Art

Art is a diverse range of human activity,

and its resulting product, that involves
creative or imaginative talent generally
expressive of technical proficiency,
beauty, emotional power, or conceptual
ideas.[1][2][3]
 Clockwise from upper left: an 1887 self-portrait by
Vincent van Gogh; a female ancestor figure by a Chokwe
artist; detail from The Birth of Venus (c. 1484–1486) by
Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan Shisa lion

There is no generally agreed definition of

what constitutes art,[4][5][6] and its
interpretation has varied greatly
throughout history and across cultures. In
the Western tradition, the three classical
branches of visual art are painting,
sculpture, and architecture.[7] Theatre,
dance, and other performing arts, as well
as literature, music, film and other media
such as interactive media, are included in
a broader definition of the arts.[1][8] Until
the 17th century, art referred to any skill
or mastery and was not differentiated
from crafts or sciences. In modern usage
after the 17th century, where aesthetic
considerations are paramount, the fine
arts are separated and distinguished
from acquired skills in general, such as
the decorative or applied arts.

The nature of art and related concepts,

such as creativity and interpretation, are
explored in a branch of philosophy known
as aesthetics.[9] The resulting artworks
are studied in the professional fields of
art criticism and the history of art.
Overview

In the perspective of the history of art,[10]

artistic works have existed for almost as
long as humankind: from early prehistoric
art to contemporary art; however, some
theorists think that the typical concept of
"artistic works" does not fit well outside
modern Western societies.[11] One early
sense of the definition of art is closely
related to the older Latin meaning, which
roughly translates to "skill" or "craft", as
associated with words such as "artisan".
English words derived from this meaning
include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical
arts, and military arts. However, there are
many other colloquial uses of the word,
all with some relation to its etymology.

20th-century bottle, Twa

peoples, Rwanda. Artistic
works may serve practical
functions, in addition to their
decorative value.

Over time, philosophers like Plato,

Aristotle, Socrates and Immanuel Kant,
among others, questioned the meaning
of art.[12] Several dialogues in Plato
tackle questions about art: Socrates says
that poetry is inspired by the muses, and
is not rational. He speaks approvingly of
this, and other forms of divine madness
(drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming)
in the Phaedrus (265a–c), and yet in the
Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great
poetic art, and laughter as well. In Ion,
Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval
of Homer that he expresses in the
Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that
Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient
Greek world as the Bible does today in
the modern Christian world: as divinely
inspired literary art that can provide
moral guidance, if only it can be properly
interpreted.[13]

With regards to the literary art and the

musical arts, Aristotle considered epic
poetry, tragedy, comedy, Dithyrambic
poetry and music to be mimetic or
imitative art, each varying in imitation by
medium, object, and manner.[14] For
example, music imitates with the media
of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance
imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry
with language. The forms also differ in
their object of imitation. Comedy, for
instance, is a dramatic imitation of men
worse than average; whereas tragedy
imitates men slightly better than average.
Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of
imitation—through narrative or character,
through change or no change, and
through drama or no drama.[15] Aristotle
believed that imitation is natural to
mankind and constitutes one of
mankind's advantages over animals.[16]

The more recent and specific sense of

the word art as an abbreviation for
creative art or fine art emerged in the
early 17th century.[17] Fine art refers to a
skill used to express the artist's creativity,
or to engage the audience's aesthetic
sensibilities, or to draw the audience
towards consideration of more refined or
finer works of art.

Within this latter sense, the word art may

refer to several things: (i) a study of a
creative skill, (ii) a process of using the
creative skill, (iii) a product of the creative
skill, or (iv) the audience's experience
with the creative skill. The creative arts
(art as discipline) are a collection of
disciplines which produce artworks (art
as objects) that are compelled by a
personal drive (art as activity) and
convey a message, mood, or symbolism
for the perceiver to interpret (art as
experience). Art is something that
stimulates an individual's thoughts,
emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the
senses. Works of art can be explicitly
made for this purpose or interpreted on
the basis of images or objects. For some
scholars, such as Kant, the sciences and
the arts could be distinguished by taking
science as representing the domain of
knowledge and the arts as representing
the domain of the freedom of artistic
expression.[18]

Back of a Renaissance oval basin or

dish, in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art

Often, if the skill is being used in a

common or practical way, people will
consider it a craft instead of art.
Likewise, if the skill is being used in a
commercial or industrial way, it may be
considered commercial art instead of
fine art. On the other hand, crafts and
design are sometimes considered
applied art. Some art followers have
argued that the difference between fine
art and applied art has more to do with
value judgments made about the art than
any clear definitional difference.[19]
However, even fine art often has goals
beyond pure creativity and self-
expression. The purpose of works of art
may be to communicate ideas, such as in
politically, spiritually, or philosophically
motivated art; to create a sense of
beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the
nature of perception; for pleasure; or to
generate strong emotions. The purpose
may also be seemingly nonexistent.

The nature of art has been described by

philosopher Richard Wollheim as "one of
the most elusive of the traditional
problems of human culture".[20] Art has
been defined as a vehicle for the
expression or communication of
emotions and ideas, a means for
exploring and appreciating formal
elements for their own sake, and as
mimesis or representation. Art as
mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy
of Aristotle.[21] Leo Tolstoy identified art
as a use of indirect means to
communicate from one person to
another.[21] Benedetto Croce and R. G.
Collingwood advanced the idealist view
that art expresses emotions, and that the
work of art therefore essentially exists in
the mind of the creator.[22][23] The theory
of art as form has its roots in the
philosophy of Kant, and was developed in
the early 20th century by Roger Fry and
Clive Bell. More recently, thinkers
influenced by Martin Heidegger have
interpreted art as the means by which a
community develops for itself a medium
for self-expression and interpretation.[24]
George Dickie has offered an institutional
theory of art that defines a work of art as
any artifact upon which a qualified
person or persons acting on behalf of the
social institution commonly referred to
as "the art world" has conferred "the
status of candidate for appreciation".[25]
Larry Shiner has described fine art as "not
an essence or a fate but something we
have made. Art as we have generally
understood it is a European invention
barely two hundred years old."[26]

Art may be characterized in terms of

mimesis (its representation of reality),
narrative (storytelling), expression,
communication of emotion, or other
qualities. During the Romantic period, art
came to be seen as "a special faculty of
the human mind to be classified with
religion and science".[27]
History

Löwenmensch figurine,
between 35,000 and 41,000
years old. One of the oldest-
known examples of an
artistic representation and
the oldest confirmed statue
ever discovered.[28]

A shell engraved by Homo erectus was

determined to be between 430,000 and
540,000 years old.[29] A set of eight
130,000 years old white-tailed eagle
talons bear cut marks and abrasion that
indicate manipulation by neanderthals,
possibly for using it as jewelry.[30] A
series of tiny, drilled snail shells about
75,000 years old—were discovered in a
South African cave.[31] Containers that
may have been used to hold paints have
been found dating as far back as 100,000
years.[32]

The oldest piece of art found in Europe is

the Riesenhirschknochen der
Einhornhöhle, dating back 51,000 years
and made by Neanderthals.

Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings

and petroglyphs from the Upper
Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years
ago have been found,[33] but the precise
meaning of such art is often disputed
because so little is known about the
cultures that produced them.

The first undisputed sculptures and

similar art pieces, like the Venus of Hohle
Fels, are the numerous objects found at
the Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian
Jura UNESCO World Heritage Site, where
the oldest non-stationary works of
human art yet discovered were found, in
the form of carved animal and humanoid
figurines, in addition to the oldest
musical instruments unearthed so far,
with the artifacts dating between 43.000
and 35.000 BC, so being the first centre
of human art.[34][35][36][37]
 Cave painting of a horse from the
Lascaux caves, c. 16,000 BP

Many great traditions in art have a

foundation in the art of one of the great
ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt,
Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China,
Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca,
Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers
of early civilization developed a unique
and characteristic style in its art.
Because of the size and duration of these
civilizations, more of their art works have
survived and more of their influence has
been transmitted to other cultures and
later times. Some also have provided the
first records of how artists worked. For
example, this period of Greek art saw a
veneration of the human physical form
and the development of equivalent skills
to show musculature, poise, beauty, and
anatomically correct proportions.[38]

In Byzantine and Medieval art of the

Western Middle Ages, much art focused
on the expression of subjects about
biblical and religious culture, and used
styles that showed the higher glory of a
heavenly world, such as the use of gold in
the background of paintings, or glass in
mosaics or windows, which also
presented figures in idealized, patterned
(flat) forms. Nevertheless, a classical
realist tradition persisted in small
Byzantine works, and realism steadily
grew in the art of Catholic Europe.[39]

Renaissance art had a greatly increased

emphasis on the realistic depiction of the
material world, and the place of humans
in it, reflected in the corporeality of the
human body, and development of a
systematic method of graphical
perspective to depict recession in a
three-dimensional picture space.[40]

The stylized signature of Sultan

Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was
written in Islamic calligraphy. It reads
"Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is
forever victorious".
 The Great Mosque of Kairouan in
Tunisia, also called the Mosque of
Uqba, is one of the finest, most
significant and best preserved artistic
and architectural examples of early
great mosques. Dated in its present
state from the 9th century, it is the
ancestor and model of all the
mosques in the western Islamic
lands.[41]

In the east, Islamic art's rejection of

iconography led to emphasis on
geometric patterns, calligraphy, and
architecture.[42] Further east, religion
dominated artistic styles and forms too.
India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted
sculptures and dance, while religious
painting borrowed many conventions
from sculpture and tended to bright
contrasting colors with emphasis on
outlines. China saw the flourishing of
many art forms: jade carving,
bronzework, pottery (including the
stunning terracotta army of Emperor
Qin[43]), poetry, calligraphy, music,
painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese
styles vary greatly from era to era and
each one is traditionally named after the
ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang
dynasty paintings are monochromatic
and sparse, emphasizing idealized
landscapes, but Ming dynasty paintings
are busy and colorful, and focus on
telling stories via setting and
composition.[44] Japan names its styles
after imperial dynasties too, and also
saw much interplay between the styles of
calligraphy and painting. Woodblock
printing became important in Japan after
the 17th century.[45]

Chinese painting by Song dynasty

artist Ma Lin, c. 1250. 24.8 × 25.2 cm

The western Age of Enlightenment in the

18th century saw artistic depictions of
physical and rational certainties of the
clockwork universe, as well as politically
revolutionary visions of a post-
monarchist world, such as Blake's
portrayal of Newton as a divine
geometer,[46] or David's propagandistic
paintings. This led to Romantic rejections
of this in favor of pictures of the
emotional side and individuality of
humans, exemplified in the novels of
Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a
host of artistic movements, such as
academic art, Symbolism, impressionism
and fauvism among others.[47][48]

The history of 20th-century art is a

narrative of endless possibilities and the
search for new standards, each being
torn down in succession by the next.
Thus the parameters of Impressionism,
Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism,
Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be
maintained very much beyond the time of
their invention. Increasing global
interaction during this time saw an
equivalent influence of other cultures into
Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock
prints (themselves influenced by Western
Renaissance draftsmanship) had an
immense influence on impressionism and
subsequent development. Later, African
sculptures were taken up by Picasso and
to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, in
the 19th and 20th centuries the West has
had huge impacts on Eastern art with
originally western ideas like Communism
and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful
influence.[49]
Modernism, the idealistic search for truth,
gave way in the latter half of the 20th
century to a realization of its
unattainability. Theodor W. Adorno said
in 1970, "It is now taken for granted that
nothing which concerns art can be taken
for granted any more: neither art itself,
nor art in relationship to the whole, nor
even the right of art to exist."[50]
Relativism was accepted as an
unavoidable truth, which led to the period
of contemporary art and postmodern
criticism, where cultures of the world and
of history are seen as changing forms,
which can be appreciated and drawn
from only with skepticism and irony.
Furthermore, the separation of cultures is
increasingly blurred and some argue it is
now more appropriate to think in terms of
a global culture, rather than of regional
ones.[51]

In The Origin of the Work of Art, Martin

Heidegger, a German philosopher and
seminal thinker, describes the essence of
art in terms of the concepts of being and
truth. He argues that art is not only a way
of expressing the element of truth in a
culture, but the means of creating it and
providing a springboard from which "that
which is" can be revealed. Works of art
are not merely representations of the way
things are, but actually produce a
community's shared understanding. Each
time a new artwork is added to any
culture, the meaning of what it is to exist
is inherently changed.

