BULE HORA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Machinery Design and Energy Conversion

MODULE 4

Prepared By:
1. Mr. Dereje Arjamo (Msc.)
2. Mr. Melaku Sisay (Msc.)
3. Mr. Engidayew Wotango (Msc.)
4. Mr. Abdisa Sisay (Msc.)
5. Mr. Ayichew Tariku (Msc.)
6. Mr. Teklemariam Tadesse (Msc.)

Module Coordinator: Mr. Ayichew Tariku (Msc.)

JANUARY 17, 2023

 IC Engine
introduction Ic Engine ............................................................................................ 1
Thermodynamics Of IC Engines............................................................................ 9
Performance Equations And Engine Characteristics ........................................... 13
Fuel For IC Engines ............................................................................................. 18
Combustion And Combustion Chamber Design.................................................. 24
Valve Gear And Valve Timing ............................................................................ 30
Fueling System Of SI And CI Engines ................................................................ 32
Ignition System .................................................................................................... 37
Lubrication System .............................................................................................. 45
Supercharger And Turbocharger.......................................................................... 47
Engine Cooling..................................................................................................... 49
Two Stroke Engine............................................................................................... 51
Reciprocating Compressor ................................................................................... 52
References ............................................................................................................ 54

Machine Element I
chapter One .............................................................................................................55
Machine Elements ...................................................................................................55
Chapter Two ............................................................................................................70
Strength Calculation And Dimensioning Of Joints ................................................70
Chapter Three ..........................................................................................................88
Torque Transmitting Joints .....................................................................................88
Chapter Four............................................................................................................98
Pressure Vessel........................................................................................................98
Chapter Five ..........................................................................................................105
Springs...................................................................................................................105

Machine Element Ii
Chapter One.......................................................................................................114
Shafts .................................................................................................................114
Chapter Two ......................................................................................................123
Coupling And Clutches .....................................................................................123
Chapter Three ....................................................................................................128
Brakes ................................................................................................................128
Chapter Four......................................................................................................132
Drives ................................................................................................................132
Chapter Five ......................................................................................................148
Bearings.............................................................................................................148
Chapter Six ........................................................................................................157
Lubrications.......................................................................................................157

Material handling equipment’s

Chapter One...........................................................................................................162
The Basics Of Material Handling Equipment And Their Selection .....................162
Chapter Two ..........................................................................................................177
Theory Of The Hoisting Equipment .....................................................................177
Chapter Three ........................................................................................................196
Conveyors..............................................................................................................196
Reference...............................................................................................................207
Mechanisms of machinery
Introductions to mechanisms of machinery ..........................................................208
Linkages ................................................................................................................209
Velocity and acceleration analysis of linkages .....................................................216
Force analysis in mechanical linkages ..................................................................220
Cam and follower ..................................................................................................221
Universal joint .......................................................................................................229
Governor................................................................................................................231
Gear train...............................................................................................................239
Flywheel ................................................................................................................246
Balancing...............................................................................................................248
Gyroscope..............................................................................................................252

Turbomachinery
Introduction to turbomachinery ............................................................................256
Definition of turbo machine ..................................................................................257
First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics Applied to Turbomachines.............259
Efficiency of Turbomachines ................................................................................260
Dimensional Analysis ...........................................................................................261
Energy Transfer In Turbomachines ......................................................................263
General Analysis of Power-absorbing Turbomachines ........................................271
Steam Turbines......................................................................................................274
Hydraulic turbine ..................................................................................................280
Hydraulic Pumps ...................................................................................................284
Centrifugal Compressors.......................................................................................287
References .............................................................................................................292

Objective type questions ....................................................................................293

Answers ...............................................................................................................333

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INTRODUCTION IC ENGINE
1.1 Heat engine:

A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy
and uses this energy to produce mechanical work. It is classified into two types-

(a) External combustion engine, (b) Internal combustion engine

Figure 0-1 Heat engines

External combustion engine:

In this engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel transfer heat to a second fluid which
is the working fluid of the cycle.

Examples: In the steam engine or a steam turbine plant, the heat of combustion is employed to
generate steam which is used in a piston engine (reciprocating type engine) or a turbine (rotary
type engine) for useful work. [1].

Table 0-1 Comparison between external combustion engine and internal combustion engine:

External combustion engine Internal combustion engine

*Combustion of air-fuel is outside the engine * Combustion of air-fuel is inside the engine cylinder
cylinder (in a boiler) (in a boiler)
*The engines are running smoothly and silently * Very noisy operated engine
due to outside combustion
*Higher ratio of weight and bulk to output due * It is light and compact due to lower ratio of weight
to presence of auxiliary apparatus like boiler and and bulk to output.
condenser. Hence it is heavy and cumbersome.
*Working pressure and temperature inside the * Working pressure and temperature inside the
engine cylinder is low; hence ordinary alloys are engine cylinder is very much high; hence special
alloys are used
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used for the manufacture of engine cylinder and
its parts.
*It can use cheaper fuels including solid fuels *High grade fuels are used with proper filtration
*Lower efficiency about 15-20% *Higher efficiency about 35-40%
* Higher requirement of water for dissipation of *Lesser requirement of water
energy through cooling system
*High starting torque *IC engines are not self-starting

1.2 Engine Components and Basic Engine Nomenclature

Cylinder: It is the main part of the engine inside which piston reciprocates to and fro. It should
have high strength to withstand high pressure above 50 bar and temperature above 2000 oC.

Cylinder head: The top end of the cylinder is covered by cylinder head over which inlet and
exhaust valve, spark plug or injectors are mounted.

Piston: Transmit the force exerted by the burning of charge to the connecting rod. Usually
made of aluminum alloy which has good heat conducting property and greater strength at higher
temperature.

Figure 0-2 Different parts of IC engine

Piston rings: These are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer surface of
the piston and made of steel alloys which retain elastic properties even at high temperature. 2
types of rings- compression and oil rings. Compression ring is upper ring of the piston which
provides air tight seal to prevent leakage of the burnt gases into the lower portion. Oil ring is
lower ring which provides effective seal to prevent leakage of the oil into the engine cylinder.

Connecting rod: It converts reciprocating motion of the piston into circular motion of the crank
shaft, in the working stroke. The smaller end of the connecting rod is connected with the piston
by gudgeon pin and bigger end of the connecting rod is connected with the crank with crank

2
pin. The special steel alloys or aluminum alloys are used for the manufacture of connecting rod.

Crankshaft: It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion with the
help of connecting rod. The special steel alloys are used for the manufacturing of the crankshaft.
It consists of eccentric portion called crank.

Crank case: It houses cylinder and crankshaft of the IC engine and also serves as sump for the
lubricating oil.

Flywheel: It is big wheel mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to maintain its speed
constant. It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke, which is returned during
other stroke.

Terminology used in IC engine:

1. Cylinder bore (D): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder.

2. Piston area (A): The area of circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore.

3. Stroke (L): The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two
successive reversals of its direction of motion.

4. Dead center: The position of the working piston and the moving parts which are
mechanically connected to it at the moment when the direction of the piston motion is
reversed (at either end point of the stroke).

(a) Bottom dead center (BDC): Dead center when the piston is nearest to the crankshaft.

(b) Top dead center (TDC): Dead center when the position is farthest from the crankshaft.

5. Displacement volume or swept volume (Vs): The nominal volume generated by the working
piston when travelling from the one dead center to next one and given as, Vs=A × L

6. Clearance volume (Vc): the nominal volume of the space on the combustion side of the piston
at the top dead centre.

7. Cylinder volume (V): Total volume of the cylinder. V= Vs + Vc

8. Compression ratio (r):

3
 Figure 0-3 Engine terminologies

1.3 IC Engine Classification, Four stroke Cycle SI engines

1.3.1 IC Engine Classification

In this engine, the combustion of air and fuels take place inside the cylinder and are used as the
direct motive force. It can be classified into the following types:

1. According to the basic engine design- (a) Reciprocating engine (Use of cylinder piston
arrangement), (b) Rotary engine (Use of turbine)

2. According to the type of fuel used- (a) Petrol engine, (b) diesel engine, (c) gas engine (CNG,
LPG), (d) Alcohol engine (ethanol, methanol etc)

3. According to the number of strokes per cycle- (a) Four stroke and (b) Two stroke engine

4. According to the method of igniting the fuel- (a) Spark ignition engine, (b) compression
ignition engine and (c) hot spot ignition engine

5. According to the working cycle- (a) Otto cycle (constant volume cycle) engine, (b) diesel
cycle (constant pressure cycle) engine, (c) dual combustion cycle (semi diesel cycle) engine.
6. According to the fuel supply and mixture preparation- (a) Carbureted type (fuel supplied
through the carburetor), (b) Injection type (fuel injected into inlet ports or inlet manifold).

7. According to the number of cylinder- (a) Single cylinder and (b) multi-cylinder engine

8. Method of cooling- water cooled or air cooled

9. Speed of the engine- Slow speed, medium speed and high speed engine

10. Cylinder arrangement-Vertical, horizontal, inline, V-type, radial, opposed cylinder or

piston engines.

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11. Valve or port design and location- Overhead (I head), side valve (L head); in two stroke
engines: cross scavenging, loop scavenging, uniflow scavenging.

12. Method governing- Hit and miss governed engines, quantitatively governed engines and
qualitatively governed engine

13. Application- Automotive engines for land transport, marine engines for propulsion of ships,
aircraft engines for aircraft propulsion, industrial engines.

1.3.2 Four stroke Cycle SI engines

− In a four-stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four strokes of the piston
or two revolutions of the crankshaft.
− During the four strokes, there are five events to be completed, viz., suction,
compression, combustion, expansion and exhaust. Each stroke consists of 180° of
crankshaft rotation and hence a four-stroke cycle is completed through 720° of crank
rotation.
− The cycle of operation for an ideal four-stroke SI engine consists of the following four
strokes: (i) suction or intake stroke; (ii) compression stroke; (iii) expansion or power
stroke and (iv) exhaust stroke.

Figure 0-4 Four stroke SI engine

− The details of various processes of a four-stroke spark-ignition engine with overhead

valves are shown in Fig. 1.4 (a-d).

1.4 Four stroke CI engines, and two stroke Engines

− The four-stroke Cl engine is similar to the four-stroke SI engine but it operates at a

much higher compression ratio. The compression ratio of an SI engine is between 6 and
10 while for a Cl engine it is from 16 to 20.

5
 − In the Cl engine during suction stroke, air, instead of a fuel-air mixture, is inducted.
Due to higher compression ratios employed, the temperature at the end of the
compression stroke is sufficiently high to self-ignite the fuel which is injected into the
combustion chamber.
− In Cl engines, a high pressure fuel pump and an injector are provided to inject the fuel
into the combustion chamber. The carburetor and ignition system necessary in the SI
engine are not required in the Cl engine.
− The ideal sequence of operations for the four-stroke Cl engine as shown in Fig. 1.6 is
as follows:

Figure 0-5 Cycle of operation of CI engine

a) Suction Stroke: In the suction stroke piston moves from TDC to BDC. Air alone is
inducted during the suction stroke. During this stroke inlet valve is open and exhaust valve
is closed, Fig.1.6 (a).
b) Compression Stroke: In this stroke piston moves from BDC to TDC. Air inducted during
the suction stroke is compressed into the clearance
volume. Both valves remain closed during this
stroke, Fig. 1.6 (b).
c) Expansion Stroke: Fuel injection starts nearly at
the end of the com-pression stroke. The rate of
injection is such that combustion maintains the
pressure constant in spite of the piston movement on
its expansion stroke increasing the volume. Heat is
assumed to have been added at constant pressure.
After the injection products of combustion expand.
Both the valves remain closed during the expansion
Figure 0-6 Ideal p-V diagram for a four of fuel is
stroke, Fig. 1.3(c). completed (i.e. after cut-off) the stroke CI engine
d) Exhaust Stroke: The piston travelling from BDC
to TDC pushes out the products of combustion. The exhaust valve is open and the intake
valve is closed during this stroke, Fig. 1.6 (d). The ideal p - V diagram is shown in Fig.
1.7.
1.5 Two stroke engine:

− In two-stroke engines the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft. The
main difference between two-stroke and four-stroke engines is in the method of filling
the fresh charge and removing the burnt gases from the cylinder.
6
− In the four-stroke engine these operations are performed by the engine piston during
the suction and exhaust strokes respectively.
− In a two- stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished by the charge compressed
in crankcase or by a blower. The induction of the compressed charge moves out the
product of combustion through exhaust ports. Therefore, no separate piston strokes are
required for these two operations.
− Two strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle, one for compressing the fresh charge
and the other for expansion or power stroke. It is to be noted that the effective stroke is
reduced.
− Figure 1.8 shows one of the simplest two-stroke engines, viz., the crankcase scavenged
engine. Figure 1.9 shows the ideal p - V diagram of such an engine.
− The air-fuel charge is inducted into the crankcase through the spring loaded inlet valve
when the pressure in the crankcase is reduced due to upward motion of the piston during
compression stroke. After the compression and ignition, expansion takes place in the
usual way.
− During the expansion stroke the charge in the crankcase is compressed. Near the end of
the expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust ports and the cylinder pressure
drops to atmospheric pressure as the combustion products leave the cylinder.

Figure 0-7 Crankcase scavenged two-stroke SI engine

− The piston top usually has a projection to

deflect the fresh charge towards the top of
the cylinder preventing the flow through
the exhaust ports. This serves the double
purpose of scavenging the combustion
products from the upper part of the cylinder
and preventing the fresh charge from
flowing out directly through the exhaust
ports.
− The same objective can be achieved
without piston deflector by proper shaping of the transfer port. During the upward
motion of the piston from BDC the transfer ports close first and then the exhaust ports,
thereby the effective compression of the charge begins and the cycle is repeated.
Figure 0-8 Ideal p-V diagram of a two-stroke
SI engine

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 Figure 0-9 Cycle of operation in two stroke engine
Table 0-2 Comparison of Four-stroke and two-stroke engine:

Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine

Four stroke of the piston and two revolution of Two stroke of the piston and one
crankshaft revolution of crankshaft
One power stroke in every two revolution of One power stroke in each revolution of
crankshaft crankshaft
Heavier flywheel due to non-uniform turning Lighter flywheel due to more uniform turning
movement movement
Power produce is less Theoretically power produce is twice than the
four stroke engine for same size
Heavy and bulky Light and compact
Lesser cooling and lubrication requirements Greater cooling and lubrication requirements
Lesser rate of wear and tear Higher rate of wear and tear
Contains valve and valve mechanism Contains ports arrangement
Higher initial cost Cheaper initial cost
Volumetric efficiency is more due to greater Volumetric efficiency less due to lesser time of
time of induction induction
Thermal efficiency is high and also part load Thermal efficiency is low, part load efficiency
efficiency better lesser

Table 0-3 Comparison of SI and CI engine:

SI engine CI engine
Working cycle is Otto cycle. Working cycle is diesel cycle.
Petrol or gasoline or high octane fuel is used. Diesel or high cetane fuel is used.
High self-ignition temperature. Low self-ignition temperature.
Fuel and air introduced as a gaseous mixture in Fuel is injected directly into the combustion
the suction stroke. chamber at high pressure at the end of
compression stroke.
Carburetor used to provide the mixture. Injector and high pressure pump used to supply
Throttle controls the quantity of mixture of fuel. Quantity of fuel regulated in pump.
introduced.
Use of spark plug for ignition system Self-ignition by the compression of air which
increased the temperature required for
combustion
Compression ratio is 6 to 10.5 Compression ratio is 14 to 22
Higher maximum RPM due to lower weight Lower maximum RPM

8
 2 THERMODYNAMICS OF IC ENGINES
2.1 Air Standard Cycles

The cycle experienced in the cylinder of an internal combustion engine is very complex. First,
air (CI engine) or air mixed with fuel (SI engine) is ingested and mixed with the slight amount
of exhaust residual remaining from the previous cycle. This mixture is then compressed and
combusted, changing the composition to exhaust products consisting largely of CO2, H2O, and
N2 with many other lesser components. Then, after an expansion process, the exhaust valve is
opened and this gas mixture is expelled to the surroundings. Thus, it is an open cycle with
changing composition, a difficult system to analyze [2]. To make the analysis of the engine
cycle much more manageable, the real cycle is approximated with an ideal air-standard cycle
which differs from the actual by the following:

1. The gas mixture in the cylinder is treated as air for the entire cycle, and property values
of air are used in the analysis. This is a good approximation during the first half of the
cycle, when most of the gas in the cylinder is air with only up to about 7% fuel vapor.
Even in the second half of the cycle, when the gas composition is mostly CO2, H20, and
N2, using air properties does not create large errors in the analysis. Air will be treated
as an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
2. The real open cycle is changed into a closed cycle by assuming that the gases being
exhausted are fed back into the intake system. This works with ideal air-standard cycles,
as both intake gases and exhaust gases are air. Closing the cycle simplifies the analysis.
3. The combustion process is replaced with a heat addition term Qin of equal energy value.
Air alone cannot combust.
4. The open exhaust process, which carries a large amount of enthalpy out of the energy
system, value.is replaced with a closed system heat rejection process Qout of equal.

2.2 Actual engine processes

Actual engine processes are approximated with ideal processes.
a) The almost-constant-pressure intake and exhaust strokes are assumed to be constant
pressure. At the intake stroke is assumed to be at a pressure Po of one atmosphere.
At partially closed throttle or when supercharged, inlet pressure will be some

9
 constant value other than one atmosphere. The exhaust stroke pressure is assumed
constant at one atmosphere.
b) Compression strokes and expansion strokes are approximated by isentropic
processes. To be truly isentropic would require these strokes to be reversible and
adiabatic. There is some friction between the piston and cylinder walls but, because
the surfaces are highly polished and lubricated, this friction is kept to a minimum
and the processes are close to frictionless and reversible. The Otto Cycle OR
Constant Volume Cycle (Isochoric)

The cycle was successfully applied by a German scientist Nicolous A. Otto to produce
a successful 4 – stroke cycle engine in 1876.

Figure 2-1 p-V and T-s diagrams of Otto cycle

The thermodynamic cycle is operated with isochoric (constant volume) heat addition and
consists of two adiabatic processes and two constant volume changes. Fig. 2.1 shows the
Otto cycle plotted on p – V and T – s diagram.

Adiabatic Compression Process (1 – 2):

At pt. 1 cylinder is full of air with volume V1, pressure P1 and temp. T1.

Piston moves from BDC to TDC and an ideal gas (air) is compressed isentropically to
state point 2 through compression ratio,

Constant Volume Heat Addition Process (2 – 3):

Heat is added at constant volume from an external heat source. p3

10
 The pressure rises and the ratio r is called expansion ratio or pressure p2 ratio.

Adiabatic Expansion Process (3 – 4):

The increased high pressure exerts a greater amount of force on the piston and pushes
it towards the BDC.

Expansion of working fluid takes place isentropically and work done by the system.

The volume ratio V4 is called isentropic expansion ratio. V3

Constant Volume Heat Rejection Process (4 – 1):

Heat is rejected to the external sink at constant volume. This process is so controlled
that ultimately the working fluid comes to its initial state 1 and the cycle is repeated.

Many petrol and gas engines work on a cycle which is a slight modification of the Otto
cycle.

This cycle is called constant volume cycle because the heat is supplied to air at constant
volume.

2.2.1 Cycle:
(a) Otto cycle- thermodynamic cycle for SI/petrol engine
-Reversible adiabatic compression and expansion process
-Constant volume heat addition (combustion) and heat rejection process (exhaust)
Figure 7 depicts the Otto cycle

Figure 2-2 Otto cycle

(b) Diesel cycle- thermodynamic cycle for low speed CI/diesel engine
-Reversible adiabatic compression and expansion process

11
 -Constant pressure heat addition (combustion) and heat rejection process (exhaust)
Figure 8 depicts the diesel cycle.

Figure 2-3 Diesel cycle

(c) Dual cycle or limited pressure cycle-thermodynamic cycle for high

speed diesel and hot spot ignition engine
Reversible adiabatic compression and expansion process
-Constant pressure and constant volume heat addition (combustion) and
heat rejection process

Figure 2-4 Dual cycle

Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycle:

(a) For same compression ratio and same heat input

(b) For constant maximum pressure and same heat input
(c) For same maximum pressure and temperature
(d) For same maximum pressure and output

12
 3 PERFORMANCE EQUATIONS AND ENGINE
CHARACTERISTICS
Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success of the engine performs its assigned
task, i.e. the conversion of the chemical energy contained in the fuel into the useful mechanical
work. The performance of an engine is evaluated on the basis of the following;
(a) Specific Fuel Consumption. (d) Specific Weight.
(b) Brake Mean Effective Pressure. (e) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
(c) Specific Power Output.

Basic measurements:
The basic measurements to be undertaken to evaluate the performance of an engine on almost
all tests are the following:
(a) Speed (f) Indicated horse power and friction
(b) Fuel consumption horse power
(c) Air consumption (g) Heat balance sheet or performance of SI
(d) Smoke density and CI engine
(e) Brake horse-power (h) Exhaust gas analysis

2. Fuel consumption measurement:

Fuel consumption is measured in two ways:
(a) The fuel consumption of an engine is measured by determining the volume flow in a given
time interval and multiplying it by the specific gravity of the fuel which should be measured
occasionally to get an accurate value.
(b) Another method is to measure the time required for consumption of a given mass of fuel.
As already mentioned two basic types of fuel measurement methods are:
-Volumetric type
-Gravimetric type
Volumetric type flow meter includes Burette method, Automatic Burette flow meter and
Turbine flow meter.

Gravimetric Fuel Flow Measurement

13
The efficiency of an engine is related to the kilograms of fuel which are consumed and not the
number of litres. The method of measuring volume flow and then correcting it for specific
gravity variations is quite inconvenient and inherently limited in accuracy. Instead if the weight
of the fuel consumed is directly measured a great improvement in accuracy and cost can be
obtained. There are three types of gravimetric type systems which are commercially available
include Actual weighing of fuel consumed, Four Orifice Flow meter, etc.

3. Measurement of air consumption:

In IC engines, the satisfactory measurement of air consumption is quite difficult because the
flow is pulsating, due to the cyclic nature of the engine and because the air a compressible fluid.
Therefore, the simple method of using an orifice in the induction pipe is not satisfactory since
the reading will be pulsating and unreliable.
All kinetic flow-inferring systems such as nozzles, orifices and venturies have a square law
relationship between flow rate and differential pressure which gives rise to severe errors on
unsteady flow. Pulsation produced errors are roughly inversely proportional to the pressure
across the orifice for a given set of flow conditions. The various methods and meters used for
air flow measurement include, (a) Air box method, and (b) Viscous-flow air meter

4. Measurement of brake power:

The brake power measurement involves the determination of the torque and the angular speed
of the engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer.
Dynamometers can be broadly classified into two main types, power absorption dynamometers
and transmission dynamometer.
A. Absorption Dynamometers
These dynamometers measure and absorb the power output of the engine to which they are
coupled. The power absorbed is usually dissipated as heat by some means. Example of such
dynamometers is prony brake, rope brake, hydraulic dynamometer, etc.
B. Hydraulic Dynamometer
Hydraulic dynamometer works on the principle of dissipating the power in fluid friction rather
than in dry friction.
-In principle its construction is similar to that of a fluid flywheel.
-It consists of an inner rotating member or impeller coupled to the output shaft of the engine.
-This impeller rotates in a casing filled with fluid.

15
 Figure 3-1 Hydraulic dynamometer

C. Eddy Current Dynamometer

Figure 3-2 Eddy current dynamometer

The following are the main advantages of eddy current dynamometer:

(a) High brake power per unit weight of dynamometer.
(b) They offer the highest ratio of constant power speed range (up to 5 : 1).
(c) Level of field excitation is below 1% of total power being handled by dynamometer, thus,
easy to control and programme.
(d) Development of eddy current is smooth hence the torque is also smooth and continuous
under all conditions.
(e) Relatively higher torque under low speed conditions.
(f) It has no intricate rotating parts except shaft bearing. (g) No natural limit to size-either small
or large.
D. Swinging Field d.c. Dynamometer
Basically, a swinging field d.c. dynamometer is a d.c. shunt motor so supported on trunnion
bearings to measure their action torque that the outer case and filed coils tend to rotate with the
magnetic drag. Hence, the name swinging field. The torque is measured with an arm and
weighing equipment in the usual manner.

16
E. Fan Dynamometer
It is also an absorption type of dynamometer in that when driven by the engine it absorbs the
engine power. Such dynamometers are useful mainly for rough testing and running. The
accuracy of the fan dynamometer is very poor. The power absorbed is determined by using
previous calibration of the fan brake.
F. Transmission Dynamometers
Transmission dynamometers, also called torque meters, mostly consist of a set of straingauges
fixed on the rotating shaft and the torque is measured by the angular deformation of the shaft
which is indicated as strain of the strain gauge. Usually, a four arm bridge is used to reduce the
effect of temperature to minimum and the gauges are arranged in pairs such that the effect of
axial or transverse load on the strain gauges is avoided.

