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Formalization in Propositional Logic

This document provides an introduction to propositional logic and formalization. It discusses truth-functionality, formalizing English sentences into propositional logic, common logical connectives and their variants, scope ambiguity, validity, truth and falsity. Examples are provided to illustrate key concepts like determining if a connective is truth-functional, formalizing sentences, differences between logical and natural language connectives, and analyzing arguments for validity.

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111 views25 pages

Formalization in Propositional Logic

This document provides an introduction to propositional logic and formalization. It discusses truth-functionality, formalizing English sentences into propositional logic, common logical connectives and their variants, scope ambiguity, validity, truth and falsity. Examples are provided to illustrate key concepts like determining if a connective is truth-functional, formalizing sentences, differences between logical and natural language connectives, and analyzing arguments for validity.

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vincentshi1710
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Elementary Logic

Intro to Philosophy

Formalization in Propositional Logic

Dr Carlo Nicolai
where are we?
TRUTH-FUNCTIONALITY
Recall that connectives join one or more sentences together
to make compound sentences.
English connectives
truth functionality

Only truth-functional connectives can be captured in L1 .


Characterisation: truth-functional (p. 54)
A connective is truth-functional if and only if the truth-value
of the compound sentence cannot be changed by replacing a
direct subsentence with another having the same truth-value.
Worked example
Determine whether the English connective ‘Some ancient Romans
knew that A’ is truth-functional. Draw a partial truth-table and
explain your answer, using examples where appropriate.
Worked example
Determine whether the English connective ‘It’s conceivable that
A’ is truth-functional. Draw a partial truth-table and explain
your answer, using examples where appropriate.
FORMALIZATION
formalization

This is the process of translating English into L1 .


Formalise:
It is not the case that Russell likes logic.

Formalise:
Russell likes logic and philosophers like conceptual analysis.
Only truth-functional connectives can be formalised in L1 .
Formalise:
It could be the case that Russell likes logic

Formalise:
It is not the case that it could be the case that Russell likes logic.
Sometimes we need to paraphrase first.
Formalise:
Russell doesn’t like logic

Formalise:
Neither Russell nor Whitehead likes logic.
common variants

Here are some of the most common variants of the standard


connectives.
L1 standard connective some other formulations
∧ and but, although
∨ or unless
¬ it is not the case that not, none, never
→ if . . . then provided that, only if
↔ if and only if precisely if, just in case
rules of thumb for →

Formalize:
(1) If John revised, [then] he passed. R→P
(2) John passed if he revised. ‘P ← R’ i.e. R → P
(3) John passed only if he revised. P→R
(4) John only passed if he revised. P→R
Differences between → and ‘if’
(Sainsbury, Logical Forms, ch. 2)

Formalise
If the lecturer hadn’t shown up last week, Plato would have
given the lecture.
Sometimes the paraphrase may need to be quite loose.
Formalize
(1) Exactly one of the following happened: Pip wins or
Orlick wins.
(2) Exactly one of the following happened: Pip won or
Orlick won or it was a tie.
scope ambiguity

Example
Pip was weak and Orlick was bound to win unless Herbert
showed up.
This is a case of scope ambiguity.

Definition (p. 65)


The scope of an occurrence of a connective in a sentence φ
is the occurrence of the smallest subsentence of φ that
contains this occurrence of the connective.

A subsentence of φ is any sentence occurring as part of φ


(including φ itself).
VALIDITY, TRUTH, FALSITY
Definition
(1) An English sentence is a tautology if and only if its
formalization in propositional logic is a tautology.
(2) An English sentence is a propositional contradiction
if and only if its formalization in propositional logic is a
contradiction.
(3) An argument in English is propositionally valid if
and only if its formalization in L1 is valid.
worked example

Show that the following English sentence is a tautology.

It’s not the case that Rand is the Dragon reborn but Rand
isn’t.
worked example

Show that the following English sentence is a contradiction.

Irene Adler anticipates Sherlock precisely if Irene Adler flees


London and doesn’t anticipate Sherlock.
worked example

Show that the following argument is propositionally valid.

Unless CO2 -emissions are cut, there will be more floods.


CO2 -emissions won’t be cut. Therefore there will be more
floods.

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