Historically, art and artistic skills and

ideas have often been spread through
trade. An example of this is the Silk Road,
where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and
Chinese influences could mix. Greco
Buddhist art is one of the most vivid
examples of this interaction. The meeting
of different cultures and worldviews also
influenced artistic creation. An example
of this is the multicultural port metropolis
of Trieste at the beginning of the 20th
century, where James Joyce met writers
from Central Europe and the artistic
development of New York City as a
cultural melting pot.[52][53][54]

Forms, genres, media, and

styles

Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne by

Ingres (French, 1806), oil on canvas

The creative arts are often divided into

more specific categories, typically along
perceptually distinguishable categories
such as media, genre, styles, and
form.[55] Art form refers to the elements
of art that are independent of its
interpretation or significance. It covers
the methods adopted by the artist and
the physical composition of the artwork,
primarily non-semantic aspects of the
work (i.e., figurae),[56] such as color,
contour, dimension, medium, melody,
space, texture, and value. Form may also
include Design principles, such as
arrangement, balance, contrast,
emphasis, harmony, proportion, proximity,
and rhythm.[57]

In general there are three schools of

philosophy regarding art, focusing
respectively on form, content, and
context.[57] Extreme Formalism is the
view that all aesthetic properties of art
are formal (that is, part of the art form).
Philosophers almost universally reject
this view and hold that the properties and
aesthetics of art extend beyond
materials, techniques, and form.[58]
Unfortunately, there is little consensus on
terminology for these informal
properties. Some authors refer to subject
matter and content—i.e., denotations and
connotations—while others prefer terms
like meaning and significance.[57]

Extreme Intentionalism holds that

authorial intent plays a decisive role in
the meaning of a work of art, conveying
the content or essential main idea, while
all other interpretations can be
discarded.[59] It defines the subject as the
persons or idea represented,[60] and the
content as the artist's experience of that
subject.[61] For example, the composition
of Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne is
partly borrowed from the Statue of Zeus
at Olympia. As evidenced by the title, the
subject is Napoleon, and the content is
Ingres's representation of Napoleon as
"Emperor-God beyond time and
space".[57] Similarly to extreme
formalism, philosophers typically reject
extreme intentionalism, because art may
have multiple ambiguous meanings and
authorial intent may be unknowable and
thus irrelevant. Its restrictive
interpretation is "socially unhealthy,
philosophically unreal, and politically
unwise".[57]

Finally, the developing theory of post-

structuralism studies art's significance in
a cultural context, such as the ideas,
emotions, and reactions prompted by a
work.[62] The cultural context often
reduces to the artist's techniques and
intentions, in which case analysis
proceeds along lines similar to formalism
and intentionalism. However, in other
cases historical and material conditions
may predominate, such as religious and
philosophical convictions, sociopolitical
and economic structures, or even climate
and geography. Art criticism continues to
grow and develop alongside art.[57]

Skill and craft

The Creation of Adam, detail from

Michelangelo's fresco in the Sistine
Chapel (1511)

Art can connote a sense of trained ability

or mastery of a medium. Art can also
refer to the developed and efficient use
of a language to convey meaning with
immediacy or depth. Art can be defined
as an act of expressing feelings,
thoughts, and observations.[63]

There is an understanding that is reached

with the material as a result of handling
it, which facilitates one's thought
processes. A common view is that the
epithet art, particular in its elevated
sense, requires a certain level of creative
expertise by the artist, whether this be a
demonstration of technical ability, an
originality in stylistic approach, or a
combination of these two. Traditionally
skill of execution was viewed as a quality
inseparable from art and thus necessary
for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci,
art, neither more nor less than his other
endeavors, was a manifestation of
skill.[64] Rembrandt's work, now praised
for its ephemeral virtues, was most
admired by his contemporaries for its
virtuosity.[65] At the turn of the 20th
century, the adroit performances of John
Singer Sargent were alternately admired
and viewed with skepticism for their
manual fluency,[66] yet at nearly the same
time the artist who would become the
era's most recognized and peripatetic
iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was
completing a traditional academic
training at which he excelled.[67][68]
 Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona
Lisa, c. 1503–1506, showing the
painting technique of sfumato

A common contemporary criticism of

some modern art occurs along the lines
of objecting to the apparent lack of skill
or ability required in the production of the
artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel
Duchamp's Fountain is among the first
examples of pieces wherein the artist
used found objects ("ready-made") and
exercised no traditionally recognised set
of skills.[69] Tracey Emin's My Bed, or
Damien Hirst's The Physical Impossibility
of Death in the Mind of Someone Living
follow this example and also manipulate
the mass media. Emin slept (and
engaged in other activities) in her bed
before placing the result in a gallery as
work of art. Hirst came up with the
conceptual design for the artwork but
has left most of the eventual creation of
many works to employed artisans. Hirst's
celebrity is founded entirely on his ability
to produce shocking concepts.[70] The
actual production in many conceptual
and contemporary works of art is a
matter of assembly of found objects.
However, there are many modernist and
contemporary artists who continue to
excel in the skills of drawing and painting
and in creating hands-on works of art.[71]

Purpose

A Navajo rug made c. 1880

Mozarabic Beatus miniature. Spain,

late 10th century
Art has had a great number of different
functions throughout its history, making
its purpose difficult to abstract or
quantify to any single concept. This does
not imply that the purpose of art is
"vague", but that it has had many unique,
different reasons for being created.
Some of these functions of art are
provided in the following outline. The
different purposes of art may be grouped
according to those that are non-
motivated, and those that are motivated
(Lévi-Strauss).[72]
Non-motivated functions

The non-motivated purposes of art are

those that are integral to being human,
transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a
specific external purpose. In this sense,
Art, as creativity, is something humans
must do by their very nature (i.e., no other
species creates art), and is therefore
beyond utility.[72]

1. Basic human instinct for harmony,

balance, rhythm. Art at this level is
not an action or an object, but an
internal appreciation of balance and
harmony (beauty), and therefore an
aspect of being human beyond
utility.
Imitation, then, is one
instinct of our nature.
Next, there is the instinct
for 'harmony' and rhythm,
meters being manifestly
sections of rhythm.
Persons, therefore,
starting with this natural
gift developed by degrees
their special aptitudes, till
their rude improvisations
gave birth to Poetry. –
Aristotle[73]
2. Experience of the mysterious. Art
provides a way to experience one's
self in relation to the universe. This
experience may often come
unmotivated, as one appreciates art,
music or poetry.
The most beautiful thing
we can experience is the
mysterious. It is the source
of all true art and science.
– Albert Einstein[74]
3. Expression of the imagination. Art
provides a means to express the
imagination in non-grammatic ways
that are not tied to the formality of
spoken or written language. Unlike
words, which come in sequences
and each of which have a definite
meaning, art provides a range of
forms, symbols and ideas with
meanings that are malleable.
Jupiter's eagle [as an
example of art] is not, like
logical (aesthetic)
attributes of an object, the
concept of the sublimity
and majesty of creation,
but rather something else
—something that gives the
imagination an incentive
to spread its flight over a
whole host of kindred
representations that
provoke more thought
than admits of expression
in a concept determined by
words. They furnish an
aesthetic idea, which
serves the above rational
idea as a substitute for
logical presentation, but
with the proper function,
however, of animating the
mind by opening out for it
a prospect into a field of
kindred representations
 stretching beyond its ken.
– Immanuel Kant[75]
4. Ritualistic and symbolic functions.
In many cultures, art is used in
rituals, performances and dances
as a decoration or symbol. While
these often have no specific
utilitarian (motivated) purpose,
anthropologists know that they
often serve a purpose at the level of
meaning within a particular culture.
This meaning is not furnished by any
one individual, but is often the result
of many generations of change, and
of a cosmological relationship
within the culture.
 Most scholars who deal
with rock paintings or
objects recovered from
prehistoric contexts that
cannot be explained in
utilitarian terms and are
thus categorized as
decorative, ritual or
symbolic, are aware of the
trap posed by the term
'art'. – Silva Tomaskova[76]