Figure 3-3 Transmission dynamometer

Transmission dynamometers are very accurate and are used where continuous transmission of
load is necessary. These are used mainly in automatic units.

17
 4 FUEL FOR IC ENGINES
In IC engines, the chemical energy contained in the fuel is converted into mechanical power by
burning (oxidizing) the fuel inside the combustion chamber of the engine. Fuels suitable for fast
chemical reaction have to be used in IC engines, they are following types-
a) Hydrocarbons fuels derived from the crude petroleum by proper refining process such
as thermal and catalytic cracking method, polymerization, and alkylation,
isomerization, reforming and blending.
b) Alternative fuels such as-Alcohols (methanol, ethanol)
Natural gas (methane)
LPG (propane, butane)
Hydrogen
Classification of petroleum fuels used for IC engine:
Liquid hydrocarbons- Engine fuels are mainly mixtures of hydrocarbons, with bonds
between hydrogen and carbon atoms. During combustion these bonds are broken and new
bonds are formed with oxygen atoms, accompanied by the release of chemical energy.
Principal products are carbon dioxide and water vapor. Fuels also contain small amounts of S,
O2, N2, and H2O. The different constituents of crude petroleum which are available in liquid
hydrocarbons are- paraffin, naphthenic, naphthenic, olefins, aromatics.

(i) Paraffin-
-Paraffin or alkanes can in general be represented by-CnH2n+2
-All the carbon bonds are single bonds – they are “saturated” high number of H atoms, high
heat content and low density (620 – 770 kg/m3)
-The carbon atoms can be arranged as a straight chain or as branched chain compounds.
-Straight chain group (normal paraffin)
• shorter the chain, stronger the bond
• Not suitable for SI engines – high tendency for auto ignition according to the value of
“n” in the formula, they are in gaseous (1 to 4), liquid (5 to 15) or solid (>16) state. -
Hexan C6H14 (normal paraffin)
H H H H H H
H–C–C–C–C–C–C–H
H H H H H H

18
(ii) Naphthenes-
-Also called as cyclo paraffin and represented as CnH2n
-Saturated hydrocarbons which are arranged in a circle have stable structure and low tendency
to auto ignite compared to alkanes (normal paraffin)
-Can be used both in SI-engines and CI-engines
-Low heat content and high density (740 – 790 kg / m3)

(iii) Olefins-
-Olefins or alkenes are represented as Mono olefins-CnH2n or Dio-olefins CnH2n-2 -Olefins
have the same C-to-H ratio and the same general formula as naphthenes, their behavior and
characteristics are entirely different
-They are straight or branch chain compounds with one or more double bond. The position of
the double bond is indicated by the number of first C atom to which it is attached, i.e.,
CH2=CH.CH2.CH2.CH3 called pentene-1
CH3.CH=CH3 called butene-2

Alkenes are such as,

Hexen (mono-olefin)
H H H H H H
H–C–C–C–C–C=C-H
H H H H
Butadien (dio-olefin)
H H H H
H–C=C–C=C–H

*Refinery processes:

Crude oil is the liquid part of the naturally occurring organic material composed mostly of HCs
that is trapped geologically in underground reservoirs – it is not uniform and varies in density,
chemical composition, boiling range etc. for different fields. The refinery processes involved
in production of different range of fuel is shown in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11.

19
 Figure 4-1 Refinery processes

Figure 4-2 Products made from crude oil

Distillation process

-This is the initial process used in all refineries – aims to separate the crude oil into different
boiling range fractions, each of which may be a product in its own right, a blend component or
feed for further processing step
-Crude oil contains many thousands of different HCs, each has its own boiling point – lightest
are gases at ambient temperature but can remain dissolved in heavier liquid HCs unless
temperature is raised, heaviest are solids at ambient temperature but stay in solution unless
temperature is lowered.
Gasoline distillation temperature is 35 – 200 oC
Jet fuel 35 - 150
Diesel fuel 175 – 370
Heavy fuels, oil 370 – 550

-Generally distillation of crude oil produces 30% gasoline, 20-40 % diesel fuel, 20 % heavy
fuels, 10-20 % heavy oils.

20
Alternative fuels:

(a) Alcohols: These include methanol (methyl alcohol), ethanol (ethyl alcohol), propanol
(propyl alcohol), butanol (butyl alcohol) as compounds
The OH group which replaces one of the H atoms in an alkane, gives these compounds their
characteristic properties
-Specific heating value is lower than gasoline (42 – 43 MJ/kg) methanol (19.7 MJ/kg) and
ethanol (26.8 MJ/kg)

(i) Methanol
-Can be obtained from natural gas – has near and long-term potential
-Has high octane quality (130 RON, 95 MON)
-Can be used in low-concentration (5-15 %) in gasoline to increase octane number of
the mixture
(ii) Ethanol
-Produced from biomass
-It is made from the sugars found in grains, such as: Corn, Sorghum, and Barley Other
sources of sugars to produce ethanol include: Potato skins, Rice, Sugar cane, Sugar
beets, Yard clippings, Bark, Switch grass etc.
-Has high octane number – can be used in low–concentrations in gasoline
-Any gasoline powered engine can use E10, but only specially made vehicles can run
on E85, a fuel that is 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline
(b) Biodiesel:

-It is methyl or ethyl ester of a fatty acid produced from vegetable oil of edible or non edible
types or animal fat or algae, by transesterification process using catalysts.
-Has better lubricating properties and much higher cetane ratings than today's low sulfur diesel
fuels.
-Its addition reduces the fuel system wear.
-Can be used in the pure form (B100), or may be blended with petroleum diesel in any
concentration in most diesel engines for transportation purpose.
(c) Biogas:

Produced by the anaerobic decomposition of organic materials such as cow dung and other
waste such as cornhusks, leaves, straw, garbage, flesh of car cusses, poultry droppings, pig

21
dung, human excreta, sewage and the plants specially grown for this purpose like water
hyacinth, algae, certain types of grasses. Also any cellulosic organic material of animal or plant
origin which is easily bio-degradable is a potential raw material for biogas production. -
Also produced by pyrolysis and hydrogasification methods
(d) Hydrogen:

-Clean burning fuel and has the highest energy content per unit mass of any chemical fuels
which can reduce the dependency on hydrocarbon based fuels Production:

Most common method of producing hydrogen involves splitting water (H2O) into its component
parts of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O).
E. Natural Gas:
-Natural gas is present in the earth and is often produced in association with the production of
crude oil. Processing is required to separate the gas from petroleum liquids and to remove
contaminants. First, the gas is separated from free liquids such as crude oil, hydrocarbon
condensate, water and entrained solids. The separated gas is further processed to meet certain
pipelines quality specifications with respect to water content, hydrocarbon dew point, heating
value and hydrogen sulphide content. Generally, a gas sweetening plant removes hydrogen
sulphide and other sulfur compounds
*General Fuel Specifications:
Different properties of fuels have, Flash point
Relative density (specific gravity) Viscosity
Fuel composition Surface tension
Specific heating value Freezing point

(a) Relative density (specific gravity):

It is related to the measurement of the ratio of the weight of a given volume of fuel to the weight
of the same volume of water, both at 20 OC and 101.325 kPa
For gasoline, the relative density is around 0.72 to 0.78 - which is equivalent to an API
(American petroleum institute) range of 65 to 50, ρ = 700 −800 [kg/m3], for unleaded gasoline
this value is higher due to the aromatics, For diesel fuel, ρ = 830 − 950 [kg/m3]
(b) Fuel composition:

C and H: carbon content of aromatics is around 89 %, and of paraffins and naphthenes is

around 86 %

22
Benzene: max allowable concentration is specified b/c it is highly toxic material, level is 5 %
Sulphur content: HC fuels contain free sulphur, hydrogen sulphide and other sulphur
compounds which are objectionable it is a corrosive element that can corrode fuel lines.
(C) Specific heating value:
-Specific heating value, Hu is a measure of the energy content of the fuel per unit mass (kJ/kg
or kcal/kg)
-Gaseous fuels sp heating value is given in terms of energy content per unit volume (kJ/liter or
kJ/m3, kcal/m3)
-In IC engines lower heating value is given as the combustion products contain water in vapour
form.
For gasoline and diesel fuel Hu=42000-44000 kJ/kg or Hu=10200-10500 kcal/kg
(d) Flash point:
-Flash point is the lowest temperature of a sample at which the fuel vapour starts to ignite when
in contact with a flame (ignition source).
-Marcusson method – fuel container is slowly heated, while the fuel vapour is in contact with
an open flame – T is measured
-For gasoline it is 25 oC, diesel fuel 35 oC and heavy diesel 65 oC

(e) Viscosity:
-Viscosity is an important parameter for CI engines, also influences fuel metering orifices since
Re is an inverse function of fuel viscosity lower the viscosity, smaller the diameter of the
droplets in the spray.
-Below certain limits, low viscosity increases the leaks in the fuel system. It is a strong function
of T – must be given at certain T values at 50 oC, 1.5 – 5.0 Engler or 0.5 to 0.6 centistokes
(f) Surface tension:
-Surface tension is a parameter which effects the formation of fuel droplets in sprays
-increasing the surface tension will reduce mass flow and air-fuel ratio in gasoline engines
-lower the value, smaller the droplet diameter diesel fuel value is in the range of 0.023 – 0.032
N/m and for gasoline it is 0.019 – 0.023 N/m

(g) Freezing point:

-the precipitation of paraffin crystals in winter can lead to clogged filters. It can be prevented
by either removing paraffins from the fuel or adding flow improvers (additives).
-Antifreezing properties are determined by its filterability.

23
 5 COMBUSTION AND COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN
5.1 Introduction

In Spark Ignition (S.I.) engine, fuel and air is mixed outside the engine cylinder in
carburetor in proper proportion.
Combustion is chemical reaction between hydrogen and carbon in fuel with oxygen in air.
It produces CO2 and H2O and liberates energy in the form of heat. Actual process of
combustion is very complicated and lot of research is going on since many years.
During combustion, large amount of heat is generated which is utilized to run the I.C
engine.
Combustion in S.I. engine requires following conditions:
(1) Proper proportion of air-fuel mixture should be compressed to required level
(compression ratio = 6 to 10)
(2) Spark should take place with required intensity.
(3) Combustion should start at spark plug, and the flame should propagate in combustion
chamber.
5.2 Combustion Related Concepts and Definitions

The internal combustion engines derive their energy in the form of heat by combustion of
homogeneous mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber.
An enormous amount of research has been carried out, both theoretical and experimental,
regarding the burning of this homogeneous mixture, but in actual practice the mixture
inside the cylinder is never homogeneous.
The reasons for such existent of heterogeneous mixtures in the cylinder may be
nonuniform distribution of fuel and air in the combustion chamber or due to the dilution
of mixture by the left over residual (burnt) gases in the clearance space of the cylinder of
its previous stroke or for other reasons.
5.3 Objectives of Combustion Chamber Design for S.I. Engines

A combustion chamber needs to be designed to meet the general objectives of developing high
power output and high thermal efficiency with smooth running of engine and minimum octane
number requirement of fuel. In order to achieve these objectives, following factors are to be
kept in mind while designing the combustion chambers of S.I. engines.
5.4 Different Types of Combustion Chambers for S.I. Engines in Use:
Few important types of S.I. combustion chambers used are being discussed below :
1. T-Head Combustion Chamber:

This type of combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 5.1. It was used by Ford in 1908 but it is
obsolete today. It has the following disadvantages:
a) It needs two cam shafts to operate each valve separately.
b) Long flame travel, therefore, it has more tendency to detonate. Compression ratios
were limited to 5 : 1.
c) Has high surface-volume ratio.
24
 Figure 5-1 T-head combustion chambers

2. L-Head or Side Valve Combustion Chamber:

Advantages of L-head combustion chamber :

1. Easy to cast.
2. Easy to carry out maintenance.
3. Easy to lubricate the valve mechanism.
4. Cylinder head can easily be removed, therefore, decarbonizing can be carried out
without disturbing the valve gear mechanism.

Figure 5-2 L-head combustion chamber

Disadvantages of L-head combustion chamber :

1. There is a loss of velocity of intake air since it has to take two right angle turns before
reaching the cylinder. It results into poor turbulence.
2. Distance to be travelled by flame is more and it is super imposed by poor turbulence,
therefore, tendency to detonation is more. Compression ratio is limited to 4 : 1.
3. Mixing of air-fuel is unsatisfactory.
4. It has low power and low thermal efficiency.
3. Recardo Turbulent Combustion Chamber:

The design of combustion chamber as suggested by Recardo in the year 1919 is shown in
Fig. 5.3. However, modifications have been carried out in the design given at later stages.

The Recardo combustion chamber overcomes the disadvantages experienced in the Lhead
combustion chamber.
Recardo combustion chamber provides a turbulent head.

25
 Figure 5-3 Recardo turbulent combustion chamber

5.5 Combustion in C.I. Engines

5.5.1 Combustion Stages in C.I. Engines

In case of compression ignition engines the air alone is compressed and raised to high
pressure and temperatures in the compression stroke by using high compression ratios.
The temperature of air attained is far above the self-ignition temperature of the diesel fuel
used.

Figure 5-4 Combustion stages in C.I. Engines

The fuel is injected by a fuel pump into the combustion chamber by one or more jets under
very high pressures of about 120-210 bar pressures at about (200 – 350) before TDC. The
point A represents the time at which the fuel injection starts on (p - θ ) diagram shown in
Fig. 5.9. Combustion takes place in four stages which are as follows :

1. First stage (Ignition delay period):

The fuel leaves the nozzles initially in the form of a jet, and later on, it disintegrates into a
core of fuel surrounded by a spray envelope of air and fuel particles due to atomization,
vaporization and mixing with hot air.
a) Physical delay:

26
 This represents the time interval from the time of injection of fuel to its
attainment of self-ignition temperature during which the fuel is atomized,
vaporized and mixed with air.
b) Chemical delay:

After physical delay period is over, the time interval up to the time the fuel
auto-ignites and flame appears is called chemical delay.
2. Second stage (Period of uncontrolled combustion):

Once the delay period is over the mixture of fuel and air will auto-ignite since it is above
the self-ignition temperature.
The flame appears at one or more locations where concentration of fuel and air mixture is
optimum. This is due to the fact that the mixture present in the combustion chamber at the
time of ignition is extremely heterogeneous unlike the homogeneous mixture of S.I.
engines.
3. Third stage (Period of controlled combustion):

Once the fuel accumulated during the delay period is burnt in the period of uncontrolled
combustion, the temperature and pressures in the cylinder will be so high that the further
quantity of fuel injected will burn as soon as it leaves the nozzle provided sufficient oxygen
is present in the cylinder.
4. Fourth state (After burning):

Theoretically the combustion is completed at the point the maximum pressure is attained
during the cycle corresponding to point E few degree after TDC.
5.6 Knock in C.I. Engines (Abnormal Combustion)

In C.I engine as delay period increases, the amount of fuel injected and accumulated in
combustion chamber increases. A very high temperature and pressure is generated by
combustion of this large amount of fuel is known as knocking or detonation in C.I engine.
“Accumulation of fuel during large delay period creates very high pressure, it is known as
knocking in C.I. engine.”
This high rate of pressure rise creates pulsating combustion which produces heavy noise.
In C.I. engine knocking occurs during initial phase of combustion i.e. as delay period is
completed and uncontrolled combustion starts.

Figure 5-5 p - θ diagram of C.I. engine with and without Knocking

27
5.7 Comparison of the knocking in S.I. and C.I. engines

(1) In S.I. engine knocking takes place at the end of combustion process while in C.I. engine
it takes place at the beginning of combustion.
(2) In S.I. engine knocking is due to end charge auto-ignition before reaching the flame while
in C.I. engine knocking is due to auto-ignition of more fuel accumulated due to long delay
period.

Figure 5-6 p - θ diagram of S.I and C.I. engine

(3) In S.I. engine pressure rise is very high during knocking due to homogeneous mixture as
compared to the C.I. engines.
(4) Chances of pre-ignition in the S.I. engine is more because air-fuel mixture enters during
suction stroke while in the C.I. engine fuel is injected at the end of compression stroke.
(5) In the C.I engine knocking is due to delay period and delay period cannot be zero. There
is always pressure rise due to accumulation of fuel during delay period. Therefore, the C.I.
engine is known as knock engine. As degree of pressure rise increases above certain limit
which may start to produce audible noise and vibration. It is the starting of knocking.
Therefore, in the C.I. engine it is difficult to distinguish between knocking and non-
knocking operation.
Table 7.3 gives the factors which reduce the detonation and knocking tendency in S.I.
and C.I. engines.

Table 7. 3 Factors tending to reduce detonation and knocking in S.I. and C.I. engines

28
5.8 Combustion Chamber Design for C.I. Engines

Objectives

In the C.I engine during induction, suction, and compression only air is there and fuel is
injected at the end of compression. The time available for vaporization and mixing with air
is very limited. Also for better mixing and better combustion air swirl is required which
gives better combustion.
For better combustion atomization, vaporization and proper mixing with air is required in
minimum time and result of all these give high power, better efficiency, smooth and
noiseless engine running, and shorter delay period which reduces probability of knocking.
To achieve all of the above advantages the design of C.I engine combustion chamber
becomes more complicated and swirl is very important in the C.I engine.
Air Swirl:

For proper mixing of fuel and air in the combustion chamber the various methods of air
movement are employed called air swirl. Various types of air swirl are being discussed
below :
1. Induction Swirl

2. Compression Swirl

3. Combustion Induced Swirl

5.9 Classification of Combustion Chambers for C.I. Engines

The combustion chamber for the C.I. engines are classified as follows:
a. Open combustion chamber or Direct injection (D.I.) combustion chambers.
b. Pre-combustion chamber.
c. Turbulent combustion chamber or Indirect injection combustion chamber.
d. Special combustion chambers.

29
 6 VALVE GEAR AND VALVE TIMING
Valve timing diagram:

The exact moment at which the inlet and outlet valve opens and closes with reference to the
position of the piston and crank shown diagrammatically is known as valve timing diagram. It
is expressed in terms of degree crank angle. The theoretical valve timing diagram is shown in
Fig. 6.1.

Figure 6-1 Theoretical valve timing diagram

Opening and closing of inlet valve

Inlet valve opens 12 to 30ᵒ CA before TDC to facilitate silent operation of the engine
under high speed. It increases the volumetric efficiency.
Inlet valve closes 10-60ᵒ CA after TDC due to inertia movement of fresh charge into
cylinder i.e. ram effect.
Figure represents the actual valve timing diagram for low and high speed engine.

Figure 6-2 Actual valve timing diagram for low and high speed engine
Opening and closing of exhaust valve

Exhaust valve opens 25 to 55ᵒ CA before BDC to reduce the work required to expel out the
burnt gases from the cylinder. At the end of expansion stroke, the pressure inside the chamber
is high, hence work to expel out the gases increases.

30
Exhaust valve closes 10 to 30ᵒ CA after TDC to avoid the compression of burnt gases in next
cycle. Kinetic energy of the burnt gas can assist maximum exhausting of the gas. It also
increases the volumetric efficiency.

Valve overlap

During this time both the intake and exhaust valves are open. The intake valve is opened before
the exhaust gases have completely left the cylinder, and their considerable velocity assists in
drawing in the fresh charge. Engine designers aim to close the exhaust valve just as the fresh
charge from the intake valve reaches it, to prevent either loss of fresh charge or unscavenged
exhaust gas.
Port timing diagram:
-Drawn for 2-stroke engine -3 ports- inlet, transfer and exhaust

-No valve arrangement

Figure 6.3 shows port timing diagram for 2-stroke engine

Figure 6-3 Port timing diagram for 2-stroke engine Working

31
 7 FUELING SYSTEM OF SI AND CI ENGINES
7.1 Carburetion:

The process of preparing a combustible fuel-air mixture outside engine cylinder in SI engine is
known as carburetion.
Important factors which affect the process of carburetion are given below;
-time available for the mixture preparation i.e. atomisation, mixing and the vaporisation
-Temperature of the incoming air
-quality of the fuel supply
-design of combustion chamber and induction system
*Mixture requirements for steady state operation:
Three main areas of steady state operation of automotive engine which require different air
fuel ratio are discussed below,

Figure 7-1 Main areas of automotive engine operation

(a) Idling and low load:

-from no load to about 20% of rated power
-No load running mode is called idling condition
-very low suction pressure give rise to back flow of exhaust gases and air leakage
-increases the amount of residual gases and hence increase the dilution effects
-Rich mixture i.e. F/A ratio 0.08 or A/F ratio 12.5:1 provide smooth operation of the engine
(b) Normal power range or cruising range:
-from about 20% to 75% of rated power
-dilution by residual gases as well as leakage decreases, hence fuel economy is important
consideration in this case

32
-maximum fuel economy occurs at A/F ratio of 17:1 to 16.7:1
-mixture ratios for best economy are very near to the mixture ratios for minimum emissions
(c) Maximum power range:
-from about 75% to 100% of rated power
-mixture requirements for the maximum power is a rich mixture, of A/F about 14:1 or F/A 0.07
-Rich mixture also prevents the overheating of exhaust valve at high load and inhibits
detonation
-in multi-cylinder engine the A/F ratio are slightly lower
*Mixture requirements for transient operation:
-Carburettor has to provide mixture for transient conditions under which speed, load,
temperature, or pressure change rapidly
-evaporation of fuel may be incomplete in the transient condition, quantity of fuel may be
increasing and decreasing
(a) Starting and warm up requirements:
-engine speed and temperature are low during the starting of the engine from cold
-during starting very rich mixture about 5 to 10 times the normal amount of petrol is sulpplied
i.e. F/A ratio 0.3 to 0.7 or A/F ratio 3:1 to 1.5:1
-mixture ratio is progressively made leaner to avoid too rich evaporated fuel-air ratio during
warm up condition
-too high volatility may form vapour bubbles in the carburettor and fuel lines particularly when
engine temperatures are high
-too low volatility may cause the petrol to condense on the cylinder walls, diluting and
removing the lubricating oil film
(b) Acceleration requirements:
- Acceleration refer to an increase in engine speed resulting from the opening of the throttle -
acceleration pump is used to provide additional fuel
*Simple Carburettor:
-provide air-fuel mixture for all operating conditions
-Carburettor depression is pressure differential in the float chamber and venture throat which
causes discharge of fuel into the air stream -flow is controlled by small hole of fuel passage
-pressure at the throat at the fully open throttle condition lies between 4 and 5 cm of Hg and
seldom exceeds 8 cm Hg
-petrol engine is quantity governed

33
-Drawback of simple carburettor is that it provides too rich and too lean mixture due to vacuum
created at the throat is too high and too small which is undesirable

Figure 7-2 A simple carburettor

Carburetor types:
(i) Open choke:Zenith, solex and carter, Constant vacuum type: S.U. carburetor
(ii) updraught type, horizontal or downdraught: mixture is assisted by gravity in its
passage to the engine induction
(a) Solex carburettor:
-provide ease of starting, good performance, and reliability
-used in Fiat and standard cars and Willey jeep
-Bi-starter is used for cold starting
-well of emulsion system is used for idling and slow running condition -diaphragm type
acceleration pump is used for increasing speed case
(b) Carter carburettor:
-downdraft type carburettor used in jeep
-has triple venture diffusing type choke in which smallest lies above the level float chamber,
other two below the petrol level, one below other
(c) S.U. carburettor:
-constant air-fuel ratio is maintained due to vacuum depression -has only one jet
-no separate idling jet or acceleration pump
-constant high velocity air across the jet may avoid the use of idling jet
Petrol injection:
-to avoid above problem of modern carburettor, petrol injection is used like in diesel engine
-petrol injected during the suction stroke in the intake manifold at low pressure

34
-injection timing is not much critical as like in diesel engine
-continuous injection and timed injection methods are used
Continuous injection:
-fuel is sprayed at low pressure continuously into the air supply
-amount of fuel is governed by air throttle opening
-in supercharged engine, fuel injected in the form of multiple spray into the suction side of the
centrifugal compressor
--provide efficient atomisation of fuel and uniform mixture strength to all cylinder
-higher volumetric efficiency
-one fuel injection pump and one injector
Timed injection system:
Similar to high speed diesel engine, components are fuel feed or lift pump, fuel pump and
distributor unit, fuel injection nozzles and mixture controls, mixture controls are automatic for
all engine operating conditions
Types of diesel injection system:
(a) Air injection system:
-fuel supplied through camshaft driven fuel pump
-fuel valve is also connected with high pressure airline to inject into cylinder
-multi-stage compressor which supply air at a pressure of about 60 to 70 bar

Figure 7-3 Air injection system

blast air sweeps the fuel along with it good atomisation results in good mixture formation and
hence high mean effective pressure heavy and viscous fuels are used fuel pump require small
pressure but it is complicated due to compressor arrangement and expensive bulky engine and
low bhp, overheating and burning of valve seat.
* Fuel Injectors
3 main types of fuel injectors,

35
Blast injector:
-these are superseded by mechanically operated injectors used in air injection system
Mechanically operated injector:
-consist of a set of camshaft, cams and rocker gear and other cams for controlling the timing of
the fuel injection
Automatic injector:
-consists of spring loaded needle valve and operated hydraulically by the pressure of fuel -
quanity of fuel is metered by the fuel pump

Types of nozzles:
(a) Depends on the type of combustion chamber,
Open combustion chamber:
Fuel seeks air, air swirl is created due to inclined induction port
Pre-combustion chamber:
Air velocity is very much high, single hole nozzle with 65 to 100 bar injection pressure is used
(b) Open and closed type of nozzle, Open type: consists of fuel orifices and open to burner
cheap and less efficient
ex- opposed piston two-stroke Junkers diesel engine
Closed type: pressure drop is minimized compared to open type

36
 8 IGNITION SYSTEM
Basically Convectional Ignition systems are of 2 types:
(a) Battery or Coil Ignition System, and
(b) Magneto Ignition System
Both these conventional, ignition systems work on mutual electromagnetic induction
principle.

