the climax golden age of the Mogul Empire. Architecture reached its zenith. Trade.
4. Aurangzeb champion of Sunni orthodoxy. To alleviate the economic distress of the people
many inland transit duties and burdensome taxes. Discriminatory measures abolished the
celebration of nauroz, censors on public morals, jeziah, weekend the secular fabric created by
Akber. Trouble is with Rajpoot Marathas and sikhs.
5. Mansa Bidari system introduced by Akbar was originally Central Asian concept. Influenced not
only politics and administration but also the economy of the Empire. They receive their
payments either in cash or in the form of assignments of areas of land(jagirs). They used to be
from both civil and military departments. Represented by two members zat(personal rank) and
sawar(cavalry rank). No fixed number. Number kept on increasing. Not hereditary and when he
dies all his property was confiscated by the Emperor. Gradually it became hereditary.
6. Jagirdar and zamindari crisis
7. Agricultural revenue system- land revenue(mal and kharaj), sher shahs system of
measurement and fixing the demand. Revenue officials(karoris, qanungos, amils), new
dahsala/zabti system,
1. Land was categorised into four- polaj, parauti, chachar(3-4 years), banjar(fallow
for more than 5 years), again subdivided into good middle and bad. Attempt
was made to progressively increase last 2 to full rate by fifth or eighth year.
2. It was neither a ten-year nor a permanent settlement and the state had the right
to modify it.
3. Batai, ghalla, bhaoli(Old method of crop sharing heap is divided into three
shares), kankut(rough estimate of produce on the basis of actual inspection and
past experiences), nasaq(rough calculation on the basis of past revenue
receipts and no actual measurement)
4. Khalisa Crown land.
8. Second classical age after Gupta. Fusion of turko Iranian cultural traditions with Indian, Babar
Dinpanah, Akbar mausoleum of Humayun,, fortress Palace at Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Jami
Masjid Buland Darwaza paunch mahal, Jodha bais mahal, tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti,
Jahangir interested in painting Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir tomb of Akbar at Sikandra,
Shahjahan substitution of red sandstone by white marble(from Makrana jodhpur) pietra dura,
Diwane I am the diwan e khas Shish Mahal Moti MAsjid. Red Fort Taj Mahal. Could not
contribute any new idea. Decline and of inferior quality Bibi ka Maqbara.
9. Portraiture and miniature in the form of book illustrations. Influenced by Persian Chinese
Indian Buddhist Bactrian and Mongolia. Broadly aristocratic no social realities and the masses
remained confined to the corridors of the Mogul court. Subjects were courtlife and nature.
Beautiful colour combinations and great accuracy. Hamzanama, aineakbari, jahangir(Ustaad
Mansur and abul Hasan). Ready decline after Jahangir and migration to regional centres of
paintings under different styles like Rajput, Pahari, kangra, Deccan etc.
10. Abul Fazal Akbar Nama and in a Akbari, Gulbadan Begum Humayun Nama, Inayat Khan
Shahjahan Nama, Alamgir Namma fahawah e Alamgir. Akbar gave patronage to Sanskrit also
Parsi Prakash. Akbar constitutes the golden age of Hindi poetry Tulsidas Surdas Keshav Das
Bhushan, Akbar Music Tansen I na Akbar