Motivated functions

Motivated purposes of art refer to

intentional, conscious actions on the part
of the artists or creator. These may be to
bring about political change, to comment
on an aspect of society, to convey a
specific emotion or mood, to address
personal psychology, to illustrate another
discipline, to (with commercial arts) sell
a product, or used as a form of
communication.[72][77]

1. Communication. Art, at its simplest,

is a form of communication. As
most forms of communication have
an intent or goal directed toward
another individual, this is a
motivated purpose. Illustrative arts,
such as scientific illustration, are a
form of art as communication.
Maps are another example.
 However, the content need not be
scientific. Emotions, moods and
feelings are also communicated
through art.
[Art is a set of ] artefacts
or images with symbolic
meanings as a means of
communication. – Steve
Mithen[78]
2. Art as entertainment. Art may seek
to bring about a particular emotion
or mood, for the purpose of relaxing
or entertaining the viewer. This is
often the function of the art
industries of motion pictures and
video games.[79]
3. The Avant-Garde. Art for political
change. One of the defining
functions of early 20th-century art
has been to use visual images to
bring about political change. Art
movements that had this goal—
Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian
constructivism, and Abstract
Expressionism, among others—are
collectively referred to as the avant-
garde arts.

By contrast, the realistic

attitude, inspired by
positivism, from Saint
Thomas Aquinas to
Anatole France, clearly
seems to me to be hostile
to any intellectual or
moral advancement. I
loathe it, for it is made up
of mediocrity, hate, and
dull conceit. It is this
attitude which today gives
birth to these ridiculous
books, these insulting
plays. It constantly feeds
on and derives strength
from the newspapers and
stultifies both science and
art by assiduously
flattering the lowest of
 tastes; clarity bordering
on stupidity, a dog's life. –
André Breton
(Surrealism)[80]
4. Art as a "free zone", removed from
the action of the social censure.
Unlike the avant-garde movements,
which wanted to erase cultural
differences in order to produce new
universal values, contemporary art
has enhanced its tolerance towards
cultural differences as well as its
critical and liberating functions
(social inquiry, activism, subversion,
deconstruction, etc.), becoming a
 more open place for research and
experimentation.[81]
5. Art for social inquiry, subversion or
anarchy. While similar to art for
political change, subversive or
deconstructivist art may seek to
question aspects of society without
any specific political goal. In this
case, the function of art may be
used to criticize some aspect of
society. Graffiti art and other types
of street art are graphics and
images that are spray-painted or
stencilled on publicly viewable walls,
buildings, buses, trains, and bridges,
usually without permission. Certain
art forms, such as graffiti, may also
 be illegal when they break laws (in
this case vandalism).
6. Art for social causes. Art can be
used to raise awareness for a large
variety of causes. A number of art
activities were aimed at raising
awareness of autism,[82][83][84]
cancer,[85][86][87] human
trafficking,[88][89] and a variety of
other topics, such as ocean
conservation,[90] human rights in
Darfur,[91] murdered and missing
Aboriginal women,[92] elder
abuse,[93] and pollution.[94] Trashion,
using trash to make fashion,
practiced by artists such as Marina
 DeBris is one example of using art
to raise awareness about pollution.
7. Art for psychological and healing
purposes. Art is also used by art
therapists, psychotherapists and
clinical psychologists as art therapy.
The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for
example, is used to determine the
personality and emotional
functioning of a patient. The end
product is not the principal goal in
this case, but rather a process of
healing, through creative acts, is
sought. The resultant piece of
artwork may also offer insight into
the troubles experienced by the
subject and may suggest suitable
 approaches to be used in more
conventional forms of psychiatric
therapy.[95]
8. Art for propaganda, or
commercialism. Art is often used as
a form of propaganda, and thus can
be used to subtly influence popular
conceptions or mood. In a similar
way, art that tries to sell a product
also influences mood and emotion.
In both cases, the purpose of art
here is to subtly manipulate the
viewer into a particular emotional or
psychological response toward a
particular idea or object.[96]
9. Art as a fitness indicator. It has
been argued that the ability of the
human brain by far exceeds what
was needed for survival in the
ancestral environment. One
evolutionary psychology explanation
for this is that the human brain and
associated traits (such as artistic
ability and creativity) are the human
equivalent of the peacock's tail. The
purpose of the male peacock's
extravagant tail has been argued to
be to attract females (see also
Fisherian runaway and handicap
principle). According to this theory
superior execution of art was
 evolutionarily important because it
attracted mates.[97]

The functions of art described above are

not mutually exclusive, as many of them
may overlap. For example, art for the
purpose of entertainment may also seek
to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video
game.

Steps

Art can be divided into any number of

steps one can make an argument for.
This section divides the creative process
into broad three steps, but there is no
consensus on an exact number.[98]
Preparation

The Thinker in The Gates of Hell at the Musée

Rodin

In the first step, the artist envisions the

art in their mind. By imagining what their
art would look like, the artist begins the
process of bringing the art into existence.
Preparation of art may involve
approaching and researching the subject
matter. Artistic inspiration is one of the
main drivers of art, and may be
considered to stem from instinct,
impressions, and feelings.[98]
Creation

The Great Wave off Kanagawa, the first in Hokusai's

series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji

In the second step, the artist executes

the creation of their work. The creation of
a piece can be affected by factors such
as the artist's mood, surroundings, and
mental state. For example, The Black
Paintings by Francisco de Goya, created
in the elder years of his life, are thought
to be so bleak because he was in
isolation and because of his experience
with war. He painted them directly on the
walls of his apartment in Spain, and most
likely never discussed them with
anyone.[99] The Beatles stated drugs
such as LSD and cannabis influenced
some of their greatest hits, such as
Revolver.[100][101] Trial and error are
considered an integral part of the
creation process.[98]

Appreciation

The last step is art appreciation, which

has the sub-topic of critique. In one study,
over half of visual arts students agreed
that reflection is an essential step of the
art process.[98] According to education
journals, the reflection of art is
considered an essential part of the
experience.[102][103] However an
important aspect of art is that others
may view and appreciate it as well. While
many focus on whether those
viewing/listening/etc. believe the art to
be good/successful or not, art has
profound value beyond its commercial
success as a provider of information and
health in society.[104] Art enjoyment can
bring about a wide spectrum of emotion
due to beauty. Some art is meant to be
practical, with its analysis studious,
meant to stimulate discourse.[105]
Public access

The Metropolitan Museum of Art in

Manhattan. Museums are important
forums for the display of visual art.