8.1 Battery or Coil Ignition System:

used in 4-wheelers, but now-a-days it is more commonly used in 2-wheelers also (i.e. Button
start, 2-wheelers like Pulsar, Kinetic Honda; Honda-Activa, Scooty, Fiero, etc.) - The ignition
system is divided into 2-circuits:

(i) Primary Circuit:

-Consists of 6 or 12 V battery, ammeter, ignition switch, primary winding
-It has 200-300 turns of 20 SWG (Sharps Wire Gauge) gauge wire, contact breaker, capacitor.
(ii) Secondary Circuit:

Consists of secondary winding or coil which have 21000 turns of 40 (S WG) gauge wire. bottom
end of which is connected to bottom end of primary and top end of secondary winding or coil
is connected to center of distributor rotor.
Distributor rotors rotate and make contacts with contact points and are connected to spark plugs
which are fitted in cylinder heads.

Figure 8-1 Circuit diagram for a conventional spark ignition system Working: C=condenser,

P=primary coil, S=secondary coil, R1=ballast resistance, SW1=ignition switch,

SW2=contact breaker

37
-When the ignition switch is closed and engine in cranked, as soon as the contact breaker closes,
a low voltage current will flow through the primary winding. It is also to be noted that the
contact beaker cam opens and closes the circuit 4-times (for 4 cylinders) in one revolution.
When the contact breaker opens the contact, the magnetic field begins to collapse. Because of
this collapsing magnetic field, current will be induced in the secondary winding. And because
of more turns (@ 21000 turns of secondary, voltage goes unto 28000-30000 volts.

Magneto Ignition System:

- magneto will produce and supply the required current to the primary winding or coil. rotating
magneto with fixed coil or rotating coil with fixed magneto for producing and supplying
current to primary, remaining arrangement is same as that of a battery ignition system

Figure 8-2 High tension magneto ignition system

Disadvantage of conventional ignition systems

a) Because of arcing, pitting of contact breaker point
b) Poor starting: After few thousands of kilometres of running, the timing becomes
inaccurate, which results into poor starting (Starting trouble).
c) At very high engine speed, performance is poor because of inertia effects of the moving
parts in the system.
d) Sometimes it is not possible to produce spark properly in fouled spark plugs.
Due to above problem electronic ignition system is used.
Following are the advantages of electronic ignition system:
(a) Moving parts are absent-so no maintenance.
(b) Contact breaker points are absent-so no arcing.
(c) Spark plug life increases by 50% and they can be used for about 60000 km without
any problem.

38
 (d) Better combustion in combustion chamber, about 90-95% of air fuel mixture is burnt
compared with 70-75% with conventional ignition system.
(e) More power output.
(f) More fuel efficiency.

8.2 Firing order:

The order or sequence in which the firing takes place, in different cylinders of a multi-cylinder
engine is called Firing Order.
In case of SI engines the distributor connects the spark plugs of different cylinders according
to Engine Firing Order.
Advantages
(a) A proper firing order reduces engine vibrations
(b) Maintains engine balancing.
(c) Secures an even flow of power.
• Firing order differs from engine-to-engine.
• Probable firing orders for different engines are :
− 3 cylinder = 1-3-2
− 4 cylinder engine (inline) = 1-3-4-2
1-2-4-3
− 4 cylinder horizontal opposed engine = 1-4-3-2
(Volkswagen engine)
− 6-cylinder in line engine = 1-5-3-6-2-4
(Cranks in 3 pairs) 1-4-2-6-3-5
1-3-2-6-4-5
1-2-4-6-5-3
− 8 cylinder in line engine 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4
1-4-7-3-8-5-2-6
8 cylinder V type 1-5-4-8-6-3-7-2
1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8
1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4
1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2
Cylinder 1 is taken from front of inline and front right side in V engines.
Ignition timing:

39
It is very important, since the charge is to be ignited just before (few degrees before TDC) the
end of compression, since when the charge is ignited, it will take some time to come to the
required rate of burning.
Ignition Advance:
The purpose of spark advance mechanism is to assure that under every condition of engine
operation, ignition takes place at the most favourable instant in time i.e. most favourable from
a standpoint of engine power, fuel economy and minimum exhaust dilution. By means of these
mechanisms the advance angle is accurately set so that ignition occurs before TDC point of the
piston. The engine speed and the engine load are the control quantities required for the
automatic adjustment of the ignition timing. Most of the engines are fitted with mechanisms
which are integral with the distributor and automatically regulate the optimum spark advance
to account for change of speed and load. The two mechanisms used are:
(a)Centrifugal advance mechanism, and
(b)Vacuum advance mechanism
Factors affecting energy requirement of ignition system
(a) Effect of series resistance
(b) Effect of electrode material
(c) Effect of spray inductance
(d) Effect of electrode configuration
*Stages of SI engine combustion
In SI engine homogeneous mixture of vaporised fuel, air and residual gases is ignited by a
single intense and high temperature spark between the spark plug electrode (electrodes
exceeds 10,000 ᵒC) and generate pre-flame which spreads to envelope of mixture for
combustion.
Three stages of combustion in SI engine are,

Figure 8-3 Theoretical p-θ diagram Figure 8-4 Stages of combustion in SI engine I

40
Ignition lag or preparation phase (AB):
-growth and development of a semi propagating nucleus of flame
-chemical process depending upon the nature of the fuel, upon both temperature and pressure,
the proportion of the exhaust gas, and also upon the temperature coefficient of the fuel, that is,
the relationship of oxidation or burning
II-propagation of flame (BC):
-Period from the point B where the line of combustion departs from the compression line to
point C, the maximum rise of pressure in P-θ diagram
-flame propagates at the constant velocity
III-After burning (CD):
-After point C, the heat release is due to the fuel injection in reduced flame front after the starts
of expansion stroke
-no pressure rise during this period

Effects of Pre-ignition
-It increase the tendency of denotation in the engine
-It increases heat transfer to cylinder walls because high temperature gas remains in contact
with for a longer time
-Pre-ignition in a single cylinder will reduce the speed and power output
-Pre-ignition may cause seizer in the multi-cylinder engines, only if only cylinders have pre
ignition
Effect of detonation
The harmful effects of detonation are as follows:
1. Noise and roughness: knocking produces a loud pulsating noise and pressure waves. These
waves vibrate back and forth across the cylinder. The presence of vibratory motion causes
crankshaft vibrations and the engine runs rough.
2. Mechanical damage:
3. Carbon deposits: Detonation results in increased carbon deposits.
4. Increase in heat transfer: Knocking is accompanied by an increase in the rate of heat transfer
to the combustion chamber walls.
5. Decrease in power output and efficiency: Due to increase in the rate of heat transfer the
power output as well as efficiency of a detonating engine decreases.

41
6 Pre-ignition: increase in the rate of heat transfer to the walls has yet another effect. It may
cause local overheating, especially of the sparking plug, which may reach a temperature high
enough to ignite the charge before the passage of spark, thus causing pre-ignition.
Stages of combustion in CI engine
1. Ignition delay period:
The period between the start of fuel injection into the combustion chamber and the start of
combustion is termed as ignition delay period. The start of combustion is determined from the
change in slope on p-θ diagram or from heat release analysis of the p-θ data, or from luminosity
detector in experimental conditions. Start of injection can be determined by a needle-lift
indicator to record the time when injector needle lifts off its seat. Start of combustion is more
difficult to determine precisely. It is best identified from the change in slope of heat release rate,
determined from cylinder pressure data. In DI engines ignition is well defined, in IDI engines
ignition point is harder to identify

Figure 8-5 Stages of combustion in CI engine

Both physical and chemical processes must take place before a significant fraction of the
chemical energy of the injected liquid is released.

Physical processes are fuel spray atomization, evaporation and mixing of fuel vapour with
cylinder air.
Good atomization requires high fuel-injection pressure, small injector hole, optimum fuel
viscosity, high cylinder pressure (large divergence angle).

42
Chemical processes similar to that described for auto ignition phenomenon in premixed fuelair,
only more complex since heterogeneous reactions (reactions occurring on the liquid fuel drop
surface) also occur.

2. Rapid or uncontrolled or pre-mixed combustion phase:

Combustion of the fuel which has mixed with air within flammability limits during ignition
delay period occurs rapidly in a few crank angle degrees - high heat release characteristics in
this phase.
3. Controlled or diffusion combustion phase:
Once the fuel and air which is pre-mixed during the ignition delay is consumed, burning rate
(heat release rate) is controlled by rate at which mixture becomes available for burning. The
rate of burning in this phase is mainly controlled by the mixing process of fuel vapour and air.
4. After burning or late combustion phase:
Heat release rate continues at a lower rate into the expansion stroke -there are several reasons
for this: a small fraction of the fuel may not yet burn, a fraction of the energy is present in soot
and fuel-rich combustion products and can be released. Kinetics is slower.
Variables affecting delay period
(i) Cetane number
Both physical and chemical properties of the fuel are important. Ignition quality of the fuel is
defined by its cetane number. Straight chain parafinic compounds (normal alkanes) have
highest ignition quality, which improves as the chain length increases. Aromatic compounds,
alcohols have poor ignition quality.
-Cetane number can be increased by ignition-accelerating additives like organic peroxides,
nitrates, nitrites and various sulphur compounds. Most important (commercially) is alkyl
nitrates – about 0.5% by vol in a distillate fuel increase CN by 10.
-Normal diesel fuel has CN of 40 to 55 (high speed 50 – 60, low speed 25 – 45
(ii) Injection timing
-At normal operating conditions min ignition delay (ID) occurs with start of injection at 10 to
15 OCA BTDC
-Cylinder temperature and pressure drops if injection is earlier or later (high at first but decrease
as delay proceeds)
(iii) Injection quantity (load)
-Reducing engine load changes AFR, cools down the engine, reduces wall temperatures,
reduces residual gas temperatures and increase ID

43
-Droplet size, injection velocity and rate Ignition quality within practical limits do not have
significant effect on ID
-Increase in injection pressure produces only modest decrease in ID Injector nozzle diameter
(iv) Intake air temperature and pressure
-Reducing intake air T and p increase ID
-Strong dependence of ID on charge temperature below 1000 K – above this value effect of
intake air conditions is not significant.
Diesel knock
-CI engine detonation occurs in the beginning of combustion
-In CI engine the fuel and air are imperfectly mixed and hence the rate of pressure rise is
normally cause audible knock. Rate of pressure rise may reach as high as 10 bar/ᵒCA
-High engine vibration is the symptoms of knocking
-no pre-ignition or premature ignition as like SI engine

Figure 8-6 Detonation in SI and CI engine

Combustion chamber

(i) According to the swirl of air

(a) Induction swirl or open chamber or (b) Compression swirl
non-turbulent chamber (c) Combustion induced swirl
(ii) According to speed of the engine

Low speed engine (n˂1500 rpm): Shallow, swirl-less combustion chambers,

Direct, multi-jet fuel injection
Medium speed engine (n=1500-3000 rpm): Deep combustion chambers with
intensive swirl of charge, Direct injection of atomized fuel
high speed engine (n=3000-5000 rpm): Pre-chambers (sectional combustion
chambers), Indirect injection of fuel into the pre-chamber

44
 9 LUBRICATION SYSTEM
IC engine is made of many moving parts. Due to continuous movement of two metallic surfaces
over each other, there is wearing moving parts, generation of heat and loss of power in the
engine. Hence, lubrication of moving parts is essential to prevent all these harmful effects.

In engine the frictional losses is attributed due to the following mechanical losses;
(i) Direct frictional losses:
-power absorbed due to the relative motion of different bearing surfaces such as piston rings,
main bearings, cam shaft bearings etc.
(ii) Pumping loss:
-net power spent by the piston on the gas during intake and exhaust stroke -more
in case of four stroke engine compared to two stroke engine
(iii) Power loss to drive components to charge and scavenge:
-In four stroke supercharged engine, compressor used to provide high pressure air which is
mechanically driven by the engine. This is counted as negative frictional loss. -In two-stroke
engine scavenging pump is used which is also driven by the engine
(iv) Power loss to drive the auxiliaries:
-Some power is used to drive auxiliaries such as water pump, lubricating oil pump, fuel pump,
cooling fan, generator etc.
Function of lubrication:
Lubrication produces the following effects: (a) Reducing friction effect (b) Cooling effect (c)
Sealing effect and (d) Cleaning effect.
(a) Reducing frictional effect: The primary purpose of the lubrication is to reduce friction
and wear between two rubbing surfaces. Two rubbing surfaces always produce friction. The
continuous friction produce heat which causes wearing of parts and loss of power. In order to
avoid friction, the contact of two sliding surfaces must be reduced as far as possible. This can
be done by proper lubrication only. Lubrication forms an oil film between two moving surfaces.
Lubrication also reduces noise produced by the movement of two metal surfaces over each
other.
(b) Cooling effect: The heat, generated by piston, cylinder, and bearings is removed by
lubrication to a great extent. Lubrication creates cooling effect on the engine parts.
(c) Sealing effect: The lubricant enters into the gap between the cylinder liner, piston and
piston rings. Thus, it prevents leakage of gases from the engine cylinder.
45
(d) Cleaning effect: Lubrication keeps the engine clean by removing dirt or carbon from
inside of the engine along with the oil.
Lubrication theory: There are two theories in existence regarding the application of lubricants
on a surface: (i) Fluid film theory and (ii) Boundary layer theory.
(i) Fluid film theory: According to this theory, the lubricant is, supposed to act like mass
of globules, rolling in between two surfaces. It produces a rolling effect, which reduces
friction.
(ii) Boundary layer theory: According to this theory, the lubricant is soaked in rubbing
surfaces and forms oily surface over it. Thus the sliding surfaces are kept apart from each
other, thereby reducing friction.
Properties of Lubricant:
1. Viscosity 7. Pour Point
2. Viscosity Index 8. Corrosiveness
3. Oiliness 9. Oxidation stability
4. Flash Point 10. Cleanliness
5. Fire Point 11. Carbon residue
6. Cloud Point
Types of lubricants:
Lubricants are at following three types.
1. Solid: graphic, mica etc
2. Semi solid: grease

3. Liquid: Lubricants are obtained from animal fat, vegetables and minerals. Lubricants made
of animal fat, does not stand much heat. It becomes waxy and gummy which is not very
suitable for machines. Vegetable lubricants are obtained from seeds, fruits and plants.
Cottonseed oil, olive oil, linseed oil and castor oil are used as lubricant in small machines.
Mineral lubricants are most popular for engines and machines. It is obtained from crude
Lubrication system: various lubrication system used for IC engines are,
(a) Mist lubrication system
(b) Wet sump lubrication system
(c) Dry sump lubrication system

46
 10 SUPERCHARGER AND TURBOCHARGER
10.1 SUPERCHARGER

Superchargers are the main category of forced induction systems. Superchargers are
compressors that are driven by mechanical means. Typically, they are driven by the crankshaft
of an engine with the help of belts and pulleys. They are coupled directly to the engine and this
does not allow for any delay to exist between the engine and the compressor. Superchargers are
classified into two categories such as positive displacement pumps (Eg. Lysholm, Roots, Eaton,
Scroll, Vane) and rotodynamic pumps (Eg. Centrifugal).

10.1.1 Positive Displacement Type

Mechanical supercharging is probably the oldest way of boosting the IC engine [Ainsdale,
1980]. Positive displacement supercharger is simpler in construction. They are easy to install
and doesn’t require complicated controls in most cases. It draws power through mechanical
connection to the crankshaft, and its revolution (rotational speed) is directly proportional to the
speed of the engine. The engine-compressor matching is relatively easy, and the boost pressure
is almost constant over the entire range of engine operating speeds. Therefore, the torque curve
is flat, and the turbo-lag problem is completely overcome. In effect, a supercharged engine
behaves as a naturally aspirated engine with a larger displacement volume. It is this linearity
that makes designing and predicting its boosting characteristics relatively easier than turbo
charging. However, a supercharged engine consumes more fuel than a turbocharged engine with
comparable power since the supercharger draws power directly from the engine crankshaft.

A supercharger has two rotors, a male and a female, forming a set of chambers between
themselves and the housing. The chamber’s volume is changing during the rotation and thus
compresses the air internally.

Figure 10-1 Cut-way view of the Lysholm screw supercharger and roots type supercharger

47
The Roots on the other hand works without internal compression, the compression takes place
as the air is discharged from the blower outlet instead of inside the supercharger. This means
that the compression takes place at isochoric conditions (i.e. constant volume). This process is
known to be more power consuming and heat producing than the adiabatic process.

10.2 TURBOCHARGER

Turbochargers are commonly used in engines because they extract some of the energy from the
exhaust gases that would have otherwise been lost [Corky Bell, 1997]. Turbochargers consist
of a turbine (the component that is being spun by the passing exhaust gases) and the compressor
(the component increasing the intake pressure) which is coupled to the turbine by a rotor. Figure
10.4 shows schematic layout of turbocharging system in a diesel engine.

Figure 10-2 Typical schematic layout of turbocharger system of an IC engine

One of the advantages of turbochargers is that they are able to recuperate some of the energy of
the exhaust gases. This makes turbochargers suitable for use in engines where efficiency is
important, as well as for diesel engines that are otherwise not able to produce a high power.
Another reason why turbochargers are preferred in diesel engines is because of the lower
exhaust temperature [Cengel and Boles, 2006], which doesn't damage the turbine blades (unlike
gas powered engines). Typically, turbines are very delicate and require special grades of oils
because of their very high rotational speeds (sometimes exceeding 150000 rpm); as long with
this in gas powered engine, the higher temperature of exhaust gases tends to melt the tips of the
turbine blades which dramatically decreases the efficiency of the turbine which causes a
significant decrease in engine power. In road going vehicles and race cars, turbochargers are
well known for the turbo lag. The turbo lag is an unwanted effect and is caused because of the
high turbine spool time due to the moment of inertia of the turbine and compressor.

48
 11 ENGINE COOLING
In a SI engine, cooling must be satisfactory to avoid pre-ignition and knock. In a compression
ignition engine, since a normal combustion is aided, cooling must be sufficient to allow the
parts to operate properly. In short, cooling is a matter of equalization of internal temperature to
prevent local overheating as well as to remove sufficient heat energy to maintain a practical
overall working temperature.

*Requirements of cooling system in the IC engine

The cooling system is provided in the IC engine for the following reasons:

-The temperature of the burning gases in the engine cylinder reaches up to 1500 to 2000°C,
which is above the melting point of the material of the cylinder body and head of the engine.
(Platinum, a metal which has one of the highest melting points, melts at 1750 °C, iron at 1530°C
and aluminium at 657°C.) Therefore, if the heat is not dissipated, it would result in the failure
of the cylinder material.
-Due to very high temperatures, the film of the lubricating oil will get oxidized, thus
producing carbon deposits on the surface. This will result in piston seizure.
Effect of overcooling:
-Thermal efficiency is decreased due to more loss of heat carried by the coolant
-The vaporization of the fuel is less resulting in lower combustion efficiency
-Low temperature increases the viscosity of lubricant causing more loss due to friction
There are mainly two types of cooling systems:
(a) Air cooled system, and
(b) Water cooled system
Air Cooled System:
-Air cooled system is generally used in small engines say up to 15-20 kW and in aero plane
engines.
-In this system fins or extended surfaces are provided on the cylinder walls, cylinder head, etc.
Heat generated due to combustion in the engine cylinder will be conducted to the fins and when
the air flows over the fins, heat will be dissipated to air.
-The amount of heat dissipated to air depends upon:
(a) Amount of air flowing through the fins (c) Thermal conductivity of metal used for
(b) Fin surface area fins

49
Advantages of air cooled engines
Air cooled engines have the following advantages:
1. Its design of air-cooled engine is simple.
2. It is lighter in weight than water-cooled engines due to the absence of water jackets, radiator,
circulating pump and the weight of the cooling water.
3. It is cheaper to manufacture.
4. It needs less care and maintenance.
5. This system of cooling is particularly advantageous where there are extreme climatic
conditions in the arctic or where there is scarcity of water as in deserts.
6. No risk of damage from frost, such as cracking of cylinder jackets or radiator water tubes.

Disadvantages of air cooled engines

-Relatively large amount of power is used to drive the cooling fan.
-Engines give low power output.
-Cooling fins under certain conditions may vibrate and amplify the noise level.
-Cooling is not uniform.
-Engines are subjected to high working temperature.
Water cooling system:
Cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head, valve seats etc. The
water when circulated through the jackets, it absorbs heat of combustion. This hot water will
then be cooling in the radiator partially by a fan and partially by the flow developed by the
forward motion of the vehicle. The cooled water is again recirculated through the water jackets.
Water cooling system mainly consists of:
-Radiator -Fan
-Thermostat valve -Water Jackets
-Water pump -Antifreeze mixtures

Various types of water cooling systems are given as;

(a) Thermo-syphon cooling (d) Pressurised water cooling system
(b) Forced or pump cooling (e) Evaporative cooling
(c) Cooling with thermostatic regulator

46
 12 TWO STROKE ENGINE
Introduction: in two stroke engine the cycle is completed in two strokes, i.e. one revolution of
the crankshaft as against two revolutions of four stroke cycle.

12.1 Theoretical scavenging process

Perfect scavenging: ideally the fresh air mixture should remain separated from the residual
combustion products with respect to both mass and heat transfer during the scavenging process.
Fresh air pumped into the cylinder by the blower through the inlet ports at the lower of the
cylinder pushes the products of combustion ahead of itself and of the cylinder through the
exhaust valve at the other end. There is no mixing of the air and products.

12.2 Advantages and disadvantages of two stroke engine

Advantages

Simple mechanism. No oil sump for lubrication. Petrol is

Easy to start. used for lubrication so it can be used
It gives one power stroke per in all positions.
revolution of the crankshaft. High Low maintenance cost.
power to weight ratio and significant The work required to come over the
power boost. friction of suction and exhaust is
It has no valves, so complicated saved.
valve actuating mechanism not As there is a power stroke in every
required. revolution, the turning moment is
It is light weight, 30% lighter than uniform. Light flywheels are
the 4-stroke engine. required.
It has few moving parts, so compact
and simple construction.

Disadvantages
Incomplete combustion, carbon They are liable to cause high
deposit on the piston head and consumption of lubricating oil.
exhaust port. Worst hydrocarbon emission rate.
Unstable idling. High polluting.
Scavenging problems. High vibration and noisy operation.
Less efficient in terms of fuel Less thermal and volumetric
economy due to part of the unburned efficiency.
charge is rejected during transfer Narrow power band compared to a
phase. four-stroke engine.
More wear and fragile than the four-
stroke engine. Shorter life span.

51
 13 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR

13.1 Introduction to reciprocating compressor

Compressors are work absorbing devices which are used for increasing pressure of fluid at the
expense of work done on fluid. The compressors used for compressing air are called air
compressors. Some of popular applications of compressor are, for driving pneumatic tools and
air operated equipments, spray painting, compressed air engine, supercharging in internal
combustion engines, material handling (for transfer of material), surface cleaning,
refrigeration and air conditioning, chemical industry etc.

13.2 Classification of Compressors

(a) Based on principle of operation: Based on the principle of operation compressors can be
classified as, (i) Positive displacement compressors (ii) Non-positive displacement
compressors

In positive displacement compressors the compression is realized by displacement of solid

boundary and preventing fluid by solid boundary from flowing back in the direction of pressure
gradient. Positive displacement compressors can be further classified based on the type of
mechanism used for compression.
(i) Reciprocating type positive displacement compressors
(ii) Rotary type positive displacement compressors

Reciprocating compressors generally, employ piston-cylinder arrangement where displacement

of piston in cylinder causes rise in pressure. Reciprocating compressors are capable of giving
large pressure ratios but the mass handling capacity is limited or small. Reciprocating
compressors may also be single acting compressor (one delivery stroke per revolution) or double
acting (two delivery strokes per revolution of crank) compressor.

Rotary compressors employing positive displacement have a rotary part whose boundary causes
positive displacement of fluid and thereby compression. Rotary compressors of this type are
available in the names as given below; (i) Roots blower
(ii) Vaned type compressors
(iii) Screw compressor
(iv) Scroll compressor

Non-positive displacement compressors, also called as steady flow compressors use dynamic
action of solid boundary for realizing pressure rise. Non-positive displacement compressor can
be classified depending upon type of flow in compressor
(i) axial flow type
(ii) centrifugal type

(b) Based on number of stages: Compressors can be single stage or multistage.