Since ancient times, much of the finest

art has represented a deliberate display
of wealth or power, often achieved by
using massive scale and expensive
materials. Much art has been
commissioned by political rulers or
religious establishments, with more
modest versions only available to the
most wealthy in society.[106]
Nevertheless, there have been many
periods where art of very high quality was
available, in terms of ownership, across
large parts of society, above all in cheap
media such as pottery, which persists in
the ground, and perishable media such as
textiles and wood. In many different
cultures, the ceramics of indigenous
peoples of the Americas are found in
such a wide range of graves that they
were clearly not restricted to a social
elite,[107] though other forms of art may
have been. Reproductive methods such
as moulds made mass-production easier,
and were used to bring high-quality
Ancient Roman pottery and Greek
Tanagra figurines to a very wide market.
Cylinder seals were both artistic and
practical, and very widely used by what
can be loosely called the middle class in
the Ancient Near East.[108] Once coins
were widely used, these also became an
art form that reached the widest range of
society.[109]

Another important innovation came in the

15th century in Europe, when printmaking
began with small woodcuts, mostly
religious, that were often very small and
hand-colored, and affordable even by
peasants who glued them to the walls of
their homes. Printed books were initially
very expensive, but fell steadily in price
until by the 19th century even the poorest
could afford some with printed
illustrations.[110] Popular prints of many
different sorts have decorated homes
and other places for centuries.[111]

Kunstmuseum Basel, the Museum of

Art in Basel, Switzerland, is the oldest
public museum of art in the world.

In 1661, the city of Basel, in Switzerland,

opened the first public museum of art in
the world, the Kunstmuseum Basel.
Today, its collection is distinguished by
an impressively wide historic span, from
the early 15th century up to the
immediate present. Its various areas of
emphasis give it international standing as
one of the most significant museums of
its kind. These encompass: paintings and
drawings by artists active in the Upper
Rhine region between 1400 and 1600, and
on the art of the 19th to 21st
centuries.[112]

Public buildings and monuments, secular

and religious, by their nature normally
address the whole of society, and visitors
as viewers, and display to the general
public has long been an important factor
in their design. Egyptian temples are
typical in that the most largest and most
lavish decoration was placed on the
parts that could be seen by the general
public, rather than the areas seen only by
the priests.[113] Many areas of royal
palaces, castles and the houses of the
social elite were often generally
accessible, and large parts of the art
collections of such people could often be
seen, either by anybody, or by those able
to pay a small price, or those wearing the
correct clothes, regardless of who they
were, as at the Palace of Versailles,
where the appropriate extra accessories
(silver shoe buckles and a sword) could
be hired from shops outside.[114]

Special arrangements were made to

allow the public to see many royal or
private collections placed in galleries, as
with the Orleans Collection mostly
housed in a wing of the Palais Royal in
Paris, which could be visited for most of
the 18th century.[115] In Italy the art
tourism of the Grand Tour became a
major industry from the Renaissance
onwards, and governments and cities
made efforts to make their key works
accessible. The British Royal Collection
remains distinct, but large donations
such as the Old Royal Library were made
from it to the British Museum,
established in 1753. The Uffizi in Florence
opened entirely as a gallery in 1765,
though this function had been gradually
taking the building over from the original
civil servants' offices for a long time
before.[116] The building now occupied by
the Prado in Madrid was built before the
French Revolution for the public display
of parts of the royal art collection, and
similar royal galleries open to the public
existed in Vienna, Munich and other
capitals. The opening of the Musée du
Louvre during the French Revolution (in
1793) as a public museum for much of
the former French royal collection
certainly marked an important stage in
the development of public access to art,
transferring ownership to a republican
state, but was a continuation of trends
already well established.[117]

Most modern public museums and art

education programs for children in
schools can be traced back to this
impulse to have art available to everyone.
However, museums do not only provide
availability to art, but do also influence
the way art is being perceived by the
audience, as studies found.[118] Thus, the
museum itself is not only a blunt stage
for the presentation of art, but plays an
active and vital role in the overall
perception of art in modern society.

Museums in the United States tend to be

gifts from the very rich to the masses.
(The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New
York City, for example, was created by
John Taylor Johnston, a railroad
executive whose personal art collection
seeded the museum.) But despite all this,
at least one of the important functions of
art in the 21st century remains as a
marker of wealth and social status.[119]

There have been attempts by artists to

create art that can not be bought by the
wealthy as a status object. One of the
prime original motivators of much of the
art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to
create art that could not be bought and
sold. It is "necessary to present
something more than mere objects"[120]
said the major post war German artist
Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the
rise of such things as performance art,
video art, and conceptual art. The idea
was that if the artwork was a
performance that would leave nothing
behind, or was an idea, it could not be
bought and sold. "Democratic precepts
revolving around the idea that a work of
art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic
innovation which germinated in the mid-
1960s and was reaped throughout the
1970s. Artists broadly identified under
the heading of Conceptual art ...
substituting performance and publishing
activities for engagement with both the
material and materialistic concerns of
painted or sculptural form ... [have]
endeavored to undermine the art object
qua object."[121]
 Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the
interior court to create the expansive
entrance cour d'honneur, later copied all
over Europe.