52
(i) Single stage compressor, for delivery pressure up to 5 bar
(ii) Two stage compressor, for delivery pressure between 5 and 35 bar
(iii) Three stage compressor, for delivery pressure between 35 and 85 bar
(iv) Four stage compressor, for delivery pressure more than 85 bar

(c) Based on capacity (air delivered per unit time) of compressors:

(i) Low capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity of 0.15 m3/s or less
(ii) Medium capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity between 0.15 and 5
m3/s. (iii) High capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity more than 5 m3/s.

(d) Based on highest pressure developed: Typical values of maximum pressure developed for
different compressors are as under;
(i) Low pressure compressor, having maximum pressure up to 1 bar
(ii) Medium pressure compressor, having maximum pressure from 1 to 8 bar
(iii) High pressure compressor, having maximum pressure from 8 to 10 bar
(iv) Super high pressure compressor, having maximum pressure more than 10 bar.

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Reciprocating compressor has piston cylinder arrangement as shown in Fig. 13.1.

Figure 13-1 Line diagram of reciprocating compressor

Construction: Reciprocating compressor has piston, cylinder, inlet valve, exit valve, connecting
rod, crank, piston pin, crank pin and crank shaft. Inlet valve and exit valves may be of spring
loaded type which get opened and closed due to pressure differential across them.

Working: Let us consider piston to be at top dead centre (TDC) and move towards bottom dead
centre (BDC). Due to this piston movement from TDC to BDC suction pressure is created
causing opening of inlet valve. With this opening of inlet valve and suction pressure,
atmospheric air enters the cylinder. Air gets into cylinder during this stroke and is subsequently
compressed in next stroke with both inlet valve and exit valve closed. After piston reaching BDC
it reverses its motion and compresses the air inducted in previous stroke. Compression is
continued till the pressure of air inside becomes sufficient to cause deflection in exit valve. At
the moment when exit valve plate gets lifted the exhaust of compressed air takes place. This
piston again reaches TDC from where downward piston movement is again accompanied by
suction. This is how reciprocating compressor keeps on working as flow device.

53
 REFERENCES

[1] J. H. Wood, Enternal combustion engine fendamentals, McGraw-Hill, 1998.

[2] W. W. Pulkrabek, Engineering fendamentals of internal combustion engine, Prentice
Hall, 2001.
[3] T. material, Internal combustion engine, Telangana State, India, 2010.

54
CHAPTER ONE
. 1.1 Machine elements
A machine is an assemblage of parts (or elements) interposed between the source of power and
the work to be accomplished. Each part of a machine, which has motion with respect to some other
part, is called a machine element. It is important to note that each machine element is
manufactured separately.

For example, a rolling contact bearing is a machine element and it consists of inner race, outer
race, cage, and rolling element like balls. Machine elements can be classified into two groups:
General purpose and special purpose machine elements.

General purpose machine elements include shafts, couplings, clutches, bearings, springs, gears and
machine frames.

Special purpose machine elements include pistons, valves or spindles. Special purpose machine
elements are used only in certain types of application. On contrary, general purpose machine
elements are used in a number of applications.

The broad objective of designing a machine element is to ensure that it preserves its operating
capacity during the stipulated service life with minimum manufacturing and operating costs.

1.1.1 Machine element requirements

In order to achieve this objective, the machine element should satisfy the following basic
requirements:

A. Strength: This is the ability of an element to resist break down or plastic deformation
under applied loads. A machine part should have sufficient strength to avoid failure due
to fracture or due to general yielding.
B. Rigidity:

This is the ability of a part to resist deformation under load. A rigid component withstands
deflection or bending due to forces or moments that act upon it. A transmission shaft is many

55
times, designed on the basis of lateral and torsional rigidities. In this case maximum permissible
deflection and permissible angle of twist are the criterion for design.

C. Wear Resistance:

Wear is the main reason that puts the machine part out of order. It reduces the useful life of the
components. Wear also leads to the loss of accuracy of machine tools. There are different types
of wear such as abrasive wear, corrosive wear and pitting. Surface hardening can increase the wear
resistance of the machine components, such as gears and cams.

D. Minimum dimensions and weight:

A machine part should be sufficiently strong, rigid and wear resistant and at the same time, with
minimum possible dimensions and weight. This will result in minimum material cost.

E. Manufacturability :

Manufacturability is the ease of fabrication and assembly. The shape and material of the
machine part should be selected in such a way that it can be produced with minimum labor cost.

F. Safety:

The shapes and dimensions of the machine parts should ensure safety to the operator of the
machine. The designer should assume the worst possible conditions and apply ‘fail-false’ or
‘redundancy’ principle in such cases.

G. Conformance to standards:

A machine part should conform to the national or international standard, covering its profile,
dimensions, grade and material.

H. Reliability:

Reliability is probability that a machine part will perform its intended functions under desired
operating conditions over a specified period of time. A machine part should be reliable, i.e. it
should perform its function satisfactorily over its life time.

I. Maintainability:

56
A machine part should be maintainable. Maintainability is the ease with which a machine part
can be serviced or repaired.

J. Minimum life cycle cost:

Life cycle cost of the machine part is the total cost to be paid by the purchaser for purchasing the
part and operating and maintaining it over its life span. It will be observed that the above mentioned
requirements serve as the basis for design projects in many cases

1.2 Machine Design

The subject Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the existing
ones. A new or better machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of production
and operation.

1.2 .1 Classification of machine design

The machine design may be classified as follows :

1. Adaptive design. In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaptation of existing
designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be attempted by designers
of ordinary technical training. The designer only makes minor alternation or modification in the
existing designs of the product.

2. Development design. This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design
ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new material or
different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the existing design,
but the final product may differ quite markedly from the original product.

3. New design. This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative thinking.
Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high order can take up the
work of a new design.

1.2.2 General Considerations in Machine Design

Following are the general considerations in designing a machine component:

57
 1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load.

The load, on a machine component, may act in several ways due to which the internal
stresses are set up.

2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine.

The successful operation of any machine depends largely upon the simplest arrangement of
the parts which will give the motion required. The motion of the parts may be :

(a) Rectilinear motion which includes unidirectional and reciprocating motions.

(b) Curvilinear motion which includes rotary, oscillatory and simple harmonic.
(c) Constant velocity.
(d) Constant or variable acceleration
3. Selection of materials.

It is essential that a designer should have a thorough knowledge of the properties of the
materials and their behavior under working conditions. Some of the important characteristics
of materials are : strength, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and corrosion, ability
to cast, welded or hardened, machinability, electrical conductivity, etc

4. Form and size of the parts

5. Frictional resistance and lubrication
6. Convenient and economical features
7. Cost of construction.

1.3 Engineering Materials and their Properties

Choice of materials for a machine element depends very much on its properties, cost,
availability and such other factors. It is therefore important to have some idea of the
common engineering materials and their properties.

58
The engineering materials are mainly classified as:

1. Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium, etc.

2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.

The metals may be further classified as:

(a) Ferrous metals.

The ferrous metals are those which have iron as their main constituent. It commonly used in
engineering practice are cast iron, wrought iron, steels and alloy steels.

(b) Non-ferrous metals.

The non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent, such
as copper, aluminum, brass, tin, zinc, etc. and their alloys. Usually employed in industry due to
the following characteristics :

1. Ease of fabrication, (casting, rolling, forging, welding and machining),

2. Resistance to corrosion,
3. Electrical and thermal conductivity, and
4. Weight.

1.3.1 Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most difficult problem
for the designer. The best material is one which serves the desired objective at the minimum cost.
The following factors should be considered while selecting the material:

1. Availability of the materials,

2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and

3. The cost of the materials.

1.3.2 Physical Properties of Metals

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The physical properties of the metals include luster, colour, size and shape, density, electric and
thermal conductivity, and melting point.

1.3.3 Mechanical Properties of Metals

The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of the
material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical properties of the metal include
strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience,
creep and hardness. We shall now discuss these properties as follows:

1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking
or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied force is called
*stress.

2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.

3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when
the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used in tools and machines.
It may be noted that steel is more elastic than rubber.

4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on coins
and in ornamental work.

5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The ductility is
usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area.

6. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking

of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads, snap
off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.

7. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered

into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong. The

60
malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing
malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.

8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows.

1.4 Simple Stresses in Machine Parts

The different forces acting on a machine part produces various types of stresses, which will be
discussed in this chapter

1.4.1 Load

It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine part. The following four types of the
load are important from the subject point of view:

1. Dead or steady load. A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does not change in
magnitude or direction.

2. Live or variable load. A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it changes
continually.

3. Suddenly applied or shock loads. A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load,
when it is suddenly applied or removed.

4. Impact load. A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with some initial velocity.
Note: A machine part resists a dead load more easily than a live load and a live load more easily
than a shock load.

1.4.2 Design for Static Load

When a mechanical component is subjected to an external static force, a resisting force is set up
within the component.

1.4.2.1 Stress

61
When some external system of forces or loads act on a body, the internal forces (equal and
opposite) are set up at various sections of the body, which resist the external forces. This internal
force per unit area at any section of the body is known as unit stress or simply a stress. It is denoted
by a Greek letter sigma (σ). Mathematically,

Stress, σ = P/A (1.1)

Where P = Force or load acting on a body, and

A = Cross-sectional area of the body.

In S.I. units, the stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such that 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In actual
practice, we use bigger units of stress i.e. megapascal (MPa) and gigapascal (GPa), such that

1 MPa = 1 × 106 N/m2 = 1 N/mm2 and

1 GPa = 1 × 1`09 N/m2 = 1 kN/mm2

1.4.2.2 Strain

When a system of forces or loads acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This deformation
per unit length is known as unit strain or simply a strain. It is denoted by a Greek letter epsilon
(ε). Mathematically,

Strain, ε = δl / l or δl = ε.l (1.2)

Where δl = Change in length of the body, and

l = Original length of the body.

1.4.2.3 Tensile Stress and Strain

62
 Fig.1.1 Tensile Stress and Strain

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls P (also called tensile load) as
shown in Fig.1 (a), then the stress induced at any section of the body is known as tensile stress as
shown in Fig.1 (b). A little consideration will show that due to the tensile load, there will be a
decrease in cross-sectional area and an increase in length of the body. The ratio of the increase in
length to the original length is known as tensile strain.

Let P = Axial tensile force acting on the body,

A = Cross-sectional area of the body,

l = Original length, and δl = Increase in length.

∴ Tensile stress, σt = P/A and tensile strain, ε t = δl / l

1.4.2.4 Compressive Stress and Strain

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pushes P (also called compressive
load) as shown in Fig.1.2 (a), then the stress induced at any section of the body is known as
compressive stress as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b). A little consideration will show that due to the
compressive load, there will be an increase in cross-sectional area and a decrease in length of the
body. The ratio of the decrease in length to the original length is known as compressive strain.

63
 Fig.1.2 Compressive stress and strain

Let P = A xial compressive force acting on the body,

A = Cross-sectional area of the body,

l = Original length, and

δl = Decrease in length.

∴ Compressive stress, σc = P/A (1.3)

And compressive strain, εc = δl/l (1.4)

Note: In case of tension or compression, the area involved is at right angles to the external force
applied.

1.4.2.5 Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity

Hooke's law* states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain, i.e.

σ ∝ε or σ = E. ε
σ 𝑃×𝐿
∴ E= = (1.5)

ε 𝐴×𝛿�

where E is a constant of proportionality known as Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity. In

S.I. units, it is usually expressed in GPa i.e. GN/m2 or KN/mm2. It may be noted that Hooke's
law holds good for tension as well as compression.

1.4.2.6 Shear Stress and Strain

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across the
resisting section, as a result of which the body tends to shear off the section, then the stress induced
is called shear stress.

64
 Fig. 1.3 Single shearing of a riveted joint

The corresponding strain is known as shear strain and it is measured by the angular deformation
accompanying the shear stress. The shear stress and shear strain are denoted by the Greek letters
tau (τ) and phi (φ) respectively. Mathematically,

T angential f
Shear stress, τ = ` (1.6)
orce
Resisting area

Consider a body consisting of two plates connected by a rivet as shown in Fig.1.3 (a). In this
case, the tangential force P tends to shear off the rivet at one cross-section as shown in Fig. 1.3 (b).
It may be noted that when the tangential force is resisted by one cross-section of the rivet (or when
shearing takes place at one cross-section of the rivet), then the rivets are said to be in single
shear. In such a case, the area resisting the shear off the rivet,
𝜋
A = 2× π 4
d² … (For double shear)

and shear stress on the rivet cross-section,

P
τ=
P
A
== 𝜋
2× π × d²
=πd² 2P
4

1.4.2.7 Stress-strain Diagram

The load is applied and measured by a testing machine. The stress is determined by dividing the
load values by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. The elongation is measured by

65
determining the amounts that two reference points on the specimen are moved apart by the action
of the machine. The original distance between the two reference points is known as gauge

66
length. The values of the stress and corresponding strain are used to draw the stress-strain diagram
of the material tested.

Fig.1.4 strain-stress diagram for a mild steel

1. Proportional limit; diagram that from point O to A is a straight line, which represents that the
stress is proportional to strain, It is defined as that stress at which the stress-strain curve begins to
deviate from the straight line.

2. Elastic limit. It may be noted that even if the load is increased beyond point A up to the point
B, the material will regain its shape and size when the load is removed. This means that the material
has elastic properties up to the point B. This point is known as elastic limit. It is defined as the
stress developed in the material without any permanent

4. Yield point. If the material is stressed beyond point B, the plastic stage will reach i.e. on the
removal of the load, the material will not be able to recover its original size and shape. A little
consideration will show that beyond point B, the strain increases at a faster rate with any increase
in the stress until the point C is reached. At this point, the material yields before the load and
there is an appreciable strain without any increase in stress. In case of mild steel, it will be seen
that a small load drops to D, immediately after yielding commences. Hence there are two yield
points C and D. The points C and D are called the upper and lower yield points respectively. The
stress corresponding to yield point is known as yield point stress.

5. Ultimate stress. At D, the specimen regains some strength and higher values of stresses are
required for higher strains, than those between A and D. The stress (or load) goes on increasing

66
till the point E is reached. The gradual increase in the strain (or length) of the specimen is followed
with the uniform reduction of its cross-sectional area. The work done, during stretching the
specimen, is transformed largely into heat and the specimen becomes hot. At E, the stress, which
attains its maximum value is known as ultimate stress.

5. Breaking stress. After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is formed, which
decreases the cross-sectional area of the specimen. The stress is, therefore, reduced until the
specimen breaks away at point F. The stress corresponding to point F is known as breaking
stress.

1.4.2.8 Working Stress

When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum or
ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as the working
stress or design stress. It is also known as safe or allowable stress.

Note: By failure it is not meant actual breaking of the material. Some machine parts are said to
fail when they have plastic deformation set in them, and they no more perform their function
satisfactory.

1.5 Factor of Safety

It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.
Mathematically,
Maximum stress
Factor of safety = (1.7)
Working or design stress

In case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor of
safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,
𝑌𝑖��� ��𝑖��
Factor of safety = (1.8)
������
�����𝑖�𝑔��
������ �����𝑔�

In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile
materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.
67
 Ultimate stress
∴ Factor of safety = (1.9)
Working or design stress

This relation may also be used for ductile materials.

Note: The above relations for factor of safety are for static loading.

1.5.1 Selection of Factor of Safety

The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine component depends
upon a number of considerations, such as the material, mode of manufacture, type of stress, general
service conditions and shape of the parts. Before selecting a proper factor of safety, a design
engineer should consider the following points:

1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these properties during service;
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual machine
parts;

3. The reliability of applied load

4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure

5. The extent of simplifying assumptions

6. The extent of localised stresses

7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture

8. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs and

9. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs

Each of the above factors must be carefully considered and evaluated. The high factor of safety
results in unnecessary risk of failure.

1.6 Poisson's Ratio

It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within elastic limit, the lateral
strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain. Mathematically,
68
 Lateral strain
= Constant (1.10)
Linear strain

This constant is known as Poisson's ratio and is denoted by 1/m or μ.

1.7 Resilience

When a body is loaded within elastic limit, it changes its dimensions and on the removal of the
load, it regains its original dimensions. So long as it remains loaded, it has stored energy in itself.
On removing the load, the energy stored is given off as in the case of a spring. This energy,
which is absorbed in a body when strained within elastic limit, is known as strain energy. The
strain energy is always capable of doing some work. The strain energy stored in a body due to
external loading, within elastic limit, is known as resilience and the maximum energy which can
be stored in a body up to the elastic limit is called proof resilience. The proof resilience per unit
volume of a material is known as modulus of resilience. It is an important property of a material
and gives capacity of the material to bear impact or shocks. Mathematically, strain energy stored
in a body due to tensile or compressive load or resilience.

(1.11)

And Modulus of resilience (1.12)

Where σ = Tensile or compressive stress,
V = Volume of the body, and
E = Young's modulus of the material of the body.
Notes: 1.When a body is subjected to a shear load, then modulus of resilience (shear)

(1.13)
Where τ = Shear stress, and
C = Modulus of rigidity.
2. When the body is subjected to torsion, then modulus of resilience

(1.14)

69
CHAPTER TWO

STRENGTH CALCULATION AND DIMENSIONING OF JOINTS

2.1 Riveted Joints

A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it. The cylindrical portion of the rivet is
called shank or body and lower portion of shank is known as tail, as shown in Fig. 2.1. The
rivets are used to make permanent fastening between the plates such as in structural work, ship
building, bridges, tanks and boiler shells. The riveted joints are widely used for joining light metals.

Fig .2.1The fastenings (i.e. joints) may be classified into the following two groups:

1. Permanent fastenings,

The permanent fastenings are those fastenings which cannot be disassembled without destroying
the connecting components. The examples of permanent fastenings in order of strength are
soldered, brazed, welded and riveted joints.

2. Temporary or detachable fastenings

The temporary or detachable fastenings are those fastenings which can be disassembled without
destroying the connecting components. The examples of temporary fastenings are screwed, keys,
cotters, pins and splined joints.

70
2.1.1Material of Rivets

The material of the rivets must be tough and ductile. They are usually made of steel (low carbon
steel or nickel steel), brass, aluminum or copper, but when strength and a fluid tight joint is the
main consideration, then the steel rivets are used.

2.1.2 Types of Riveted Joints

Following are the two types of riveted joints, depending upon the way in which the plates are
connected. i) Lap joint, and ii) Butt joint.

(i) Lap Joint

A lap joint is that in which one plate overlaps the other and the two plates are then riveted together.

(ii) Butt Joint

A butt joint is that in which the main plates are kept in alignment butting (i.e. touching) each
other and a cover plate (i.e. strap) is placed either on one side or on both sides of the main plates.
The cover plate is then riveted together with the main plates. Butt joints are of the following two
types: i) Single strap butt joint, and ii) Double strap butt joint.

(i) In a single strap butt joint, the edges of the main plates butt against each other and only one cover plate
is placed on one side of the main plates and then riveted together.

(ii) In a double strap butt joint, the edges of the main plates butt against each other and two cover plates
are placed on both sides of the main plates and then riveted together.

2.1.3 Important Terms Used in Riveted Joint

The following terms in connection with the riveted joints are important from the subject point of
view

1. Pitch. It is the distance from the Centre of one rivet to the Centre of the next rivet measured
parallel to the seam as shown in Fig. 2.2. It is usually denoted by p. `

71
2. Back pitch. It is the perpendicular distance between the center lines of the successive rows as
shown in Fig. 2.2. It is usually denoted by pb.

3. Diagonal pitch. It is the distance between the centers of the rivets in adjacent rows of zigzag
riveted joint as shown in Fig. 2.2. It is usually denoted by pd.

4. Margin or marginal pitch. It is the distance between the Centre of rivet hole to the nearest
edge of the plate as shown in Fig. 2.2. It is usually denoted by m.

Fig.2.2

2.1.4 Failures of a Riveted Joint

A riveted joint may fail in the following ways:

1. Tearing of the plate at an edge. A joint may fail due to tearing of the plate at an edge as
shown in Fig. 2.4. This can be avoided by keeping the margin, m = 1.5d, where d is the
diameter of the rivet hole.

Fig. 2.3 Tearing of the plate at an edge

72
2. Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets. Due to the tensile stresses in the main
plates, the main plate or cover plates may tear off across a row of rivets as shown in Fig.
2.5. In such cases, we consider only one pitch length of the plate, since every rivet is
responsible for that much length of the plate only

.
Fig.2.4 Tearing of the plate across the rows of rivets

The resistance offered by the plate against tearing is known as tearing resistance or tearing
strength or tearing value of the plate.

Let p = Pitch of the rivets,

d = Diameter of the rivet hole,

t = Thickness of the plate, and

σt = Permissible tensile stress for the plate material.

We know that tearing area per pitch length,

At =(p – d)t

∴ Tearing resistance or pull required to tear off the plate per pitch length,

Pt = At.σt = (p – d)t.σt (2.1)

When the tearing resistance (Pt) is greater than the applied load (P) per pitch length, then this
type of failure will not occur.

73
 3. Shearing of the rivets. The plates which are connected by the rivets exert tensile stress
on the rivets, and if the rivets are unable to resist the stress, they are sheared off as shown
in Fig. 2.5

Fig, 2.5 Shearing of rivets

4. Crushing of the plate or rivets. Sometimes, the rivets do not actually shear off under the
tensile stress, but are crushed as shown in Fig. 2.6. Due to this, the rivet hole becomes of
an oval shape and hence the joint becomes loose. The failure of rivets in such a manner is
also known as bearing failure. The area which resists this action is the projected area of
the hole or rivet on diametral plane.

Fig.2.6 crushing of a rivet

2.1.5 Strength of a Riveted Joint

The strength of a joint may be defined as the maximum force, which it can transmit, without
causing it to fail. We know that Pt, Ps and Pc are the pulls required to tear off the plate, shearing
off the rivet and crushing off the rivet. A little consideration will show that if we go on
increasing the pull on a riveted joint, it will fail when the least of these three pulls is reached,
because a higher value of the other pulls will never reach since the joint has failed, either by tearing
off the plate, shearing off the rivet or crushing off the rivet.

74
If the joint is continuous as in case of boilers, the strength is calculated per pitch length. But if
the joint is small, the strength is calculated for the whole length of the plate.

Let d = Diameter of the rivet hole,

t = Thickness of the plate,

σc = Safe permissible crushing stress for the rivet or plate material, and

n = Number of rivets per pitch length

The resistance offered by a rivet to be crushed is known as crushing resistance or crushing

strength or bearing value of the rivet.

We know that crushing area per rivet (i.e. projected area per rivet),

Ac = d.t

∴ Total crushing area = n.d.t

and crushing resistance or pull required to crush the rivet per pitch length,

Pc = n.d.t.σc (2.2)

When the crushing resistance (Pc) is greater than the applied load (P) per pitch length, then this
type of failure will occur.

Note: The number of rivets under shear shall be equal to the number of rivets under crushing.

2.1.6 Efficiency of a Riveted Joint

The efficiency of a riveted joint is defined as the ratio of the strength of riveted joint to the
strength of the un-riveted or solid plate.

We have already discussed that strength of the riveted joint

= Least of Pt, Ps and Pc

75
 Strength of the un-riveted or solid plate per pitch length,

P = p × t × σt

∴ Efficiency of the riveted joint,

(2.3)

where p = Pitch of the rivets,

t = Thickness of the plate, and

σt = Permissible tensile stress of the plate material.

2.2 Welded joint

A welded joint is a permanent joint which is obtained by the fusion of the edges of the two
parts to be joined together, with or without the application of pressure and a filler material. The
heat required for the fusion of the material may be obtained by burning of gas (in case of gas
welding) or by an electric arc (in case of electric arc welding). The later method is extensively
used because of greater speed of welding.

2.2.1 Welding Processes

The welding processes may be broadly classified into the following two groups:

1. Welding processes that use heat alone e.g. fusion welding.

2. Welding processes that use a combination of heat and pressure e.g. forge welding

2.2.1.1 Fusion Welding

In case of fusion welding, the parts to be jointed are held in position while the molten metal is
supplied to the joint. The molten metal may come from the parts themselves (i.e. parent metal) or
filler metal which normally have the composition of the parent metal. The joint surface becomes
plastic or even molten because of the heat from the molten filler metal or other source. Thus, when
the molten metal solidifies or fuses, the joint is formed.

76
 The fusion welding, according to the method of heat generated, may be classified as:

1. Thermite welding, 2. Gas welding, and 3. Electric arc welding

i) Thermit welding
In thermit welding, a mixture of iron oxide and aluminium called thermit is
ignited and the iron oxide is reduced to molten iron. The molten iron is poured
into a mould made around the joint and fuses with the parts to be welded. The
thermit welding is often used in joining iron and steel parts that are too large to be
manufactured in one piece, such as rails, truck frames, locomotive frames, other
large sections used on steam and rail roads, for stern frames, rudder frames etc
ii) Gas Welding
A gas welding is made by applying the flame of an oxy-acetylene or hydrogen gas
from a welding torch upon the surfaces of the prepared joint. The intense heat at the
white cone of the flame heats up the local surfaces to fusion point while the operator
manipulates a welding rod to supply the metal for the weld. A flux is being used to
remove the slag. Since the heating rate in gas welding is slow, therefore it can be
used on thinner materials.
iii) Electric Arc Welding

In electric arc welding, the work is prepared in the same manner as for gas welding. In this case
the filler metal is supplied by metal welding electrode. The operator, with his eyes and face
protected, strikes an arc by touching the work of base metal with the electrode. The base metal in
the path of the arc stream is melted, forming a pool of molten metal, which seems to be forced
out of the pool by the blast from the arc. The arc welding does not require the metal to be
preheated and since the temperature of the arc is quite high, therefore the fusion of the metal is
almost instantaneous.

There are two kinds of arc welding depending upon the type of electrode.

1. Un-shielded arc welding, and

2. Shielded arc welding.

77
When a large electrode or filler rod is used for welding, it is then said to be un-shielded arc welding.
In this case, the deposited weld metal while it is hot will absorb oxygen and nitrogen from the
atmosphere. This decreases the strength of weld metal and lower its ductility and resistance to
corrosion. In shielded arc welding, the welding rods coated with solid material are used. The
resulting projection of coating focuses a concentrated arc stream, which protects the globules of
metal from the air and prevents the absorption of large amounts of harmful oxygen and nitrogen.

2.2.1.2 Forge Welding

In forge welding, the parts to be jointed are first heated to a proper temperature in a furnace or
forge and then hammered. This method of welding is rarely used now-a-days. An electric-
resistance welding is an example of forge welding. In this case, the parts to be joined are pressed
together and an electric current is passed from one part to the other until the metal is heated to
the fusion temperature of the joint.

2.2.2 Types of Welded Joints

Following two types of welded joints are important from the subject point of view:

1. Lap joint or fillet joint,

The lap joint or the fillet joint is obtained by overlapping the plates and then welding the
edges of the plates. The cross-section of the fillet is approximately triangular. The fillet
joints may be
1. Single transverse fillet,
2. Double transverse fillet, and
3. Parallel fillet joints.

The fillet joints are shown in Fig. 2.7. A single transverse fillet joint has the disadvantage that
the edge of the plate which is not welded can buckle or warp out of shape.

78
 Fig.2.7 Types of lap or fillet joints
2. Butt joint

The butt joint is obtained by placing the plates edge to edge as shown in Fig. 10.3. In butt
welds, the plate edges do not require bevelling if the thickness of plate is less than 5 mm.
On the other hand, if the plate thickness is 5 mm to 12.5 mm, the edges should be
bevelled to V or U-groove on both sides.

Fig. 2.8 Types of butt joints.

2.2.3 Strength of Transverse Fillet Welded Joints
We have already discussed that the fillet or lap joint is obtained by overlapping the plates
and then welding the edges of the plates. The transverse fillet welds are designed for tensile
strength. Let us consider a single and double transverse fillet welds as shown in Fig. 2.9
(a) and (b) respectively.

Fig.2.9 Transverse fillet welds

In order to determine the strength of the fillet joint, it is assumed that the section of fillet
is a right angled triangle ABC with hypotenuse AC making equal angles with other two

79
 sides AB and BC. The enlarged view of the fillet is shown in Fig. 2.10. The length of
each side is known as leg or size of the weld and the perpendicular distance of the
hypotenuse from the intersection of legs (i.e. BD) is known as throat thickness. The
minimum area of the weld is obtained at the throat BD, which is given by the product of
the throat thickness and length of weld.
Let t = Throat thickness (BD),
s = Leg or size of weld,
= Thickness of plate, and
l = Length of weld,
From Fig. 2.11, we find that the throat thickness,
t = s × sin 45° = 0.707 s
∴ Minimum area of the weld or throat area,
A = Throat thickness × Length of weld
= t × l = 0.707 s × l

Fig. 2.10 Enlarged view of a fillet weld

If σt is the allowable tensile stress for the weld metal, then the tensile strength of the joint
for single fillet weld,
P = Throat area × Allowable tensile stress
= 0.707 s × l × σt (2.4)
and tensile strength of the joint for double fillet weld,
P = 2 × 0.707 s × l × σt
= 1.414 s × l × σt (2.5)

Note: Since the weld is weaker than the plate due to slag and blow holes, therefore the weld is
given a reinforcement which may be taken as 10% of the plate thickness.

80
2.2.3.1 Strength of Parallel Fillet Welded Joints
The parallel fillet welded joints are designed for shear strength. Consider a double
parallel fillet welded joint as shown in Fig. 2.11 (a). We have already discussed in the
previous article, that the minimum area of weld or the throat area,
A = 0.707 s × l
If τ is the allowable shear stress for the weld metal, then the shear strength of the joint for
single parallel fillet weld,
P = Throat area × Allowable shear stress
= 0.707 s × l × τ (2.6)
and shear strength of the joint for double parallel fillet weld,
P = 2 × 0.707 × s × l × τ
= 1.414 s × l × τ (2.7)

Fig. 2.11
Notes:

1. If there is a combination of single transverse and double parallel fillet welds as shown
in Fig. 2.12 (b), then the strength of the joint is given by the sum of strengths of
single transverse and double parallel fillet welds. Mathematically,
P = 0.707s × l1 × σt + 1.414 s × l2 × τ (2.8)
Where l1 is normally the width of the plate.
2. In order to allow for starting and stopping of the bead, 12.5 mm should be added to
the length of each weld obtained by the above expression.
3. For reinforced fillet welds, the throat dimension may be taken as 0.85 t.

81
2.3 A screwed joint

A screw thread is formed by cutting a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface. A

screw made by cutting a single helical groove on the cylinder is known as single threaded (or
single-start) screw and if a second thread is cut in the space between the grooves of the first, a
double threaded (or double-start) screw is formed. Similarly, triple and quadruple (i.e. multiple-
start) threads may be formed. The helical grooves may be cut either right hand or left hand.

A screwed joint is mainly composed of two elements i.e. a bolt and nut. It widely used where
the machine parts are required to be readily connected or disconnected without damage to the
machine or the fastening. This may be for the purpose of holding or adjustment in assembly or
service inspection, repair, or replacement or it may be for the manufacturing or assembly
reasons.

2.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Screwed Joints

Following are the advantages and disadvantages of the screwed joints.

Advantages

1. Screwed joints are highly reliable in operation.

2. Screwed joints are convenient to assemble and disassemble.

3. A wide range of screwed joints may be adopted to various operating conditions.

4. Screws are relatively cheap to produce due to standardization and highly efficient
manufacturing processes.

Disadvantages

The main disadvantage of the screwed joints is the stress concentration in the threaded portions
which are vulnerable points under variable load conditions.

Note: The strength of the screwed joints is not comparable with that of riveted or welded joints.

82
 2.3.2 Important Terms Used in Screw Threads

The following terms used in screw threads, as shown in Fig. 2.12, are important from the subject
point of view:

Fig. 2.12 Terms used in screw threads.

1. Major diameter. It is the largest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. The screw is
specified by this diameter. It is also known as outside or nominal diameter.

2. Minor diameter. It is the smallest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. It is also
known as core or root diameter.

3. Pitch diameter. It is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder, on a cylindrical screw thread, the
surface of which would pass through the thread at such points as to make equal the width of the
thread and the width of the spaces between the threads. It is also called an effective diameter. In
a nut and bolt assembly, it is the diameter at which the ridges on the bolt are in complete touch
with the ridges of the corresponding nut.

4. Pitch. It is the distance from a point on one thread to the corresponding point on the next.
This is measured in an axial direction between corresponding points in the same axial plane.
Mathematically,
1
Pitch = 𝑁�.�� �ℎ��𝑎�� ��� ����� 𝑙����ℎ (2.9)

�� ����𝑤

83
 5. Lead. It is the distance between two corresponding points on the same helix. It may also
be defined as the distance which a screw thread advances axially in one rotation of the
nut. Lead is equal to the pitch in case of single start threads, it is twice the pitch in double
start, thrice the pitch in triple start and so on.
6. Crest. It is the top surface of the thread.
7. Root. It is the bottom surface created by the two adjacent flanks of the thread.
8. Depth of thread. It is the perpendicular distance between the crest and root.
9. Flank. It is the surface joining the crest and root.
10. Angle of thread. It is the angle included by the flanks of the thread.
11. Slope. It is half the pitch of the thread.
2.3.3 Common Types of Screw Fastenings

Following are the common types of screw fastenings:

1. Through bolts. A through bolt (or simply a bolt) is shown in Fig. 2.13 (a). It is a
cylindrical bar with threads for the nut at one end and head at the other end. The
cylindrical part of the bolt is known as shank. It is passed through drilled holes in the two
parts to be fastened together and clamped them securely to each other as the nut is
screwed on to the threaded end. The through bolts may or may not have a machined
finish and are made with either hexagonal or square heads. A through bolt should pass
easily in the holes, when put under tension by a load along its axis. If the load acts
perpendicular to the axis, tending to slide one of the connected parts along the other end
thus subjecting it to shear, the holes should be reamed so that the bolt shank fits snugly
there in. The through bolts according to their usage may be known as machine bolts,
carriage bolts, automobile bolts, eye bolts etc.

Fig. 2.13

84
2. Tap bolts. A tap bolt or screw differs from a bolt. It is screwed into a tapped hole of one
of the parts to be fastened without the nut, as shown in Fig. 2.13 (b).
3. Studs. A stud is a round bar threaded at both ends. One end of the stud is screwed into
a tapped hole of the parts to be fastened, while the other end receives a nut on it, as
shown in Fig. 2.13 (c). Studs are chiefly used instead of tap bolts for securing various kinds
of covers e.g. covers of engine and pump cylinders, valves, chests etc.
This is due to the fact that when tap bolts are unscrewed or replaced, they have a
tendency to break the threads in the hole. This disadvantage is overcome by the use of
studs.
4.Cap screws. The cap screws are similar to tap bolts except that they are of small size and
a variety of shapes of heads are available as shown in Fig. 2.14

Fig.2.14 Types of cap screws.

5. Machine screws. These are similar to cap screws with the head slotted for a screw driver.
These are generally used with a nut.
6. Set screws. The set screws are shown in Fig. 2.15. These are used to prevent relative
motion between the two parts. A set screw is screwed through a threaded hole in one part
so that its point (i.e. end of the screw) presses against the other part. This resists the relative
motion between the two parts by means of friction between the point of the screw and one
of the parts. They may be used instead of key to prevent relative motion between a hub and
a shaft in light power transmission members. They may also be used in connection with a
key, where they prevent relative axial motion of the shaft, key and hub assembly.

85
 Fig.2.15 Set screws.

The diameter of the set screw (d) may be obtained from the following expression:

d = 0.125 D + 8 mm (2.90)

Where D is the diameter of the shaft (in mm) on which the set screw is pressed. The tangential
force (in newtons) at the surface of the shaft is given by

(2.91)

∴ Torque transmitted by a set screw,

𝐷
T = F× × N-m (2.92)
2

2 𝜋𝑁 𝑇
and power transmitted (in watts), P = 60

2.3.4 Stresses in Screwed Fastening due to Static Loading

The following stresses in screwed fastening due to static loading are important from the subject
point of view:

1. Internal stresses due to screwing up forces,

i) Tensile stress due to stretching of bolt
ii) Torsional shear stress caused by the frictional resistance of the threads during its
tightening
iii) Shear stress across the threads.
iv) Compression or crushing stress on threads

86
 v) Bending stress if the surfaces under the head or nut are not perfectly parallel to the
bolt axis.
2. Stresses due to external forces, and
i) Tensile stress.
ii) Shear stress.
iii) Combined tension and shear stress
3. Stress due to combination of stresses at (1) and (2).
2.3.5 Design of Nut

When a bolt and nut is made of mild steel, then the effective height of nut is made equal to the
nominal diameter of the bolt. If the nut is made of weaker material than the bolt, then the height
of nut should be larger, such as 1.5 d for gun metal, 2 d for cast iron and 2.5 d for aluminum alloys
(where d is the nominal diameter of the bolt). In case cast iron or aluminum nut is used, then V-
threads are permissible only for permanent fastenings, because threads in these materials are
damaged due to repeated screwing and unscrewing.

87
CHAPTER THREE

TORQUE TRANSMITTING JOINTS

Parts may rotate together with the shafts or axles on which they mounted are made of keys, splines,
pins, fits, etc. All these change the original geometry of the shafts and axles and give rise to
stress concentration. Interference fits result in radial pressures on the mounting surfaces, which are
non-uniform distributed over the hub length. These joints will be discussed in detailed as follows.

3.1. Keys

A key can be defined as a machine element that is used to connect the transmission shaft to
rotating machine elements like pulley, gear; sprocket or flywheel. A keyed joint consisting of
shaft, hub and key is illustrated in Fig. 3.1.

Fig.3.1 Key joint

There are two basic functions of the key. They are as follows:

(i) The primary function of the key is to transmit the torque from the shaft to the hub of
mating element and vice versa.
(ii) (ii) The second function of the key is to prevent relative rotational motion between
the shaft and the joined machine element like gear or pulley.

88
In most of the cases, key also prevents axial motion between two elements, except in case of feather
key or splined connection.

A recess or slot machined either on the shaft or in the hub to accommodate the key is called
keyway. The keyway is usually cut by vertical or horizontal milling cutter. The keyway results
in stress concentration in the shaft and the part becomes weak. This is the main drawback of keyed
joint. Keys are made of plain carbon steels like 45C8 or 50C8 in order to withstand shear and
compressive stresses resulting from transmission of torque. According to IS, steel of tensile
strength not less than 600 N/mm used as the material for the key.

3.1.1 Types of Keys

Many types of key are available and there are number of standards that specify dimensions of
the key. There are different ways to classify as follows:

(i) Saddle key and sunk key;

(ii) (ii) Square key and flat key;
(iii) (iii) Taper key and parallel key; and
(iv) (iv) Key with and without Gib-head

In addition, there are special types of keys such as Woodruff key, Kennedy key feather key. The
selection of the type of key for a given application depends upon following factors:

(i) power to be transmitted;

(ii) tightness of fit;
(iii) stability of connection; and
(iv) cost.
i) Saddle keys

A saddle key is a key that fits in the keyway of the hub only. In this case there is no keyway on
the shaft. There are two types of saddle key, namely, hollow and flat, as shown in Fig.3. 2

A hollow saddle key has concave surface at the bottom to match the circular surface of the
shaft.

89
A flat saddle key has flat surface at the bottom and it sits on the flat surface machined on the
shaft.

Fig. 3.2 (a) Hollow Saddle Key (b) Flat Saddle Key

In both types of saddle key, friction between shaft, key and hub prevents relative motion
between the shaft and the hub. The power is transmitted by means of friction. Therefore, saddle
keys are suitable for light duty or low power transmission as compared with sunk keys. The
resistance to slip in case of flat key is slightly more than that of hollow key with concave surface.
Therefore, flat saddle key is slightly superior to hollow saddle key as far as power transmitting
capacity is concerned. Saddle key requires keyway only on the hub. Therefore, cost of saddle key
joint is less than that of sunk key joint. This is the main advantage of the saddle key. The
disadvantage of saddle key is its low power transmitting capacity. Saddle key is liable to slip
around the shaft when subjected to heavy torque. Therefore it cannot be used in medium and
heavy duty application.

ii) Sunk keys

A sunk key is a key, in which half the thickness of the key fits into the keyway on the shaft and
the remaining half in the keyway on the hub. Therefore keyways are required both on the shaft
as well as the hub of the mating element. In sunk key, power is transmitted due to shear resistance
of the key. The relative motion between the shaft and the hub is also prevented by the shear
resistance of key. Therefore, sunk key is suitable for heavy duty application, since there is

90
no possibility of the key to slip around the shaft. It is a positive drive. This is the main
advantage of the sunk key over the saddle key. However, it is both on the shaft and the hub.
Therefore, the cost of sunk key joint is more than that of saddle key joint.

Fig.3.3 (a) Square Key (b) Flat Key

Table 3.1 Dimensions of square and rectangular sunk keys (in mm)

iii) Flat keys

91
Sunk keys with square or rectangular cross- section are widely used in practice. Sunk key with
rectangular cross-section is called flat key. The flat key has more stability as compared with square
key. Flat keys are more suitable for machine tool applications where additional stability of the
connection is desirable.

iv) Square keys

Square keys are used in general industrial machinery. Selecting the square key without stress
analysis, following rule of thumb may be used in industries. “The industrial practice is to use a
square key with sides equal to one-quarter of the shaft diameter and length at least 1.5 times the
shaft diameter.”

Or, b = h = d/4 and l = 1.5d (3.1)

Where, b = width of key (mm)

h = height or thickness of key (mm)

l = length of key (mm)

d = diameter of shaft (mm)

For flat key, the thumb-rule dimensions are as follows:

b = d/4, h = 2b/3 = d/6, l = 1.5d (3.2)

v) Parallel key

A parallel key is a sunk key which is uniform in width as well as height throughout the length
of the key. The parallel sunk key may be of rectangular or square section uniform in width and
thickness throughout. It may be noted that a parallel key is a taper-less and is used where the
pulley, gear or other mating piece is required to slide along the shaft.

Taper key

92
A taper key is uniform in width but tapered in height. The standard taper is1 in 100. The bottom
surface of the key is straight and the top surface is given a taper. The taper is provided for following
two reasons:

(i) When the key is inserted in the keyways of shaft and the hub and pressed by means of
hammer, it becomes tight due to wedge action. This insures tightness of joint in
operating conditions and prevents loosening of the parts.
(ii) (ii) Due to taper, it is easy to remove the key and dismantle the joint. The taper of
key is on one side. Machining taper on two sides of key is more difficult than making
taper on one side. Also, there is no specific advantage of taper on two sides.
vi) Gib-head keys

It is a rectangular sunk key with a head at one end known as gib- head. It is usually provided to
facilitate the removal of key.

vii) Feather key

A feather key is a parallel key that is fixed either to the shaft or to the hub and that permits
relative axial movement between them. . Figure 3.3 shows a feather key, which is fixed to the shaft
by means of two cap screws, having countersunk-heads. Feather key transmits the torque and at
the same time permits some axial movement of the hub. Feather keys are used where the parts
mounted on the shaft are required to slide along the shaft such as clutches or gear shifting devices.
It is an alternative to splined connection.

Fig.3.3Feather Key

3.2 Splines

93
 Splines are keys that are made integral with the shaft. They are used when there is a relative
axial motion between the shaft and the hub. The gear shifting mechanism in automobile
gearboxes requires such type of construction. Splines are cut on the shaft by milling and on
the hub by broaching. A splined connection, with straight splines, is shown in Fig. 3.4.
Following notations are used.

D = major diameter of splines (mm)

d = minor diameter of splines (mm)

l = length of hub (mm)

n = number of splines

Fig .3.4 Splines, (a) Shaft (b) Hub

The torque transmitting capacity of splines is given by;

Where, Mt = transmitted torque (N-mm)

94
 Pm = permissible pressure on spline (N/mm2)

A = total area of splines (mm2)

Rm = mean radius of splines (mm)

The area A is given by

Substituting the above values in Eq. (a) it will become;

(3.3)

The permissible pressure on the splines is limited to 6.5 N/mm. The above analysis and Fig. 3.4
refers to straight-sided splines. In addition there are two types of splines. Involute splines and
serrations as shown in fig 3.5.

(i) Involute Splines:

Involute splines are in the form of concentric external and internal gear teeth. They are stub
teeth with pressure angle of 30º. These splines are specified by module. Involute splines are
more popular than straight splines due to greater strength relative to their size. Involute
splines are self- centering and tend to adjust to an even distribution of load. However, the
cost of involute splines is more than straight sided splines.

(ii) Serrations:

Straight-sided serrations are used in applications where it is important to keep the overall size
of the assembly as small as possible. They are used as interference joints. Serration joints are
also used to obtain small angular relative adjustment between the joined members.

95
 Fig.3.5 Types of Spline Profiles

3.3 Interference-Fit Joints

Interference-fit joints depend for their operation on friction developed between the mating surfaces.
The necessary normal pressure between the two surfaces is obtained due to elastic deformations
undergone by the mating parts during assembly. To this end, an adequate amount of interference
is created in the course of manufacture.

3.3.1 Application of interference fit joint

Interference-fit joints are widely used to connect gear rings to hubs, hubs to shafts, carriers to
planet axes and shafts, etc. They permit easy assembly, ensure good alignment, but give rise to
appreciable stress concentration. Also, they are very sensitive to poor workmanship, the actual
amount of interference being nearly always different from the theoretical value. This adversely
affects the load - carrying capacity the joint, so selective assembly is often required.

3.3.2 Types of interference fits

There are three types of interference fits in use by the industry today. They are;

(i) Shrink fit, where the outer member is heated, slipped onto the inner member, and the
grip is secured by contraction of the outer member on cooling;
(ii) An expansion fit, where in the inner member is cooled, slipped in to the outer
member, and the grip is secured by expansion of the inner member when the
assembly attains room temperature;

96
(iii) Force or press fit, produced by pressing a shaft in to a smaller hole. The necessary
pressure is developed hydraulically.

Owing to their low cost and ease of manufacture, press fits are used most commonly.
However, they suffer from grave shortcomings, in particular crushing and scouring of the
contact surfaces and non-uniform deformation of the parts being joined. Compared with
shrink or expansion fits, the latter factor may reduce the strength of a press fit assembly to
two thirds of its normal value.

97
CHAPTER FOUR

PRESSURE VESSEL
The pressure vessels (i.e. cylinders or tanks) are used to store fluids under pressure. The fluid being
stored may undergo a change of state inside the pressure vessel as in case of steam boilers or it
may combine with other reagents as in a chemical plant.

4.1 Classification of Pressure Vessels

1. According to the dimensions.

The pressure vessels, according to their dimensions, may be classified as thin shell or thick shell.
If the wall thickness of the shell (t) is less than 1/10 of the diameter of the shell (d), then it is called
a thin shell. On the other hand, if the wall thickness of the shell is greater than 1/10 of the diameter
of the shell, then it is said to be a thick shell. Thin shells are used in boilers, tanks and pipes,
whereas thick shells are used in high pressure cylinders, tanks, gun barrels etc.

Note: Another criterion to classify the pressure vessels as thin shell or thick shell is the internal
fluid pressure (p) and the allowable stress (σt). If the internal fluid pressure (p) is less than 1/6 of
the allowable stress, then it is called a thin shell. On the other hand, if the internal fluid pressure
is greater than 1/6 of the allowable stress, then it is said to be a thick shell.

2. According to the end construction.

The pressure vessels, according to the end construction, may be classified as open end or
closed end. A simple cylinder with a piston, such as cylinder of a press is an example of an
open end vessel, whereas a tank is an example of a closed end vessel. In case of vessels
having open ends, the circumferential or hoop stresses are induced by the fluid pressure,
whereas in case of closed ends, longitudinal stresses in addition to circumferential stresses
are induced.

4.2 Stresses in a Thin Cylindrical Shell due to an Internal Pressure

The analysis of stresses induced in a thin cylindrical shell is made on the following
assumptions:

98
1. The effect of curvature of the cylinder wall is neglected.

2. The tensile stresses are uniformly distributed over the section of the walls.

3. The effect of the restraining action of the heads at the end of the pressure vessel is neglected.

Fig.4.1Failure of a cylindrical shell.

When a thin cylindrical shell is subjected to an internal pressure, it is likely to fail in the
following two ways:

1. It may fail along the longitudinal section (i.e. circumferentially) splitting the cylinder into
two troughs, as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a).

2. It may fail across the transverse section (i.e. longitudinally) splitting the cylinder into two
cylindrical shells, as shown in Fig. 4.1 (b).

4.2.1 Circumferential or Hoop Stress

Consider a thin cylindrical shell subjected to an internal pressure as shown in Fig. 5.1 (a) and
(b). Tensile stress acting in a direction tangential to the circumference is called circumferential
or hoop stress. In other words, it is a tensile stress on *longitudinal section (or on the
cylindrical walls).

99
 Fig.4.2 Circumferential or hoop stress.

Let p = Intensity of internal pressure,

d = Internal diameter of the cylindrical shell,

l = Length of the cylindrical shell,

t = Thickness of the cylindrical shell, and

σt1 = Circumferential or hoop stress for the material of the cylindrical shell.

We know that the total force acting on a longitudinal section (i.e. along the diameter X-X) of
the shell

= Intensity of pressure × Projected area = p × d × l ……… (i)

And the total resisting force acting on the cylinder walls

= σt1 × 2t × l (Q of two sections) ……. (ii)

p×d
From equations (i) and (ii), we have σt1 × 2t × l = p × d × l or σt1= =
2t

Or
p×d
t= (4.1)
2 σt1

In constructing large pressure vessels like steam boilers, riveted joints or welded joints are used
in joining together the ends of steel plates. In case of riveted joints, the wall thickness of the
cylinder,

100
 p×d
t=
2 σt1
× ηi (4.2)

Where ηi = Efficiency of the longitudinal riveted joint.