In the decades since, these ideas have

been somewhat lost as the art market
has learned to sell limited edition DVDs
of video works,[122] invitations to
exclusive performance art pieces, and
the objects left over from conceptual
pieces. Many of these performances
create works that are only understood by
the elite who have been educated as to
why an idea or video or piece of apparent
garbage may be considered art. The
marker of status becomes understanding
the work instead of necessarily owning it,
and the artwork remains an upper-class
activity. "With the widespread use of DVD
recording technology in the early 2000s,
artists, and the gallery system that
derives its profits from the sale of
artworks, gained an important means of
controlling the sale of video and
computer artworks in limited editions to
collectors."[123]

Controversies

Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, c. 1820

Art has long been controversial, that is to
say disliked by some viewers, for a wide
variety of reasons, though most pre-
modern controversies are dimly
recorded, or completely lost to a modern
view. Iconoclasm is the destruction of art
that is disliked for a variety of reasons,
including religious ones. Aniconism is a
general dislike of either all figurative
images, or often just religious ones, and
has been a thread in many major
religions. It has been a crucial factor in
the history of Islamic art, where
depictions of Muhammad remain
especially controversial. Much art has
been disliked purely because it depicted
or otherwise stood for unpopular rulers,
parties or other groups. Artistic
conventions have often been
conservative and taken very seriously by
art critics, though often much less so by
a wider public. The iconographic content
of art could cause controversy, as with
late medieval depictions of the new motif
of the Swoon of the Virgin in scenes of
the Crucifixion of Jesus. The Last
Judgment by Michelangelo was
controversial for various reasons,
including breaches of decorum through
nudity and the Apollo-like pose of
Christ.[124][125]

The content of much formal art through

history was dictated by the patron or
commissioner rather than just the artist,
but with the advent of Romanticism, and
economic changes in the production of
art, the artists' vision became the usual
determinant of the content of his art,
increasing the incidence of controversies,
though often reducing their significance.
Strong incentives for perceived originality
and publicity also encouraged artists to
court controversy. Théodore Géricault's
Raft of the Medusa (c. 1820), was in part
a political commentary on a recent event.
Édouard Manet's Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe
(1863), was considered scandalous not
because of the nude woman, but because
she is seated next to men fully dressed in
the clothing of the time, rather than in
robes of the antique world.[126][127] John
Singer Sargent's Madame Pierre Gautreau
(Madam X) (1884), caused a controversy
over the reddish pink used to color the
woman's ear lobe, considered far too
suggestive and supposedly ruining the
high-society model's reputation.[128][129]
The gradual abandonment of naturalism
and the depiction of realistic
representations of the visual appearance
of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries
led to a rolling controversy lasting for
over a century.
 Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978:
Everyone an artist – On the way to the
libertarian form of the social organism

In the 20th century, Pablo Picasso's

Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist
techniques and stark monochromatic
oils, to depict the harrowing
consequences of a contemporary
bombing of a small, ancient Basque
town. Leon Golub's Interrogation III
(1981), depicts a female nude, hooded
detainee strapped to a chair, her legs
open to reveal her sexual organs,
surrounded by two tormentors dressed in
everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss
Christ (1989) is a photograph of a
crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion
and representing Christ's sacrifice and
final suffering, submerged in a glass of
the artist's own urine. The resulting
uproar led to comments in the United
States Senate about public funding of the
arts.[130][131]

Theory

Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western

art was greatly concerned with achieving
the appropriate balance between
different aspects of realism or truth to
nature and the ideal; ideas as to what the
appropriate balance is have shifted to
and fro over the centuries. This concern
is largely absent in other traditions of art.
The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who
championed what he saw as the
naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's
role as the communication by artifice of
an essential truth that could only be
found in nature.[132]

The definition and evaluation of art has

become especially problematic since the
20th century. Richard Wollheim
distinguishes three approaches to
assessing the aesthetic value of art: the
Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an
absolute value independent of any human
view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an
absolute value, but is dependent on
general human experience; and the
Relativist position, whereby it is not an
absolute value, but depends on, and
varies with, the human experience of
different humans.[133]

Arrival of Modernism

Composition with Red Blue and Yellow

(1930) by Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872–
1944)

The arrival of Modernism in the late 19th

century lead to a radical break in the
conception of the function of art,[134] and
then again in the late 20th century with
the advent of postmodernism. Clement
Greenberg's 1960 article "Modernist
Painting" defines modern art as "the use
of characteristic methods of a discipline
to criticize the discipline itself".[135]
Greenberg originally applied this idea to
the Abstract Expressionist movement
and used it as a way to understand and
justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract
painting:

Realistic, naturalistic art had

dissembled the medium, using
art to conceal art; modernism
used art to call attention to
art. The limitations that
 constitute the medium of
painting—the flat surface, the
shape of the support, the
properties of the pigment—
were treated by the Old
Masters as negative factors
that could be acknowledged
only implicitly or indirectly.
Under Modernism these same
limitations came to be
regarded as positive factors,
and were acknowledged
openly.[135]

After Greenberg, several important art

theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried,
T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda
Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among
others. Though only originally intended
as a way of understanding a specific set
of artists, Greenberg's definition of
modern art is important to many of the
ideas of art within the various art
movements of the 20th century and early
21st century.[136][137]

Pop artists like Andy Warhol became

both noteworthy and influential through
work including and possibly critiquing
popular culture, as well as the art world.
Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s
expanded this technique of self-criticism
beyond high art to all cultural image-
making, including fashion images,
comics, billboards and
pornography.[138][139]

Duchamp once proposed that art is any

activity of any kind-everything. However,
the way that only certain activities are
classified today as art is a social
construction.[140] There is evidence that
there may be an element of truth to this.
In The Invention of Art: A Cultural History,
Larry Shiner examines the construction of
the modern system of the arts, i.e. fine
art. He finds evidence that the older
system of the arts before our modern
system (fine art) held art to be any skilled
human activity; for example, Ancient
Greek society did not possess the term
art, but techne. Techne can be
understood neither as art or craft, the
reason being that the distinctions of art
and craft are historical products that
came later on in human history. Techne
included painting, sculpting and music,
but also cooking, medicine,
horsemanship, geometry, carpentry,
prophecy, and farming, etc.[141]

New Criticism and the "intentional

fallacy"

Following Duchamp during the first half

of the 20th century, a significant shift to
general aesthetic theory took place which
attempted to apply aesthetic theory
between various forms of art, including
the literary arts and the visual arts, to
each other. This resulted in the rise of the
New Criticism school and debate
concerning the intentional fallacy. At issue
was the question of whether the
aesthetic intentions of the artist in
creating the work of art, whatever its
specific form, should be associated with
the criticism and evaluation of the final
product of the work of art, or, if the work
of art should be evaluated on its own
merits independent of the intentions of
the artist.[142][143]
In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe
Beardsley published a classic and
controversial New Critical essay entitled
"The Intentional Fallacy", in which they
argued strongly against the relevance of
an author's intention, or "intended
meaning" in the analysis of a literary
work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the
words on the page were all that
mattered; importation of meanings from
outside the text was considered
irrelevant, and potentially
distracting.[144][145]