4.2.3 Longitudinal Stress

Consider a closed thin cylindrical shell subjected to an internal pressure as shown in Fig. 4.3 (a)
and (b). Tensile stress acting in the direction of the axis is called longitudinal stress. In other words,
it is a tensile stress acting on the *transverse or circumferential section Y-Y (or on the ends of the
vessel)..

Fig.4.3 Longitudinal stress.

Let σt2 = Longitudinal stress.

In this case, the total force acting on the transverse section (i.e. along Y-Y)

= Intensity of pressure × Cross-sectional area

π
= p× 4 (d)² ………………….(i)

And total resisting force = σt2 × π d.t …………………… (ii)

From equations (i) and (ii), we have

π
σt2 × π d.t = p× 4 (d)²

101
 p ×
σ t2 =
d
4t

102
 p × d
Or t= (4.3)
4 σt2

If ηi is the efficiency of the circumferential joint, then

p×d
t= × ηi (4.4)
4 σt2

From above we see that the longitudinal stress is half of the circumferential or hoop stress.
Therefore, the design of a pressure vessel must be based on the maximum stress i.e. hoop stress.

4.3 Thin Spherical Shells Subjected to an Internal Pressure

Consider a thin spherical shell subjected to an internal pressure as shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig.4.4 Thin spherical shell

Let V = Storage capacity of the shell,

p = Intensity of internal pressure,

d = Diameter of the shell,

t = Thickness of the shell,

σt = Permissible tensile stress for the shell material.

In designing thin spherical shells, we have to determine

1. Diameter of the shell, and

103
 2. Thickness of the shell.

1. Diameter of the shell

We know that the storage capacity of the shell,

4 π 6V
V = × π r³ = × d³ or d= ( π (4.5)
3 6

2. Thickness of the shell

As a result of the internal pressure, the shell is likely to rupture along the Centre of the
sphere. Therefore force tending to rupture the shell along the center of the sphere or bursting
force,

π
= Pressure × .Area = p× 4
(d)² …………… (i)

and resisting force of the shell .

= Stress × Resisting area = σt × π d.t …………….. (ii)

Equating equations (i) and (ii), we have

π
p× (d)² = σt × π d.t
. 4
(4.6)
p .d
Or t=
4 σt

If η is the efficiency of the circumferential joints of the spherical shell, then

p .d
t= ×η (4.7)
4 σt

4.4 Thick Cylindrical Shells Subjected to an Internal Pressure

When a cylindrical shell of a pressure vessel, hydraulic cylinder, gun barrel and a pipe is
subjected to a very high internal fluid pressure, then the walls of the cylinder must be made
extremely heavy or thick. In thin cylindrical shells, we have assumed that the tensile stresses are
uniformly distributed over the section of the walls. But in the case of thick wall cylinders as
104
shown in Fig.4.5 (a), the stress over the section of the walls cannot be assumed to be uniformly
distributed. They develop both tangential and radial stresses with values which are dependent upon
the radius of the element under consideration. The distribution of stress in a thick cylindrical
shell is shown in Fig. 4.5 (b) and (c). We see that the tangential stress is maximum at the inner
surface and minimum at the outer surface of the shell. The radial stress is maximum at the inner
surface and zero at the outer surface of the shell.

Fig.4.5 Stress distribution in thick cylindrical shells subjected to internal pressure.

Let ro = Outer radius of cylindrical shell,

ri = Inner radius of cylindrical shell,

t = Thickness of cylindrical shell = ro – ri,

p = Intensity of internal pressure,

μ = Poisson’s ratio,

σt = Tangential stress, and

σr = Radial stress.

105
CHAPTER FIVE

SPRINGS
A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when loaded and to recover its
original shape when the load is removed. The various important applications of springs are as
follows:

1. To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as in car springs, railway
buffers, air-craft landing gears, shock absorbers and vibration dampers.

2. To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring loaded valves.

3. To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements as in cams and followers.

4. To measure forces, as in spring balances and engine indicators.

5. To store energy, as in watches, toys, etc.

5.1 Types of Spring

Though there are many types of the springs, yet the following, according to their shape, are
important from the subject point of view.

1. Helical springs.

The helical springs are made up of a wire coiled in the form of a helix and are primarily
intended for compressive or tensile loads. The cross-section of the wire from which the
spring is made may be circular, square or rectangular. The two forms of helical springs are
compression helical spring as shown in Fig. 5.1 (a) and tension helical spring as shown in
Fig. 5.1 (b)

106
 Fig.5.1Helical springs.

The helical springs are said to be closely coiled when the spring wire is coiled so close that
the plane containing each turn is nearly at right angles to the axis of the helix and the wire is
subjected to torsion. In other words, in a closely coiled helical spring, the helix angle is very
small, it is usually less than 10°.

In open coiled helical springs, the spring wire is coiled in such a way that there is a gap
between the two consecutive turns, as a result of which the helix angle is large. Since the
application of open coiled helical springs are limited, therefore our discussion shall confine
to closely coiled helical springs only.

2. Conical and volute springs. The conical and volute springs, as shown in Fig. 5.2, are
used in special applications where a telescoping spring or a spring with a spring rate that
increases with the load is desired.

Fig.5.2 Conical and volute springs.

The major stresses produced in conical and volute springs are also shear stresses due to
twisting.

3. Torsion springs. These springs may be of helical or spiral type as shown in Fig. 5.3. The
helical type may be used only in applications where the load tends to wind up the spring
and are used in various electrical mechanisms. The spiral type is also used where the load
tends to increase the number of coils and when made of flat strip are used in watches and
clocks. The major stresses produced in torsion springs are tensile and compressive due to
bending.

107
 Fig.5.3 Torsion springs.
4. Laminated or leaf springs. The laminated or leaf spring (also known as flat spring or
carriage spring) consists of a number of flat plates (known as leaves) of varying lengths
held together by means of clamps and bolts, as shown in Fig. 5.4. These are mostly used
in automobiles. The major stresses produced in leaf springs are tensile and compressive
stresses.

Fig.5.4 Laminated or leaf springs.

5. Disc or bellevile springs. These springs consist of a number of conical discs held
together against slipping by a central bolt or tube as shown in Fig. 5.5. These springs are
used in applications where high spring rates and compact spring units are required.

Fig.5.5 Disc or bellevile springs.

The major stresses produced in disc or bellevile springs are tensile and compressive
stresses.
6. Special purpose springs. These springs are air or liquid springs, rubber springs, ring
springs etc. The fluids (air or liquid) can behave as a compression spring. These springs are
used for special types of application only.
5.2 Terms used in Compression Springs

107
The following terms used in connection with compression springs are important from the subject
point of view.

1. Solid length. When the compression spring is compressed until the coils come in contact with
each other, then the spring is said to be solid. The solid length of a spring is the product of total
number of coils and the diameter of the wire. Mathematically,

Solid length of the spring

LS = n'.d (5.1) .

Where n' = Total number of coils, and

d = Diameter of the wire.

2. Free length. The free length of a compression spring, as shown in Fig. 5.6, is the length
of the spring in the free or unloaded condition. It is equal to the solid length plus the
maximum deflection or compression of the spring and the clearance between the adjacent
coils (when fully compressed). Mathematically,

Fig.5.6 Compression spring nomenclature.

Free length of the spring,

LF = Solid length + Maximum compression + *Clearance between

adjacent coils (or clash allowance)

= n'.d + δmax + 0.15 δmax (5.2)

The following relation may also be used to find the free length of the spring, i.e.

108
 LF = n'.d + δmax + (n' – 1) × 1 mm (5.3)

In this expression, the clearance between the two adjacent coils is taken as 1 mm.

1 Spring index. The spring index is defined as the ratio of the mean diameter of the coil to the
diameter of the wire. Mathematically,
Spring index, C=D/d (5.4)

where D = Mean diameter of the coil, and

d = Diameter of the wire.

2 Spring rate. The spring rate (or stiffness or spring constant) is defined as the load required
per unit deflection of the spring. Mathematically,

Spring rate, k = W /δ (5.5)

Where W = Load, and

δ = Deflection of the spring

5. Pitch. The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance between adjacent coils in
uncompressed state. Mathematically,

Free length
Pitch of the coil, p=
�′−1

The pitch of the coil may also be obtained by using the following relation, i.e.

LF − LS
Pitch of the coil, p= n′
+ (5.6)
�
Where LF = Free length of the spring,

LS = Solid length of the spring,

n' = Total number of coils, and

d = Diameter of the wire.

In choosing the pitch of the coils, the following points should be noted:

109
 (a) The pitch of the coils should be such that if the spring is accidently or carelessly
compressed, the stress does not increase the yield point stress in torsion.

(b) The spring should not close up before the maximum service load is reached.

Note: In designing a tension spring the minimum gap between two coils when the spring is in the
free state is taken as 1 mm. Thus the free length of the spring,

LF = n.d + (n-1)
LF
Pitch Of the coil, p= (5.7)
n−1

5.3 Stresses in Helical Springs of Circular Wire

Consider a helical compression spring made of circular wire and subjected to an axial load W, as
shown in Fig. 5.7 (a).

Fig.5.7

Now consider a part of the compression spring as shown in Fig. 5.7 (b). The load W tends to rotate
the wire due to the twisting moment (T ) set up in the wire. Thus torsional shear stress is induced
in the wire. A little consideration will show that part of the spring, as shown in Fig. 5.7 (b), is in
equilibrium under the action of two forces W and the twisting moment T. We know that the
twisting moment,

110
 .…………………. (i)

The torsional shear stress diagram is shown in Fig. 5.7 (a). In addition to the torsional shear
stress (τ1) induced in the wire, the following stresses also act on the wire:

1. Direct shear stress due to the load W, and

2. Stress due to curvature of wire.

We know that direct shear stress due to the load W

………………. (ii)

The direct shear stress diagram is shown in Fig. 5.8 (b) and the resultant diagram of torsional
shear stress and direct shear stress is shown in Fig. 5.8 (c).

Fig.5.8 Superposition of stresses in a helical spring.

We know that the resultant shear stress induced in the wire,

111
The positive sign is used for the inner edge of the wire and negative sign is used for the outer
edge of the wire. Since the stress is maximum at the inner edge of the wire, therefore Maximum
shear stress induced in the wire,

= Torsional shear stress + Direct shear stress

(5.8)

Where

From the above equation, it can be observed that the effect of direct shear is;

appreciable for springs of small spring index C. Also we have neglected the effect of wire curvature
in equation (iii). It may be noted that when the springs are subjected to static loads, the effect of
wire curvature may be neglected, because yielding of the material will relieve the stresses. In order
to consider the effects of both direct shear as well as curvature of the wire, a Wahl’s stress factor
(K) introduced by A.M. Wahl may be used. The resultant diagram of torsional shear, direct shear
and curvature shear stress is shown in Fig. 5.8 (d).

∴ Maximum shear stress induced in the wire,

(5.9)

112
Where

Note: The Wahl’s stress factor (K) may be considered as composed of two sub-factors, KS and
KC, such that

K = KS × KC (5.10)

Where KS = Stress factor due to shear, and

KC = Stress concentration factor due to curvature.

113
 CHAPTER ONE

SHAFTS
1. What is shaft?
A shaft is a rotating member, usually of circular cross section, used to transmit power from the
driving device (motor or engine) to the machine. It also provides the axis of rotation, or
oscillation, of elements such as gears, pulleys, flywheels, cranks, sprockets, and the like and
controls the geometry of their motion.

Note:

1. The shafts are usually cylindrical, but may be square or cross-shaped in section. They are
solid in cross-section but sometimes hollow shafts are also used.
2. An axle, though similar in shape to the shaft, is a stationary machine element and is used for
the transmission of bending moment only. It simply acts as a support for some rotating body
such as hoisting drum, a car wheel or a rope sheave.
3. A spindle is a short shaft that imparts motion either to a cutting tool (e.g. drill press spindles)
or to a work piece (e.g. lathe spindles).
2. What are the materials used for shafts.

The material used for shafts should have the following properties:
1. It should have high strength. 2. It should have good machinability.
3. It should have low notch sensitivity factor. 4. It should have good heat treatment
properties.
5. It should have high wear resistant properties.

114
The material used for ordinary shafts is carbon steel of grades 40 C 8, 45 C 8, 50 C 4 and 50
C 12.
The mechanical properties of these grades of carbon steel are given in the following table.

When a shaft of high strength is required, then an alloy steel such as nickel, nickel-chromium
or chrome-vanadium steel is used.

3. Types of Shafts:

Transmission shafts:
These shafts transmit power between the source and the machines absorbing power. The
line shafts, overhead shafts and all factory shafts are transmission shafts. Since these shafts
carry machine parts such as pulleys, gears etc, therefore they are subjected to bending in
addition to twisting.
Machine shafts:
These shafts form an integral part of the machine itself. The crank shaft is an example of
machine shaft

4. Shaft Loads:

The loading on rotating transmission shaft is principally one to two types: torsion due to the
transmitted torque or bending from transverse loads at gears, sheaves and sprockets. These
loads often occur in combination, since, for example, the transmitted torque may be associated
with forces at the teeth of gears or sprockets attached to the shafts. The character of both the
torque and bending loads may be either steady (constant) or may vary with time.

If the shaft is stationary (non-rotating) and the sheaves or gears rotate with respect to it (on
bearings), then it becomes a statically loaded members as long as the applied loads are steady
with time. However, such a non-rotating shaft is not a transmission shaft since it is not
transmitting any torque. It is merely an axle or round beam. But if the shaft is rotating it will
experience a fully reversed stress state as show in the figure below. Any one stress elements

115
on the shaft surface goes from tension to compression each cycle the as the shaft turns, thus
even for steady bending loads, a rotating shaft must be designed against fatigue failure.

���𝑖� = Min Stress ��� = midrange component ����� = Max Stress

��� = range of stress ��� = amplitude component ��� = Static or steady stress

Fig: Some stress-time relations: (a) Fluctuating stress with high frequency ripple. (b & c)
Non sinusoidal fluctuating stress (d) Sinusoidal fluctuating stress (e) Repeated Stress
(f) Completely reversed sinusoidal stress

5. Shaft Design:

Design of Shafts on the basis of strength

1. Shafts subjected to Twisting Moment only:

When the shaft is subjected to a twisting moment (or torque) only, then the diameter of the
shaft may be obtained by using the torsion equation. We know that

T τ
= --------- (1)
J r

where T = Twisting moment (or torque) acting upon the shaft

J = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft about the axis of rotation.
τ = Torsional Shear stress, and
r = Distance from neutral axis to the outer most fibre.

116
 �
= 2
, where d is the diameter of the shaft.

𝜋
we know that for round solid shaft, polar moment of inertia, J= 32
* �� 4
now the eq (1) can be written as

� 𝜏
𝜋 = 𝑑 ------(2)
∗ �4
32 2

from this equation we can find the diameter of round solid shaft (d).
𝜋
we also know that for Hollow shaft, polar moment of inertia J = 32 * [(𝑑 �)4 − (𝑑𝑖 )⁴]

�𝑜

where 𝑑0 and 𝑑𝑖 = outside and inside diameter of the shaft, and r = 2

substituting the values in eq (1)

4 − (�𝑖
T τ 𝜋 ()⁴ )
= or T = ] ----------(3)
*τ[
𝜋 �𝑜
∗ [(�𝑜 )4 −(�𝑖 )⁴] ��𝑜 16 �𝑜
2
32

�𝑖
let k = Ratio of inside diameter and outside diameter of the shaft. = �𝑜

now the equation (3) can be written as

𝜋 (�0 )⁴ � 𝜋
T= *τ* [1 − ( 𝑖 ) ⁴] = * τ * )³ (1- �� 4 ) ----------(4)
(𝑑
16 �0 �𝑜 16 �

from the equations (3) & (4) we can determine the outside and inside diameters of the hollow
shaft.
Note:
1. The hollow shafts are usually used in marine work. These shafts are stronger per kg of
material and they may be forged on a mandrel, thus making the material more homogeneous
than would be possible for a solid shaft.

117
When a hollow shaft is to be made equal in strength to a solid shaft, the twisting moment of
both the shafts must be same. In other words, for the same material of both the shafts,

118
2. Shafts subjected to Bending Moment only:

When the shaft is subjected to a bending moment only, then the maximum stress (tensile or
compressive) is given by the bending equation. We know that
𝑀 ��𝑏
= --------(1)
𝐼 �

where M = Bending moment

I = Moment of inertia of cross-sectional area of the shaft about the axis of
rotation,
��� = Bending Stress and
y = Distance from neutral axis to the outer-most fibre.

𝜋 �
we know that for a round solid shaft, moment of inertia, I = 64 * �� 4 and y =2

119
Completely Reversed or Cyclic Stresses

Consider a rotating beam of circular cross-section and carrying a load W, as shown in Fig.1.1.
This load induces stresses in the beam which are cyclic in nature. A little consideration will
show that the upper fibres of the beam (i.e., at point A) are under compressive stress and the
lower fibres (i.e., at point B) are under tensile stress. After half a revolution, the point B
occupies the position of point A and the point A occupies the position of point B. Thus, the
point B is now under compressive stress and the point A under tensile stress. The speed of
variation of these stresses depends upon the speed of the beam. From above we see that for each
revolution of the beam, the stresses are reversed from compressive to tensile. The stresses which
vary from one value of compressive to the same value of tensile or vice versa, are known as
completely reversed or cyclic stresses.

Notes:
1. The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the same nature, (i.e.
tensile or compressive) are called fluctuating stresses.
2. The stresses which vary from zero to a certain maximum value are called repeated stresses.
3. The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the opposite nature
(i.e., from a certain minimum compressive to a certain maximum tensile or from a minimum
tensile to a maximum compressive) are called alternating stresses.

Fatigue Failure:

when a material is subjected to very large no of stresses at a time, material will fail below yield
or ultimate point. This is called fatigue failure.
The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of
microscopic size. The failure may occur even without any prior indication. The fatigue of
material is effected by the size of the component, relative magnitude of static and fluctuating
loads and the number of load reversals.

120
The Endurance limit (or) Fatigue Limit (𝝈� or ��′ ):
In order to study the effect of fatigue of a material, a rotating mirror beam method is used. In
this method, a standard mirror polished specimen, as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a), is rotated in a fatigue
testing machine while the specimen is loaded in bending. As the specimen rotates, the bending
stress at the upper fibres varies from maximum compressive to maximum tensile while the
bending stress at the lower fibres varies from maximum tensile to maximum compressive. In
other words, the specimen is subjected to a completely reversed stress cycle. This is
represented by a time-stress diagram as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b). A record is kept of the number
of cycles required to produce failure at a given stress, and the results are plotted in stress-cycle
curve as shown in Fig. 1.2 (c). A little consideration will show that if the stress is kept below a
certain value as shown by dotted line in Fig. 1.2 (c), the material will not fail whatever may be
the number of cycles. This stress, as represented by dotted line, is known as endurance or
fatigue limit (σe or se′ ). It is defined as maximum value of the completely reversed bending
stress which a polished standard specimen can withstand without failure, for infinite number
of cycles (usually 107 cycles).

120
Generally, for steel ��′� = 0.5 ����� If ����� ≤ 1400

Mpa
= 700 Mpa If ����� >1400 Mpa

121
Fatigue Strength:
Generally, to determine life of a specimen we will divide into categories.
1. if 1 ≤ N ≤ 103 Low cycle fatigue 2. If N ≥ 103 High cycle fatigue
In the low cycle fatigue the fatigue strength 𝑆� is only slightly smaller than the tensile strength
����� .
Fatigue strength can be expressed as ��� = a 𝑵𝒃 ------ (1)
where N = No of cycles to failure and the constants a and b are defined by the points 103, (��� 10
) 3

and 106, ��� with (��� 3 = f ����� . Substituting these values in eq (1) gives
)10

If a completely reversed stress σa is given, setting Sf = σa in Eq. (1), the number of cycles-to-
failure can be expressed as

Fig 1.3: Fatigue strength fraction, f, of ���𝒍� at ��𝟑 cycles for ��� = ��′ = 0.5 𝑺
. Endurance Limit Modifying Factors:
� �𝒍�
We have seen that the rotating-beam specimen used in the laboratory to determine endurance
limits is prepared very carefully and tested under closely controlled conditions. It is unrealistic
to expect the endurance limit of a mechanical or structural member to match the values obtained
in the laboratory. Some differences include

122
 Material: composition, basis of failure, variability
Manufacturing: method, heat treatment, fretting corrosion, surface condition, stress
concentration
Environment: corrosion, temperature, stress state, relaxation times
Design: size, shape, life, stress state, stress concentration, speed, fretting, galling
Marin identified factors that quantified the effects of surface condition, size, loading,
temperature, and miscellaneous items. The question of whether to adjust the endurance limit by
subtractive corrections or multiplicative corrections was resolved by an extensive statistical
analysis of a 4340 (electric furnace, aircraft quality) steel, in which a correlation coefficient of
0.85 was found for the multiplicative form and 0.40 for the additive form. A Marin equation is
therefore written as
��� = ��� ��� ��� ��� � ------- (2)
��� 𝐾� �� ′

where ��� = surface condition modification factor.

��� = size modification factor.
��� = load modification factor.
��� = temperature modification factor.
��� = reliability factor.
𝐾� = miscellaneous-effects modification factor.
��′� = rotary-beam test specimen endurance limit.
��� = endurance limit at the critical location of a machine part in the geometry
and condition of use.

123
 CHAPTER TWO

COUPLING and CLUTCHES

1. Introduction

A clutch is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft to a driven shaft so that the driven
shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft.
The use of a clutch is mostly found in automobiles.
A little consideration will show that in order to change gears or to stop the vehicle, it is required
that the driven shaft should stop, but the engine should continue to run. It is, therefore, necessary
that the driven shaft should be disengaged from the driving shaft.
The engagement and disengagement of the shafts is obtained by means of a clutch which is
operated by a lever.

2. Types of clutches

Following are the two main types of clutches commonly used in engineering practice:
1. Positive clutches, and 2. Friction clutches.

1. Positive clutches

The positive clutches are used when a positive drive is required. The simplest type of a positive
clutch is a jaw or claw clutch. The jaw clutch permits one shaft to drive another through a
direct contact of interlocking jaws. It consists of two halves, one of which is permanently
fastened to the driving shaft by a sunk key. The other half of the clutch is movable and it is free
to slide axially on the driven shaft, but it is prevented from turning relatively to its shaft by
means of feather key. The jaws of the clutch may be of square type as shown in Fig. 1 (a) or of
spiral type as shown in Fig. 1 (b).

124
A square jaw type is used where engagement and disengagement in motion and under load is
not necessary. This type of clutch will transmit power in either direction of rotation. The spiral
jaws may be left-hand or right-hand, because power transmitted by them is in one direction
only. This type of clutch is occasionally used where the clutch must be engaged and disengaged
while in motion. The use of jaw clutches are frequently applied to sprocket wheels, gears and
pulleys. In such a case, the non-sliding part is made integral with the hub.

2. Friction Clutches

A friction clutch has its principal application in the transmission of power of shafts and
machines which must be started and stopped frequently. Its application is also found in cases
in which power is to be delivered to machines partially or fully loaded. The force of friction is
used to start the driven shaft from rest and gradually brings it up to the proper speed without
excessive slipping of the friction surfaces. In automobiles, friction clutch is used to connect the
engine to the drive shaft. In operating such a clutch, care should be taken so that the friction
surfaces engage easily and gradually bring the driven shaft up to proper speed. The proper
alignment of the bearing must be maintained and it should be located as close to the clutch as
possible. It may be noted that:

1. The contact surfaces should develop a frictional force that may pick up and hold the
load with reasonably low pressure between the contact surfaces.
2. The heat of friction should be rapidly dissipated and tendency to grab should be at a
minimum.
3. The surfaces should be backed by a material stiff enough to ensure a reasonably uniform
distribution of pressure.

125
3. Material for Friction Surfaces

The material used for lining of friction surfaces of a clutch should have the following
characteristics:
1. It should have a high and uniform coefficient of friction.
2. It should not be affected by moisture and oil.
3. It should have the ability to withstand high temperatures caused by slippage.
4. It should have high heat conductivity.
5. It should have high resistance to wear and scoring.

4. Considerations in Designing a Friction Clutch

The following considerations must be kept in mind while designing a friction clutch.
The suitable material forming the contact surfaces should be selected.
The moving parts of the clutch should have low weight in order to minimize the inertia
load, especially in high-speed service.
The clutch should not require any external force to maintain contact of the friction
surfaces.
The provision for taking up wear of the contact surfaces must be provided.
The clutch should have provision for facilitating repairs.
The clutch should have provision for carrying away the heat generated at the contact
surfaces.
The projecting parts of the clutch should be covered by guard.
5. Types of Friction Clutches

Though there are many types of friction clutches, yet the following are important:

1. Disc or plate clutches (single disc or multiple disc clutch), axial friction clutches
2. Cone clutches, and

3. Centrifugal clutches. radial friction clutch.

126
5.1 Single Disc or Plate Clutch
A single disc or plate clutch, as shown in Fig 2, consists of a clutch plate whose both sides are
faced with a frictional material (usually of Ferrodo). It is mounted on the hub which is free to
move axially along the splines of the driven shaft. The pressure plate is mounted inside the
clutch body which is bolted to the flywheel. Both the pressure plate and the flywheel rotate
with the engine crankshaft or the driving shaft. The pressure plate pushes the clutch plate
towards the flywheel by a set of strong springs which are arranged radially inside the body.
The three levers (also known as release levers or fingers) are carried on pivots suspended from
the case of the body. These are arranged in such a manner so that the pressure plate moves away
from the flywheel by the inward movement of a thrust bearing. The bearing is mounted upon
a forked shaft and moves forward when the clutch pedal is pressed.

When the clutch pedal is pressed down, its linkage forces the thrust release bearing to move in
towards the flywheel and pressing the longer ends of the levers inward. The levers are forced
to turn on their suspended pivot and the pressure plate moves away from the flywheel by the
knife edges, thereby compressing the clutch springs. This action removes the pressure from the
clutch plate and thus moves back from the flywheel and the driven shaft becomes stationary.
On the other hand, when the foot is taken off from the clutch pedal, the thrust bearing moves

127
back by the levers. This allows the springs to extend and thus the pressure plate pushes the
clutch plate back towards the flywheel.
The axial pressure exerted by the spring provides a frictional force in the circumferential
direction when the relative motion between the driving and driven members tends to take place.
If the torque due to this frictional force exceeds the torque to be transmitted, then no slipping
takes place and the power is transmitted from the driving shaft to the driven shaft.
5.2 Cone Clutch

A cone clutch, as shown in Fig. 5, was extensively used in automobiles, but now-a-days it has
been replaced completely by the disc clutch. It consists of one pair of friction surface only. In
a cone clutch, the driver is keyed to the driving shaft by a sunk key and has an inside conical
surface or face which exactly fits into the outside conical surface of the driven. The driven
member resting on the feather key in the driven shaft, may be shifted along the shaft by a forked
lever provided at B, in order to engage the clutch by bringing the two conical surfaces in
contact. Due to the frictional resistance set up at this contact surface, the torque is transmitted
from one shaft to another. In some cases, a spring is placed around the driven shaft in contact
with the hub of the driven. This spring holds the clutch faces in contact and maintains the
pressure between them, and the forked lever is used only for disengagement of the clutch. The
contact surfaces of the clutch may be metal to metal contact, but more often the driven member
is lined with some material like wood, leather, cork or asbestos etc. The material of the clutch
faces (i.e., contact surfaces) depends upon the allowable normal pressure and the coefficient of
friction.

128
 CHAPTER THREE

BRAKES

1. Introduction

A brake is a device by means of which artificial frictional resistance is applied to a moving

machine member, in order to retard or stop the motion of a machine.

In the process of performing this function, the brake absorbs either kinetic energy of the moving
member or potential energy given up by objects being lowered by hoists, elevators etc.

The energy absorbed by brakes is dissipated in the form of heat. This heat is dissipated in the
surrounding air (or water which is circulated through the passages in the brake drum) so that
excessive heating of the brake lining does not take place.

The design or capacity of a brake depends upon the following factors:

1. The unit pressure between the braking surfaces,

2. The coefficient of friction between the braking surfaces,

3. The peripheral velocity of the brake drum,

4. The projected area of the friction surfaces, and

5. The ability of the brake to dissipate heat equivalent to the energy being absorbed.

The major functional difference between a clutch and a brake is that a clutch is used to keep the
driving and driven member moving together, whereas brakes are used to stop a moving member
or to control its speed.

2. Materials for Brake Lining:

The material used for the brake lining should have the following characteristics:
1. It should have high coefficient of friction with minimum fading. In other words, the
coefficient of friction should remain constant over the entire surface with change in
temperature.
2. It should have low wear rate.
3. It should have high heat resistance.

129
4. It should have high heat dissipation capacity.
5. It should have low coefficient of thermal expansion.
6. It should have adequate mechanical strength.
7. It should not be affected by moisture and oil.
3. Types of Brakes

The brakes, according to the means used for transforming the energy by the braking element,
are classified as:

1. Hydraulic brakes e.g., pumps or hydrodynamic brake and fluid agitator,

2. Electric brakes e.g., generators and eddy current brakes, and

3. Mechanical brakes.

The hydraulic and electric brakes cannot bring the member to rest and are mostly used where
large amounts of energy are to be transformed while the brake is retarding the load such as in
laboratory dynamometers, high way trucks and electric locomotives. These brakes are also used
for retarding or controlling the speed of a vehicle for down-hill travel.

The mechanical brakes, according to the direction of acting force, may be divided into the
following two groups:

(a) Radial brakes: In these brakes, the force acting on the brake drum is in radial direction.

The radial brakes may be sub-divided into external brakes and internal brakes. According to
the shape of the friction element, these brakes may be block or shoe brakes and band brakes.

(b) Axial brakes: In these brakes, the force acting on the brake drum is in axial direction.

The axial brakes may be disc brakes and cone brakes.

4. Internal Expanding Brake.

The internal-shoe brake system shown in Fig. 1 consists essentially of three elements: the
mating frictional surface, the means of transmitting the torque to and from the surfaces, and the
actuating mechanism.

The internal-shoe or drum brake is used mostly for automotive applications.

130
To analyse an internal-shoe device, refer to Fig. 2, which shows a shoe pivoted at point A, with
the actuating force acting at the other end of the shoe (B).

Since the shoe is long, we cannot make the assumption that the distribution of normal forces is
uniform.

The mechanical arrangement permits no pressure to be applied at the heel, and we will therefore
assume the pressure at this point to be zero.

130
5. External Expanding Brake.

The moments of the frictional and normal forces about the hinge pin are the same as for the
internal expanding shoes.

6. Band Brake.

Flexible clutch and brake bands are used in power excavators and in hoisting and other
machinery.

131
 CHAPTER FOUR
DRIVES
Belt Drives

Introduction

The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. The amount of power transmitted depends
upon the following factors: 1. The velocity of the belt.
2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.
4. The conditions under which the belt is used.
Types of Belt Drives

The belt drives are usually classified into the following three groups:

Light drives. These are used to transmit small powers at belt speeds up to about 10 m/s
as in agricultural machines and small machine tools.

Medium drives. These are used to transmit medium powers at belt speeds over 10 m/s
but up to 22 m/s, as in machine tools.

Heavy drives. These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds above 22 m/s as
in compressors and generators.

Types of Belts

Material used for Belts

i. Leather belts iii. Rubber belt

ii. Cotton or fabric belts iv. Balata belts

132
 1) Open Belt drive
4) Quarter turn belt drive with
3) Quarter turn belt drive
guide pulley

5) Belt drive with idler pulleys

2) Crossed or twist belt drive

Velocity ratio of belt drive

It is the ratio between the velocities of the driver and the follower or driven. It may be
expressed, mathematically, as discussed below:

133
V-belt drive

A V-belt is mostly used in factories and workshops where a great amount of power is to be
transmitted from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are very near to each other.

The V-belts are made of fabric and cords molded in rubber and covered with fabric and rubber,
as shown in Fig. below.

These belts are molded to a trapezoidal shape and are made endless. These are particularly
suitable for short drives i.e., when the shafts are at a short distance apart.

The included angle for the V-belt is usually from 30°- 40°. In case of flat belt drive, the belt
runs over the pulleys where as in case of V-belt drive, the rim of the pulley is grooved in which
the V-belt runs.

The effect of the groove is to increase the frictional grip of the V-belt on the pulley and thus to
reduce the tendency of slipping. In order to have a good grip on the pulley, the V-belt is in
contact with the side faces of the groove and not at the bottom.

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The power is transmitted by the wedging action between the belt and the V-groove in the
pulley. A clearance must be provided at the bottom of the groove in order to prevent touching
to the bottom as it becomes narrower from wear. The V-belt drive, may be inclined at any angle
with tight side either at top or bottom.

In order to increase the power output, several V belts may be operated side by side. It may be
noted that in multiple V-belt drive, all the belts should stretch at the same rate so that the load
is equally divided between them. When one of the set of belts break, the entire set should be
replaced at the same time. If only one belt is replaced, the new unworn and unstressed belt will
be more tightly stretched and will move with different velocity.

Rope Drives

The rope drives are widely used where a large amount of power is to be transmitted, from one
pulley to another, over a considerable distance.

It may be noted that the use of flat belts is limited for the transmission of moderate power from
one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not more than 8 meters apart.

If large amounts of power are to be transmitted, by the flat belt, then it would result in excessive
belt cross-section.

The rope drives use the following two types of ropes :

1. Fibre ropes and 2. Wire ropes.

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The fibre ropes operate successfully when the pulleys are about 60 meters apart, while the wire
ropes are used when the pulleys are up to 150 meters apart.

Sheave for Fiber Ropes

The fiber ropes are usually circular in cross-section as shown in Fig. (a). The sheave for the
fiber ropes, is shown in Fig. (b). The groove angle of the pulley for rope drives is usually 45°.

Flat belt pulleys

The pulleys are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of flat belts, V-belts
or ropes. The pulleys may be made of cast iron, cast steel or pressed steel, wood and paper. The
cast materials should have good friction and wear characteristics.

The pulleys made of pressed steel are lighter than cast pulleys, but in many cases they have
lower friction.

Types of Pulleys for Flat Belts

Following are the various types of pulleys for flat belts:

1. Cast iron pulleys, 2. Steel pulleys, 3. Wooden pulleys, 4. Paper pulleys, and 5. Fast and
loose pulleys.

136
Chain drives

137
Terms used in chain drives

Gear drives

Gearing is the most common type of drives in present-day mechanical engineering and
instrument making. Gear drives are intended to transmit motion with a predetermined change
of angular speed (or torque) in both magnitude and direction. In a gear drive, motion is

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transmitted from one shaft to another by means of direct contact of two toothed wheels. The
smaller wheel is usually referred to as the pinion and the larger, as the gear, although both are
gears in the strict sense of the word.

Being the same for both wheels in a pair, the symbols used to designate various gearing
parameters bear the subscript 1 for the pinion and 2 for the gear.

Advantages & Disadvantages of gear drives:

Advantages of gear drives are:

de range of loads and speeds.

maintainance.

Disadvantages:
therefore it is
costlier than other drives

proper
operation of gear drives

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Classifications of gear drives.

The gears or toothed wheels may be classified as follows:

According to the position of axes of the shafts:

The axes of the two shafts between which the motion is to be transmitted, may be

(a) Parallel (b) Intersecting (c) Non-intersecting and non-parallel.

According to the peripheral velocity of the gears:

I. Low Velocity: V is < 3 m/s.

II. Medium Velocity: V=3 to 15 m/s.

III. High Velocity: V is > 15m/s.

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 According to the type of gearing:

The gears, according to the type of gearing, may be classified as:

(a) External gearing (b) Internal gearing (c) Rack and pinion.

According to the position of teeth on the gear surface:

The teeth on the gear surface may be (a) Straight, (b) Inclined, and (c) Curved.

Gear Terminology.

1. Pitch circle: it is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the same
motion as the actual gear.

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2. Pitch circle diameter: it is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the gear is usually
specified by the pitch circle diameter. It is also called as Pitch Diameter.

3. Pitch point: It is a common point of contact between two pitch circles.

4. Pressure angle (Ф): it is the angle between the common normal to two gear teeth at the point
of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point. The standard pressure angles are 14ᵒ and
20ᵒ.

5. Addendum: it is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth.

6. Dedendum: it is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth.

7. Addendum circle: it is the circle drawn through the top of the teeth and is concentric with
the pitch circle.

8. Dedendum circle: It is the circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth. It is also called root
circle.

9. Circular pitch: it is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle from a
point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth.

10. Diametral pitch: it is the ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter in mm.

11. Module (m): it is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in mm to the number of teeth. The
recommended series of modules are 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40
and 50. The modules 1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, 36,
45 are of second choice.

12. Clearance: it is the radial distance from the top of the tooth to the bottom of the tooth, in a
meshing gear. A circle passing through the top of the meshing gear is known as clearance circle.

13. Total depth: it is the radial distance between the addendum and the Dedendum circle of a
gear. It is equal to the sum of the addendum and Dedendum.

14. Working depth: it is the radial distance from the addendum circle to the clearance circle, it
is equal to the sum of the addendum to the two meshing gears.

15. Tooth thickness: it is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch circle.

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16. Tooth space: it is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured along the
pitch circle.

17. Backlash: it is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness, as measured
on the pitch circle.

18. Face of the tooth: it is surface of the tooth above the pitch surface.

19. Top land: it is the surface of the top of the tooth.

20. Flank of the tooth: it is the surface of the tooth below the pitch surface.

21. Face width: it is the width of the gear tooth measured parallel to its axis.

22. Fillet radius: it is the radius that connect the root circle to the profile of the tooth.

Systems of Gear Teeth.

The following four systems of gear teeth are commonly used in practice.

1. 14 ½ Composite system.
2. 14 ½ Full depth Involute system.
3. 20ᵒ Full depth Involute system.
4. 20ᵒ Stub Involute system.

The 14 ½ Composite system is used for general purpose gears. It is stronger but has no
interchangeability. The tooth profile of this system has cycloidal curves at the top and bottom
and involute curve at the middle portion. The teeth are produced by formed milling cutters or
hobs.

The tooth profile of the 14 ½ Full depth Involute system was developed for use with gear hobs
for spur and helical gears.

The tooth profile of the 20ᵒ full depth involute system may be cut by hobs. The increase of the
pressure angle from 14 ½ to 20ᵒ results in a stronger tooth, because the tooth acting as a beam
is wider at the base.

The 20ᵒ stub involute system has a strong tooth to take heavy loads.

Design Considerations for gear drives.

In the design of a gear drive, the following data is usually given:

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 1. The power to be transmitted.
2. The speed of the driving gear,
3. The speed of the driven gear or the velocity ratio, and
4. The center distance.

The following requirements must be met in the design of a gear drive:

a) The gear teeth should have sufficient strength so that they will not fail under
static loading or dynamic loading during normal running conditions.
b) The gear teeth should have wear characteristics so that their life is
satisfactory.
c) The use of space and material should be economical.
d) The alignment of the gears and deflections of the shafts must be considered
because they effect on the performance of the gears.
e) The lubrication of the gears must be satisfactory.

Gear Materials.

The material used for the manufacture of gears depends upon the strength and service conditions
like wear, noise etc…. The gears may be manufactured from metallic or non- metallic materials.
The metallic gears with cut teeth are commercially obtainable in cast iron, steel, Aluminium,
Powdered metal and copper. The non-metallic materials like wood, rawhide, compressed paper
and synthetic resins like nylon are used for gears, especially for reducing noise.

CAST IRON: It is widely used for the manufacture of gears due to following properties.

Good wearing properties.

Excellent machinability (Like Dry cutting, dimensional stability, longer cutting life
and super surface finish).
Ease of producing complicated shapes by casting method.
Low manufacturing cost.

STEEL:

The steel is used for high strength gears and steel may be plain carbon steel or alloy
steel.

144
 The steel gears are usually heat treated in order to combine properly the toughness
and tooth hardness.

ALUMINIUM:

The metal is lightweight, non-corrosive and easy to machine.

The metal is malleable and has non-magnetic characteristics. Because it's malleable,
it can be molded to any shape.
Aluminum gears offer spark proof starting of the engine and offers high strength.
Aluminum gears offer smoother running, longer life and silent operation.
Aluminum gears are designed to resist wear for long lasting durability and maximum
performance.
Aluminum gear is protected with a coating of anodize Aluminum is widely used for
light duty instrument gears.
Aluminum gears are also used in aircraft industry but it has a drawback if an off-
airport landing has to be made on a rough terrain.

POWDERED METAL:

Powder metal makes excellent gears of high quality.

It creates quiet, self-lubricating gears.
They are many advantages in utilizing powder metal parts in any mechanical
assembly.
Very close tolerances and repeatability over millions of parts adds to the productivity
of automated assembly.
Excellent surface finishes create a high wear resistance part with longer life, adding
value to the product.
Powder metal gears create stronger gears that accommodate greater loads.
They tend to retain their dimension better as temperature and humidity changes.
They are less expensive and can be designed with less effort.
Powder metal parts are widely used for magnetic devices. The most common
materials used are silicon iron, phosphorous iron and high purity iron.

Selection of gear material.

These are some very critical matters that needs to be given a consideration before

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 selecting a gear material:
Allowable bending and hertz stress.
Wear resistance.
Impact strength.
Reliability.
Water and corrosion resistance.
Lubrication requirements.
Manufacturing cost.
No Moisture Absorption.
Size & Weight.
Dimensionally Stable.

Causes of Gear Tooth Failure

The different modes of failure of gear teeth and their possible remedies to avoid the failure, are
as follows:

Bending failure:

Every gear tooth acts as a cantilever. If the total repetitive dynamic load acting on the gear
tooth is greater than the beam strength of the gear tooth, then the gear tooth will fail in bending,
i.e., the gear tooth will break. In order to avoid such failure, the module and face width of the
gear is adjusted so that the beam strength is greater than the dynamic load.

Pitting:

It is the surface fatigue failure which occurs due to many repetitions of Hertz contact stresses.
The failure occurs when the surface contact stresses are higher than the endurance limit of the
material. The failure starts with the formation of pits which continue to grow resulting in the
rupture of the tooth surface. In order to avoid the pitting, the dynamic load between the gear
teeth should be less than the wear strength of the gear tooth.

Scoring:

The excessive heat is generated when there is an excessive surface pressure, high speed or
supply of lubricant fails. It is a stick-slip phenomenon in which alternate shearing and welding
takes place rapidly at high spots. This type of failure can be avoided by properly designing the

146
parameters such as speed, pressure and proper flow of the lubricant, so that the temperature at
the rubbing faces is within the permissible limits.

Abrasive wear:

The foreign particles in the lubricants such as dirt, dust or burr enter between the teeth and
damage the form of tooth. This type of failure can be avoided by providing filters for the
lubricating oil or by using high viscosity lubricant oil which enables the formation of thicker
oil film and hence permits easy passage of such particles without damaging the gear surface.

Corrosive wear:

The corrosion of the tooth surfaces is mainly caused due to the presence of corrosive elements
such as additives present in the lubricating oils. In order to avoid this type of wear, proper anti-
corrosive additives should be used.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

BEARINGS

1. Introduction

A bearing is a machine element which support another moving machine element (known as
journal). It permits a relative motion between the contact surfaces of the members, while
carrying the load. A little consideration will show that due to the relative motion between the
contact surfaces, a certain amount of power is wasted in overcoming frictional resistance and
if the rubbing surfaces are in direct contact, there will be rapid wear. In order to reduce frictional
resistance and wear and in some cases to carry away the heat generated; a layer of fluid (known
as lubricant) may be provided. The lubricant used to separate the journal and bearing is usually
a mineral oil refined from petroleum, but vegetable oils, silicon oils, greases etc., may be used.

2. Classification of Bearings

Though the bearings may be classified in many ways, yet the following are important from the
subject point of view:

a) Depending upon the direction of load to be supported. The bearings under this group are
classified as: (a) Radial bearings, and (b) Thrust bearings.
In radial bearings, the load acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the moving element
as shown in Fig.
In thrust bearings, the load acts along the axis of rotation as shown in Fig.1
Note: These bearings may move in either of the directions as shown in Fig.1

148
 (a) Radial bearing. (b)
Radial bearing.
(c) Thrust bearing

b) Depending upon the nature

of contact. The bearings under this group are classified as:
(a) Sliding contact bearings, and (b) Rolling contact bearings.

In sliding contact bearings, as shown in Fig., the sliding takes place along the surfaces of contact
between the moving, element and the fixed element. The sliding contact bearings are also
known as plain bearings.
In rolling contact bearings, as shown in Fig. 2(b), the steel balls or rollers, are interposed
between the moving and fixed elements. The balls offer rolling friction at two points for each

ball or roller.

Terms used in hydrodynamic Journal Bearing

A hydrodynamic journal bearing is shown in Fig. 3, in which O is the centre of the journal and
O’ is the centre of the bearing.
Let D = Diameter of the bearing,
d = Diameter of the journal, and
l = Length of the bearing.

149
The following terms used in hydrodynamic journal bearing are important from the subject point
of view:
i. Diametral clearance. It the difference between the diameters of the bearing and the journal.
Mathematically, diametral clearance,
c=D–d
Note . The diametral clearance (c) in a bearing should be small enough to produce the necessary
velocity gradient, so that the pressure built up will support the load. Also, the small clearance
has the advantage of decreasing side leakage. However, the allowance must be made for
manufacturing tolerances in the journal and bushing. A commonly used clearance in industrial
machines is 0.025 mm per cm of journal diameter.

ii. Radial clearance. It is the difference between the radii of the bearing and the journal.
Mathematically, radial clearance,

iii. Diametral clearance ratio.

It is the ratio of the diametral clearance to the diameter of the journal. Mathematically,

Diametral clearance ratio

iv. Eccentricity. It is the radial distance between the centre (O) of the bearing and the displaced
centre (O’) of the bearing under load. It is denoted by e.
v. Minimum oil film thickness. It is the minimum distance between the bearing and the
journal, under complete lubrication condition. It is denoted by ho and occurs at the line of
centres as shown in Fig. 3. Its value may be assumed as c / 4.
vi. Attitude or eccentricity ratio. It is the ratio of the eccentricity to the radial clearance.
Mathematically, attitude or eccentricity ratio,

150
 , c1= c/2

vii. Short and long bearing. If the ratio of the length to the diameter of the journal (i.e., l /d)
is less than 1, then the bearing is said to be short bearing. On the other hand, if l /d is greater
than 1, then the bearing is known as long bearing.
Notes: 1. When the length of the journal (1) is equal to the diameter of the journal (d), then the
bearing is called square bearing. (2) Because of the side leakage of the lubricant from the
bearing, the pressure in the film is atmospheric at the ends of the bearing. The average pressure
will be higher for a long bearing than for a short or square bearing. Therefore, from the stand
point of side leakage, a bearing with a large l /d ratio is preferable. However, space
requirements, manufacturing, tolerances and shaft deflections are better met with a short
bearing. The value of l /d may be taken as 1 to 2 for general industrial machinery. In crank
shaft bearings, the l /d ratio is frequently less than 1.

Bearing Characteristic Number and Bearing Modulus for Journal Bearings

The coefficient of friction in design of bearings is of great importance, because it affords a

means for determining the loss of power due to bearing friction. It has been shown by
experiments that the coefficient of friction for a full lubricated journal bearing is a function of
three variables, i.e.

Therefore, the coefficient of friction may be expressed as

ZN d l
, ,
P c d

Where = Coefficient of friction

= A functional relationship,
Z = Absolute viscosity of the lubricant, in kg / m-s,
N = Speed of the journal in r.p.m.,

151
 p = Bearing pressure on the projected bearing area in N/mm2,
= Load on the journal ÷ l d
d = Diameter of the journal,
l = Length of the bearing, and
c = Diametral clearance.

The factor ZN / p is termed as bearing

characteristic number and is a dimensionless
number. The variation of coefficient of
friction with the operating values of bearing
characteristic number (ZN/p) as obtained by
McKee brothers (S.A. McKee and T.R.
McKee) in an actual test of friction is shown
in Fig. 4. The factor ZN/p helps to predict the
performance of a bearing.
The part of the curve PQ represents the region
of thick film lubrication. Between Q and R,
the viscosity (Z) or the speed (N) are so low,
or the pressure (p) is so great that their combination ZN/p will reduce the film thickness so that
partial metal to metal contact will result. The thin film or boundary lubrication or im erfect
Fig. 4
lubrication exists between R and S on the curve.

This is the region where the viscosity of the lubricant ceases to be a measure of friction
characteristics but the oiliness of the lubricant is effective in preventing complete metal to metal
contact and seizure of the parts.

1. It may be noted that the part PQ of the curve represents stable operating conditions,
since from any point of stability, a decrease in viscosity (Z) will reduce ZN/p. This
will result in a decrease in coefficient of friction ( ) followed by a lowering of
bearing temperature that will raise the viscosity (Z).