In another essay, "The Affective Fallacy",

which served as a kind of sister essay to
"The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and
Beardsley also discounted the reader's
personal/emotional reaction to a literary
work as a valid means of analyzing a
text. This fallacy would later be
repudiated by theorists from the reader-
response school of literary theory.
Ironically, one of the leading theorists
from this school, Stanley Fish, was
himself trained by New Critics. Fish
criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his
1970 essay "Literature in the
Reader".[146][147]

As summarized by Berys Gaut and

Paisley Livingston in their essay "The
Creation of Art": "Structuralist and post-
structuralists theorists and critics were
sharply critical of many aspects of New
Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on
aesthetic appreciation and the so-called
autonomy of art, but they reiterated the
attack on biographical criticisms'
assumption that the artist's activities and
experience were a privileged critical
topic."[148] These authors contend that:
"Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists,
hold that the intentions involved in the
making of art are irrelevant or peripheral
to correctly interpreting art. So details of
the act of creating a work, though
possibly of interest in themselves, have
no bearing on the correct interpretation
of the work."[149]
Gaut and Livingston define the
intentionalists as distinct from formalists
stating that: "Intentionalists, unlike
formalists, hold that reference to
intentions is essential in fixing the correct
interpretation of works." They quote
Richard Wollheim as stating that, "The
task of criticism is the reconstruction of
the creative process, where the creative
process must in turn be thought of as
something not stopping short of, but
terminating on, the work of art itself."[149]

"Linguistic turn" and its debate

The end of the 20th century fostered an

extensive debate known as the linguistic
turn controversy, or the "innocent eye
debate" in the philosophy of art. This
debate discussed the encounter of the
work of art as being determined by the
relative extent to which the conceptual
encounter with the work of art dominates
over the perceptual encounter with the
work of art.[150]

Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in

art history and the humanities were the
works of yet another tradition, namely the
structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure
and the ensuing movement of
poststructuralism. In 1981, the artist
Mark Tansey created a work of art titled
The Innocent Eye as a criticism of the
prevailing climate of disagreement in the
philosophy of art during the closing
decades of the 20th century. Influential
theorists include Judith Butler, Luce
Irigaray, Julia Kristeva, Michel Foucault
and Jacques Derrida. The power of
language, more specifically of certain
rhetorical tropes, in art history and
historical discourse was explored by
Hayden White. The fact that language is
not a transparent medium of thought had
been stressed by a very different form of
philosophy of language which originated
in the works of Johann Georg Hamann
and Wilhelm von Humboldt.[151] Ernst
Gombrich and Nelson Goodman in his
book Languages of Art: An Approach to a
Theory of Symbols came to hold that the
conceptual encounter with the work of
art predominated exclusively over the
perceptual and visual encounter with the
work of art during the 1960s and
1970s.[152] He was challenged on the
basis of research done by the Nobel prize
winning psychologist Roger Sperry who
maintained that the human visual
encounter was not limited to concepts
represented in language alone (the
linguistic turn) and that other forms of
psychological representations of the
work of art were equally defensible and
demonstrable. Sperry's view eventually
prevailed by the end of the 20th century
with aesthetic philosophers such as Nick
Zangwill strongly defending a return to
moderate aesthetic formalism among
other alternatives.[153]

Classification disputes

The original Fountain by Marcel

Duchamp, 1917, photographed by
Alfred Stieglitz at the 291 after the
1917 Society of Independent Artists
exhibit. Stieglitz used a backdrop of
The Warriors by Marsden Hartley to
photograph the urinal. The exhibition
entry tag can be clearly seen.[154]

Disputes as to whether or not to classify

something as a work of art are referred
to as classificatory disputes about art.
Classificatory disputes in the 20th
century have included cubist and
impressionist paintings, Duchamp's
Fountain, the movies, J. S. G. Boggs'
superlative imitations of banknotes,
conceptual art, and video games.[155]
Philosopher David Novitz has argued that
disagreement about the definition of art
are rarely the heart of the problem.
Rather, "the passionate concerns and
interests that humans vest in their social
life" are "so much a part of all
classificatory disputes about art."[156]
According to Novitz, classificatory
disputes are more often disputes about
societal values and where society is
trying to go than they are about theory
proper. For example, when the Daily Mail
criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by
arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one
of our great civilising forces. Today,
pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten
to make barbarians of us all" they are not
advancing a definition or theory about art,
but questioning the value of Hirst's and
Emin's work.[157] In 1998, Arthur Danto,
suggested a thought experiment showing
that "the status of an artifact as work of
art results from the ideas a culture
applies to it, rather than its inherent
physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural
interpretation (an art theory of some
kind) is therefore constitutive of an
object's arthood."[158][159]
Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally
challenges the established parameters
and values of art;[160] it is a term
associated with Dadaism and attributed
to Marcel Duchamp just before World
War I,[160] when he was making art from
found objects.[160] One of these, Fountain
(1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved
considerable prominence and influence
on art.[160] Anti-art is a feature of work by
Situationist International,[161] the lo-fi Mail
art movement, and the Young British
Artists,[160] though it is a form still
rejected by the Stuckists,[160] who
describe themselves as anti-anti-
art.[162][163]
Architecture is often included as one of
the visual arts; however, like the
decorative arts, or advertising, it involves
the creation of objects where the
practical considerations of use are
essential in a way that they usually are
not in a painting, for example.[164]

Value judgment

Aboriginal hollow log tombs.

National Gallery, Canberra,
Australia.
Somewhat in relation to the above, the
word art is also used to apply judgments
of value, as in such expressions as "that
meal was a work of art" (the cook is an
artist), or "the art of deception" (the highly
attained level of skill of the deceiver is
praised). It is this use of the word as a
measure of high quality and high value
that gives the term its flavor of
subjectivity. Making judgments of value
requires a basis for criticism. At the
simplest level, a way to determine
whether the impact of the object on the
senses meets the criteria to be
considered art is whether it is perceived
to be attractive or repulsive. Though
perception is always colored by
experience, and is necessarily subjective,
it is commonly understood that what is
not somehow aesthetically satisfying
cannot be art. However, "good" art is not
always or even regularly aesthetically
appealing to a majority of viewers. In
other words, an artist's prime motivation
need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic.
Also, art often depicts terrible images
made for social, moral, or thought-
provoking reasons. For example,
Francisco Goya's painting depicting the
Spanish shootings of 3 May 1808 is a
graphic depiction of a firing squad
executing several pleading civilians. Yet
at the same time, the horrific imagery
demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability
in composition and execution and
produces fitting social and political
outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to
what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if
any, is required to define 'art'.[165][166]

The assumption of new values or the

rebellion against accepted notions of
what is aesthetically superior need not
occur concurrently with a complete
abandonment of the pursuit of what is
aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the
reverse is often true, that the revision of
what is popularly conceived of as being
aesthetically appealing allows for a re-
invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a
new appreciation for the standards of art
itself. Countless schools have proposed
their own ways to define quality, yet they
all seem to agree in at least one point:
once their aesthetic choices are
accepted, the value of the work of art is
determined by its capacity to transcend
the limits of its chosen medium to strike
some universal chord by the rarity of the
skill of the artist or in its accurate
reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist.
Art is often intended to appeal to and
connect with human emotion. It can
arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and
can be understood as a way of
communicating these feelings. Artists
express something so that their audience
is aroused to some extent, but they do
not have to do so consciously. Art may
be considered an exploration of the
human condition; that is, what it is to be
human.[167] By extension, it has been
argued by Emily L. Spratt that the
development of artificial intelligence,
especially in regard to its uses with
images, necessitates a re-evaluation of
aesthetic theory in art history today and a
reconsideration of the limits of human
creativity.[168][169]

Art and law

An essential legal issue are art forgeries,

plagiarism, replicas and works that are
strongly based on other works of art.
Intellectual property law plays a
significant role in the art world.Copyright
protection is granted to artists for their
original works, providing them with
exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute,
and display their creations. This
safeguard empowers artists to govern
the usage of their work and safeguard
against unauthorized copying or
infringement. [170]

The trade in works of art or the export

from a country may be subject to legal
regulations. Internationally there are also
extensive efforts to protect the works of
art created. The UN, UNESCO and Blue
Shield International try to ensure effective
protection at the national level and to
intervene directly in the event of armed
conflicts or disasters. This can
particularly affect museums, archives, art
collections and excavation sites. This
should also secure the economic basis
of a country, especially because works of
art are often of tourist importance. The
founding president of Blue Shield
International, Karl von Habsburg,
explained an additional connection
between the destruction of cultural
property and the cause of flight during a
mission in Lebanon in April 2019:
"Cultural goods are part of the identity of
the people who live in a certain place. If
you destroy their culture, you also
destroy their identity. Many people are
uprooted, often no longer have any
prospects and as a result flee from their
homeland."[171][172][173][174][175][176] In
order to preserve the diversity of cultural
identity, UNESCO protects the living
human treasure through the Convention
for the Safeguarding of the Intangible
Cultural Heritage.

See also

Arts
portal
Visual
arts
portal

Applied arts
Art movement
Artist in residence
Artistic freedom
Cultural tourism
Craftivism
Formal analysis
History of art
List of artistic media
List of art techniques
Mathematics and art
Street art (or "independent public art")
Outline of the visual arts, a guide to the
subject of art presented as a tree
structured list of its subtopics.
Visual impairment in art
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Further reading

Antony Briant and Griselda Pollock,

eds. Digital and Other Virtualities:
Renegotiating the image. London and
NY: I.B. Tauris, 2010. ISBN 978-
1441676313
Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N.
The New Story of Science: mind and the
universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery
Gateway, 1984. ISBN 0-89526-833-7
(this book has significant material on
art and science)
Benedetto Croce. Aesthetic as Science
of Expression and General Linguistic,
2002
Botar, Oliver A.I. Technical Detours: The
Early Moholy-Nagy Reconsidered. Art
Gallery of The Graduate Center, The
City University of New York and The
Salgo Trust for Education, 2006.
ISBN 978-1599713571
Burguete, Maria, and Lam, Lui, eds.
(2011). Arts: A Science Matter. World
Scientific: Singapore. ISBN 978-981-
4324-93-9
Carol Armstrong and Catherine de
Zegher, eds. Women Artists at the
Millennium. Massachusetts: October
Books/The MIT Press, 2006.
ISBN 026201226X
Colvin, Sidney (1911). "Art" (https://en.
wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C
3%A6dia_Britannica/Art) . In Chisholm,
Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica.
Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University
Press. pp. 657–660.
Carl Jung, Man and His Symbols.
London: Pan Books, 1978.
ISBN 0330253212
E.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art.
London: Phaidon Press, 1995.
ISBN 978-0714832470
Florian Dombois, Ute Meta Bauer,
Claudia Mareis and Michael Schwab,
eds. Intellectual Birdhouse. Artistic
Practice as Research. London: Koening
Books, 2012. ISBN 978-3863351182
Kristine Stiles and Peter Selz, eds.
Theories and Documents of
Contemporary Art. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1986
Kleiner, Gardner, Mamiya and Tansey.
Art Through the Ages, Twelfth Edition (2
volumes) Wadsworth, 2004. ISBN 0-
534-64095-8 (vol 1) and ISBN 0-534-
64091-5 (vol 2)
Richard Wollheim, Art and its Objects:
An introduction to aesthetics. New York:
Harper & Row, 1968. OCLC 1077405 (ht
tps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/107740
5)
Will Gompertz. What Are You Looking
At?: 150 Years of Modern Art in the
Blink of an Eye. New York: Viking, 2012.
ISBN 978-0670920495
 Władysław Tatarkiewicz, A History of
Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics,
translated from the Polish by
Christopher Kasparek, The Hague,
Martinus Nijhoff, 1980

External links

art
at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions
from
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Commons
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from
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 Texts from
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Art and Play from the Dictionary of the

History of ideas (https://xtf.lib.virginia.
edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/t
ei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-17;toc.de
pth=1;toc.id=dv1-17;brand=default;que
ry=Dictionary%20of%20the%20Histor
y%20of%20Ideas#1)
In-depth directory of art (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20160306190600/http
s://witcombe.sbc.edu/arthlinks.html)
Art and Artist Files in the Smithsonian
Libraries Collection (https://www.sil.si.e
du/digitalcollections/art-design/artanda
rtistfiles/) (2005) Smithsonian Digital
Libraries
Visual Arts Data Service (VADS) (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20120716205
617/https://www.ahds.ac.uk/) –
online collections from UK museums,
galleries, universities
RevolutionArt – Art magazines with
worldwide exhibitions, callings and
competitions (https://www.RevolutionA
rtMagazine.com/)
Adajian, Thomas. "The Definition of Art"
(https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/art-
 definition/) . In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Art (https://curlie.org/Arts/) at Curlie

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