From Fig.4, we see that the minimum amount of friction occurs at A and at this point the value
of ZN/p is known as bearing modulus which is denoted by K. The bearing should not be
operated at this value of bearing modulus, because slight decrease in speed or slight increase

152
in pressure will break the oil film and make the journal operate with metal to metal contact.
This will result in high friction, wear and heating. In order to prevent such conditions, the
bearing should be a designed for a value of ZN/p at least three times
the minimum value of bearing modulus (K). If the bearing is subjected to large fluctuations of
load and heavy impacts, the value of ZN/p = 15 K may be used.
From above, it is concluded that when the value of ZN/p is greater than K, then the bearing will
operate with thick film lubrication or under hydrodynamic conditions. On the other hand, when
value of ZN/p is less than K, then the oil film will rupture and there is a metal-to-metal contact.
Coefficient of Friction for Journal Bearings
In order to determine the coefficient of friction for well lubricated full journal bearings, The
following empirical relation established by McKee based on the experimental data, may be
used.
Coefficient of friction,

…(when Z is in kg / m-s and p is in N/mm2)

where Z, N, p, d and c have usual meanings as discussed in previous article, and

k = Factor to correct for end leakage. It depends upon the ratio of length
to the diameter of the bearing (i.e. l/d).
= 0.002 for l /d ratios of 0.75 to 2.8.
The operating values of ZN/p should be compared with values given in Table 3 to ensure
safe margin between operating conditions and the point of film breakdown.
Critical Pressure of the Journal Bearing

The pressure at which the oil film breaks down so that metal to metal contact begins, is known
as critical pressure or the minimum operating pressure of the bearing. It may be obtained by
the following empirical relation, i.e., Critical pressure or minimum operating pressure,

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Sommerfeld Number

The Sommerfeld number is also a dimensionless parameter used extensively in the design of
journal bearings. Mathematically,

Heat Generated in a Journal Bearing

The heat generated in a bearing is due to the fluid friction and friction of the parts having
relative motion. Mathematically, heat generated in a bearing,

Qg = m.W.V N-m/s or J/s or watts …(i)

where m = Coefficient of friction,
W = Load on the bearing in N,
= Pressure on the bearing in N/mm2 x Projected area of the bearing
in mm2 = p (l x d),
dN
V = Rubbing velocity in rn/s = , d is in meters, and
60

N = Speed of the journal in r.p.m.

After the thermal equilibrium has been reached, heat will be dissipated at the outer surface of
the bearing at the same rate at which it is generated in the oil film.
For design purposes, its value is taken as follows:

The amount of heat dissipated will depend upon the temperature difference, size and mass of
the radiating surface and on the amount of air flowing around the bearing. However, for the
convenience in bearing design, the actual heat dissipating area may be expressed in terms of
the projected area of the journal.

154
Rolling contact bearings

Selection of Radial Ball Bearings

In order to select a most suitable ball bearing, first of all, the basic dynamic radial load is
calculated. It is then multiplied by the service factor (KS) to get the design basic dynamic radial
load capacity. The service factor for the ball bearings is shown in table.

155
Lubrication of Ball and Roller Bearings

The ball and roller bearings are lubricated for the following purposes:

1. To reduce friction and wear between the sliding parts of the bearing,
2. To prevent rusting or corrosion of the bearing surfaces,
3. To protect the bearing surfaces from water, dirt etc., and
4. To dissipate the heat.

In general, oil or light grease is used for lubricating ball and roller bearings. Only pure mineral
oil or a calcium-base grease should be used. If there is a possibility of moisture contact, then
potassium or sodium-base greases may be used. Another additional advantage of the grease is
that it forms a seal to keep out dirt or any other foreign substance. It may be noted that too
much oil or grease cause the temperature of the bearing to rise due to churning. The temperature
should be kept below 90ºC and in no case a bearing should operate above 150ºC.

156
 CHAPTER SIX
LUBRICATIONS
Introduction

The object of lubrication is to reduce friction, wear, and heating of machine parts that Move
relative to each other. A lubricant is any substance that, when inserted between the moving
surfaces, accomplishes these purposes. In a sleeve bearing, a shaft, or journal, rotates or
oscillates within a sleeve, or bushing, and the relative motion is sliding.

In an antifriction bearing, the main relative motion is rolling. A follower may either roll or slide
on the cam. Gear teeth mate with each other by a combination of rolling and sliding. Pistons
slide within their cylinders. All these applications require lubrication to reduce friction, wear,
and heating.

The lubricants are used in bearings to reduce friction between the rubbing surfaces and to carry
away the heat generated by friction. It also protects the bearing against corrosion.

Types of lubrication

Five distinct forms of lubrication may be identified:

Hydrodynamic
Hydrostatic
Elasto-hydrodynamic
Boundary
Solid film
Hydrodynamic

Hydrodynamic lubrication means that the load-carrying surfaces of the bearing are separated
by a relatively thick film of lubricant, so as to prevent metal-to-metal contact, and that the
stability thus obtained can be explained by the laws of fluid mechanics.

Hydrodynamic lubrication does not depend upon the introduction of the lubricant under
pressure, though that may occur; but it does require the existence of an adequate supply at all
times. The film pressure is created by the moving surface itself pulling the lubricant into a
wedge-shaped zone at a velocity sufficiently high to create the pressure necessary to separate

157
the surfaces against the load on the bearing. Hydrodynamic lubrication is also called full-film,
or fluid, lubrication.

Hydrostatic

Hydrostatic lubrication is obtained by introducing the lubricant, which is sometimes air or

water, into the load-bearing area at a pressure high enough to separate the surfaces with a
relatively thick film of lubricant. So, unlike hydrodynamic lubrication, this kind of lubrication
does not require motion of one surface relative to another. We shall not deal with hydrostatic
lubrication in this book, but the subject should be considered in designing bearings where the
velocities are small or zero and where the frictional resistance is to be an absolute minimum.

Elasto-hydrodynamic

Elastohydrodynamic lubrication is the phenomenon that occurs when a lubricant is introduced

between surfaces that are in rolling contact, such as mating gears or rolling bearings. The
mathematical explanation requires the Hertzian theory of contact stress and fluid mechanics.

Boundary lubrication

Insufficient surface area, a drop in the velocity of the moving surface, a lessening in the quantity
of lubricant delivered to a bearing, an increase in the bearing load, or an increase in lubricant
temperature resulting in a decrease in viscosity—any one of these—may prevent the buildup
of a film thick enough for full-film lubrication. When this happens, the highest asperities may
be separated by lubricant films only several molecular dimensions in thickness. This is called
boundary lubrication. The change from hydrodynamic to boundary lubrication is not at all a
sudden or abrupt one. It is probable that a mixed hydrodynamic- and boundary-type lubrication
occurs first, and as the surfaces move closer together, the boundary-type lubrication becomes
predominant.

The viscosity of the lubricant is not of as much importance with boundary lubrication as is the
chemical composition.

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Solid film

bearings must be operated When at extreme temperatures, a solid-film lubricant such as graphite
or molybdenum disulfide must be used because the ordinary mineral oils are not satisfactory.
Much research is currently being carried out in an effort, too, to find composite bearing
materials with low wear rates as well as small frictional coefficients.

Classification of lubricant

All lubricants are classified into the following three groups:

1. Liquid, 2. Semi-liquid, and 3. Solid.

Liquid lubricant

The liquid lubricants usually used in bearings are mineral oils and synthetic oils. The mineral
oils are most commonly used because of their cheapness and stability.The liquid lubricants are
usually preferred where they may be retained.

Semi-liquid lubricant

A grease is a semi-liquid lubricant having higher viscosity than oils. The greases are employed
where slow speed and heavy pressure exist and where oil drip from the bearing is undesirable.

Solid lubricant

The solid lubricants are useful in reducing friction where oil films cannot be maintained because
of pressures or temperatures. They should be softer than materials being lubricated. A graphite
is the most common of the solid lubricants either alone or mixed with oil or grease.

Properties of lubricant

Viscosity.

It is the measure of degree of fluidity of a liquid. It is a physical property by virtue of which an

oil is able to form, retain and offer resistance to shearing a buffer film-under heat and pressure.
The greater the heat and pressure, the greater viscosity is required of a lubricant to prevent
thinning and squeezing out of the film.

The fundamental meaning of viscosity may be understood by considering a flat plate moving
under a force P parallel to a stationary plate, the two plates being separated by a thin film of a

159
fluid lubricant of thickness h. The particles of the lubricant adhere strongly to the moving and
stationary plates. The motion is accompanied by a linear slip or shear between the particles

Throughout the entire height (h) of the film thickness. If A is the area of the plate in contact
with the lubricant, then the unit shear stress is given by

Oiliness

It is a joint property of the lubricant and the bearing surfaces in contact. It is a measure of the
lubricating qualities under boundary conditions where base metal to metal is prevented only by
absorbed film. There is no absolute measure of oiliness.

Density

This property has no relation to lubricating value but is useful in changing the kinematic
viscosity to absolute viscosity.

Flash point

It is the lowest temperature at which an oil gives off sufficient vapour to support a momentary
flash without actually setting fire to the oil when a flame is brought within 6 mm at the surface
of the oil.

Fire point

It is the temperature at which an oil gives off sufficient vapour to burn it continuously when
ignited.

Pour point or freezing point

It is the temperature at which an oil will cease to flow when cooled.

Thick-Film Lubrication

Let us now examine the formation of a lubricant film in a journal bearing. when a journal that
is just beginning to rotate in a clockwise direction. Under starting conditions, the bearing will
be dry, or at least partly dry, and hence the journal will climb or roll up the right side of the
bearing.

Now suppose a lubricant is introduced into the top of the bearing. The action of the rotating
journal is to pump the lubricant around the bearing in a clockwise direction. The lubricant is
pumped into a wedge-shaped space and forces the journal over to the other side. A minimum

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film thickness h0 occurs, not at the bottom of the journal, but displaced clockwise from the
bottom. This is explained by the fact that a film pressure in the converging half of the film
reaches a maximum somewhere to the left of the bearing center. Decide whether the journal,
under hydrodynamic lubrication, is eccentrically located on the right or on the left side of the
bearing. Visualize the journal beginning to rotate. Find the side of the bearing upon which the
journal tends to roll. Then, if the lubrication is hydrodynamic, mentally place the journal on
the opposite side.

Hydrodynamic Theory

The present theory of hydrodynamic lubrication originated in the laboratory of Beauchamp

Tower in the early 1880s in England. Tower had been employed to study the friction in railroad
journal bearings and learn the best methods of lubricating them. It was an accident or error,
during the course of this investigation, that prompted Tower to look at the problem in more
detail and that resulted in a discovery that eventually led to the development of the theory.

Finally, Tower, investigated the bearing film pressures in detail throughout the Bearing width
and length. The results obtained by Tower had such regularity that Osborne Reynolds
concluded that there must be a definite equation relating the friction, the pressure, and the
velocity. The present mathematical theory of lubrication is based upon Reynolds’ work
following the experiment by Tower.

Reynolds pictured the lubricant as adhering to both surfaces and being pulled by the moving
surface into a narrowing, wedge-shaped space so as to create a fluid or film pressure of
sufficient intensity to support the bearing load. One of the important simplifying assumptions
resulted from Reynolds’ realization that the fluid films were so thin in comparison with the
bearing radius that the curvature could be neglected. This enabled him to replace the curved
partial bearing with a flat bearing, called a plane slider bearing. Other assumptions made were:

1 The lubricant obeys Newton’s viscous effect.

2 The forces due to the inertia of the lubricant are neglected.

3 The lubricant is assumed to be incompressible.

4 The viscosity is assumed to be constant throughout the film.

5 The pressure does not vary in the axial direction

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 CHAPTER ONE

THE BASICS OF MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT AND THEIR SELECTION

Chapter Objectives:

After completing this unit, students will be able to:

Define material handling equipment
Explain the importance of material handling equipment
Classification and Application of Materials Handling Equipment
Principle of Materials Handling

1. 1 Introduction

Material handling can be defined as the art and science of conveying, elevating, positioning,
transporting, packaging, and storing materials regardless of size, form, and weight affecting saving
in money, time, and place. Expressed in simple language, materials handling is the loading,
moving, and unloading of materials. To do it safely and economically, different types of tackles,
gadgets, and equipment are used, when the materials handling is referred to as mechanical handling
of materials. Materials handling uses different equipment and mechanisms called Materials
Handling Equipment.

In any industry, be it big or small, involving manufacturing or construction type work, materials
have to be handled as raw materials, intermediate goods, or finished products from the point of
receipt and storage of raw materials, through production processes and up to finished goods storage
and dispatch points. Materials handling as such is not a production process and hence does not add
to the value of the product. It also costs money; therefore, it should be eliminated or at least reduced
as much as possible. However, the important point in favor of materials handling is that it helps
production. Depending on the weight, volume, and throughput of materials, mechanical handling
of materials may become unavoidable. In many cases, mechanical handling reduces the cost of
manual handling of materials, where such material handling is highly desirable. All these facts
indicate that the type and extent of use of materials handling should be carefully designed to suit
the application and become cost-effective.

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 Figure 1.1 Movement of Materials in Manufacturing Facility
In short, consider an industrial plant as a black box. The input (raw material or semi-finished
product) is unloaded, stored in the raw material store, feed into the handling equipment in the plant,
processed, and finally the output (semi-finished or finished products) is again stored in the finished
product store until loading it into the destination required.

Figure 1. 2 Flow of Materials in an Industrial Facility

Material handling is the function of moving the right material to the right place at the right time,
in the right amount, in sequence, and in the right condition to minimize production costs.

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The essential requirements of a good materials handling system may be: -
Efficient and safe movement of materials to the desired place.
Timely movement of the materials when needed.
Supply of materials at the desired rate.
Storing of materials utilizing minimum space.
Lowest cost solution to the materials handling activities.

Dear learner, Define what Material Handling Equipment (MHE) are?

The functional scope of materials handling within an industry covers the following:
Bulk materials as well as unit materials handling. Bulk handling is particularly relevant in the
processing, mining, and construction industries. Unit materials handling covers the handling of
formed materials in the initial, intermediate, and final stages of manufacture.
Industrial packaging of in-process materials, semi-finished or finished goods, primarily from
the point of view of ease and safety of handling, storage, and transportation. However,
consumer packaging is not directly related to materials handling.
Handling of materials for storage or warehousing from raw materials to finished product stage

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1.2 Importance of Materials Handling

The foremost importance of materials handling is that it helps productivity and thereby increases
profitability of an industry. Many enterprises go out of business because of inefficient materials
handling practices. In many instances, it is seen that competing industries are using the same or
similar production equipment, and one who uses improved materials handling system stays ahead
of its competitors. A well-designed materials handling system attempts to achieve the following:

(i) Improve the efficiency of a production system by ensuring the right quantity of
materials delivered at the right place at the right time most economically.
(ii) Cut down indirect labor costs.
(iii) Reduce damage to materials during storage and movement.
(iv) Maximize space utilization by proper storage of materials and thereby reduce storage
and handling cost.
(v) Minimize accidents during materials handling.
(vi) Reduce overall cost by improving materials handling.
(vii) Improve customer services by supplying materials in a manner convenient for
handlings
(viii) Increase efficiency and saleability of plant and equipment with integral materials
handling features.

All the above points clearly show the importance of materials handling in an industry or a material
transportation system. However, the negative aspects of material handling should also not be
overlooked. These are:
(i) Additional capital cost involved in any materials handling system.
(ii) Once a materials handling system gets implemented, flexibility for further changes gets
greatly reduced.
(iii)With an integrated materials handling system installed, failure/stoppage in any portion of
it leads to increased downtime of the production system.
(iv) Materials handling system needs maintenance, hence any addition to materials handling
means additional maintenance facilities and costs.

Dear learner, what are the positive and negative aspects of material handling?

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 1.3 Classification and Application of Materials Handling Equipment

It is clear that material handling plays a vital role in industrial plant operations. A good materials
handling system is flexible, compatible, and reliable. By flexibility, we mean that the handling
equipment has the capacity to respond to or confirm new situations easily, while compatibility
requires the number of varieties of models and makes of equipment to be reduced. The ability of
materials handling equipment and system to operate safely, frequently, and reliably has become
increasingly important. A good handling system may have the following benefits.
i. Reduce cost by
Increasing productivity
Making a few numbers of effective movements
Utilizing space to better advantage
ii. Reduce waste by
Eliminating damage to materials during the handling process
Maintaining proper control over the in- and out of stock handling process
iii. Improve working conditions by
Providing safer working conditions
Worker fatigue
iv. Improve working conditions by
Providing a better organization of storage facilities
v. Improve working conditions by
by supplying materials in a manner convenient for handlings
vi. Improve working conditions by
by proper storage of materials and
thereby reducing storage and handling cost
The general field of Material handling is technically divided into five distinct functional divisions:
1. Bulk Handling: It involves the extracting, handling, and storage of bulk materials including
gases, liquids, semi-liquids, and solids. These processes apply particularly in the processing
industries, basic heavy industries, and construction industries.

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2. Unit handling: In manufacturing operations, it covers the handling of formed materials in the
initial, intermediate and final stages of manufacture. It involves the handling of unit loads
ranging from pins to locomotives.
3. Packaging: Covers the design, selection, and use of in-process containers, and included
packing of semi-finished and finished products
4. Warehousing: The area covered by warehousing includes the receiving, storing, and shipping
of materials in any form, and at any point in the process of manufacture and distribution.
5. Carrier Handling: It covers the loading, transporting, unloading, and transfer of all kinds of
materials in highway trucks railway cars, barges, ships, airlines, and carrier terminals.
Materials handling equipment is further classified into three groups based on their design features
a. Hoisting equipment: A group of machines with lifting gear intended for moving loads mainly
in batches. This type of equipment is intended mainly for unit loads Hoisting machinery, cranes
and elevators belong to this group.
b. Conveying equipment: A group of machines, which may have no lifting gear and which move
the load in a continuous flow. They are intended for bulk and unit loads one at a time
c. Surface and overhead equipment: A group of machines that may not be provided with lifting
gear and which usually handle loads in batches. Trackless trucks and narrow-gauge cars belong
to this group
The application of materials handling is very wide. It is worthwhile to list a few of them.

1. Manufacturing Industry: The handling of all kinds of materials in the process of

manufacturing represents probably the largest single field for the extensive use of a wide
range of material handling equipment.

2. Building Construction Industry: The architect must familiarize himself with the aspects
of building planning and construction that involves the proper receiving storing, storing,
and moving of materials.

3. Heavy Construction Industry: Modern materials handling methods and equipment for
handling construction materials and for large-scale movement of earth and road building
operations have greatly influenced civil engineers in the planning and performance of
heavy construction works.

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 4. Mining Industry: In both underground mines and open pit operations, the use of new
materials handling methods and equipment in the extraction, handling, and transportation
of coal and ore have cut the cost of extracting the materials mined to a mere fraction of the
former expenditure.

5. Food Industry: The proper choice of materials handling method and equipment highly
influences industries like grain, flour, cereal, meat packers, sugar mills, breweries, canning
plants, bakery and confectionery, and ice and cold storage.

6. Automotive Industry: This is the area where recent development of materials handling
equipment is widely applied. This category includes industries such as automobiles,
railroads, truck aircraft, ships, etc.

1.4 Design of Material Handling Systems

A common approach to the design of Material Handling Systems (MHSs) is to consider material
handling as a cost to be minimized. This approach may be the most appropriate in many situations
because, while material handling can add real value to a product, it is usually difficult to identify
and quantify the benefits associated with material handling; it is much easier to identify and
quantify the costs of material handling (e.g., the cost of material handling equipment, the cost of
indirect material handling labor, etc.). Once the design of a production process (exclusive of
material handling considerations) is completed, alternate material handling system designs are
generated, each of which satisfies the material handling requirements of the production process.
The least-cost material handling system design is then selected.

The appropriateness of the use of material handling system cost as the sole criterion to select a
material handling design depends on the degree to which the other aspects of the production
process are able to be changed. If a completely new facility and production process is being
designed, then the total cost of production is the most appropriate criterion to use in selecting a
material handling system the lowest cost MHS may not result in the lowest total cost of production.
If it is too costly to even consider changing the basic layout of a facility and the production process,
then MHS cost is the only criterion that needs to be considered. In practice, it is difficult to consider
all of the components of total production cost simultaneously, even if a new facility and production

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process is being designed. Aspects of the design that have the largest impact on total cost are at
some point fixed and become constraints with respect to the remaining aspects of the design.

Dear learner, can you describe Principles of Materials Handling?

1.5 Principles of Materials Handling

The word principle means, in the context of materials handling, a prescribed rule or guide to
accepted procedures, established through past experience, which is taken for granted or accepted
as authoritative by practitioners. Certain fundamental principles for analyzing and designing
solutions to materials handling problems have been developed over a period of time based on the
experience of many materials handling experts. These can be used as general guide by any fresh
materials handling practitioner, for analyzing a material handling problem and arriving at a solution
to same. Many of the materials handling problems may be initially treated by these principles
before undertaking detailed technical analysis. In certain materials handling problems, these
principles may become the only resort to an acceptable solution where the exact analysis is too
costly or difficult. A set of twenty principles of materials handling, is stated and briefly explained
below. Certain specific suggestions have also been added for carrying out the respective principles
into practice.

1. Planning Principle

All handling activities should be planned. This is the most basic principle of the Materials
Handling. Suggestions for carrying out planning principles are:
Consider the plant layout before equipment / system design.
Plan correct location for materials supply and disposal. Plan for scrap removal.
Assure adequate storage space at the workplace.
Avoid placing materials directly on the floor. Place product on a pallet, skid etc. at the
beginning of the process.
Use same container throughout the materials movement, as far as practicable.
Observe principles of motions economy.
Plan productive operations and inspections during material movement, if possible.
Use judicious amount of manual handling

2. Systems Principle

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Integrate as many handling activities as possible encompassing full scope of operations like
receiving, storage, production, inspection, packaging, warehousing, shipping/transportation.
Suggestions:

Consider the entire scope of the handling activities, beyond the scope of immediate concern.
Integrate operations into handling systems like processing, inspection, packaging etc.
Avoid/ minimize intermediate storage.
While designing a materials handling system, the practices/requirements of the suppliers,
clients and transporters are to be considered.
Allow necessary flexibility considering future requirements/emergencies.

3. Material Flow Principle

Plan operations sequence and equipment arrangement to optimize material flow.

Suggestions:
Eliminate obstacles from material flow.
Plan material movement in a direct path (avoid backtracking, zig-zag movements etc.)
Use product layout whenever possible.
Keep related work areas close together.
Combine operations to reduce material movement.
Minimize movement between floors.
Move bulky / weighty materials the least distance.
Process heavy / bulky materials close to receiving

4. Simplification Principle

Reduce, combine or eliminate unnecessary movement and/or equipment. It increases efficiency of

materials handling.
Suggestions:
Apply principles of motions economy. Avoid unnecessary handling. Eliminate re-handling as
much as possible.
Plan direct moves. Reduce or eliminate long, awkward or complicated moves.
Deliver materials at correct location first time.
Use material out of original container.
Avoid use of variety of equipment types, sizes and makes.

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 Plan adequate material handling equipment capacity.
Do not mechanize unnecessarily

5. Gravity Principle

Utilize gravity to move material whenever practicable.

Suggestions:

Use roller conveyors, slides, chutes between equipment/processes.

Use ramps between varying work or floor levels.
Use sloping floor when materials movement by hand truck is mainly in one direction.
Use spiral chutes to feed machines at different floors.

6. Space Utilization Principle

Make optimum use of building volume.

Suggestions:
Space equipment/processes close together.
Eliminate or reduce temporary storage of materials.
Stack materials to use building height.
Use racks to permit higher stacking.
Use stacking containers to permit stacking.
Exercise economic order quantities to reduce inventory.
Clean storage areas and dispose scrap regularly.
Use narrow aisle handling equipment to reduce aisle width.

7. Unit Size Principle

Increase quantity, size, weight of loads handled.

Suggestions:
Examine possibility of unitization of loads.
Use containers for unitization of loads.
Procure materials in larger units.
Design load size to make optimum use of handling equipment capacity.

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8. Safety Principle

Handling methods and handling equipment use must be safe.

Suggestions:
Provide adequate guards & safety devices on materials handling equipment.
Do not overload materials handling equipment.
Maintain floor in good condition.
Provide adequate shop lighting.
Provide good housekeeping.
Use mirror at aisle intersections.
Materials handling equipment operators should be properly trained.
Stack / unstuck materials safely.
Keep materials handling equipment in proper condition and do not use defective
equipment.
Use mechanical handling equipment for difficult handling activities and to handle
dangerous/
hazardous materials.
Use proper personal protective gears during handling materials.

9. Mechanization/Automation Principle

When appropriate, use mechanized or automatic materials handling equipment.

Suggestions:

Consider mechanized system in the following cases:

(a) Large quantities or volumes of materials, (b) Repetitive movement, (c) Long moves,
(d) Hazardous move/materials, (e) Two man lifting, moving tasks, (f) Excess manual handling,
(g) Replacing large number of persons involved in handling, (h) Heavy materials, (i) Scrap
removal, (j) Feeding/unloading of high-speed automated production machines.
Do not over mechanize.

10. Equipment Selection Principle

Before selecting materials handling equipment, consider all aspects of materials handling,
e.g., materials to be handled, moves to be made, methods to be utilized.

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Suggestion;
Select versatile equipment.
Select standardized equipment.
Consider unitization of load for handling.
Select capacity judiciously. Provide additional capacity based on future plan.
Compare alternatives based on cost of handling

11. Standardization Principle

Materials handling methods and equipment should be standardized to the extent possible.
Suggestions:
Use standardized containers.
Purchase standard types and sizes of equipment.
Use standard sizes of pallets to fit products, bay sizes, equipment and transport trucks.

12. Flexibility Principle

Use methods and equipment, which can perform different tasks and applications.
Suggestions:
Buy flexible equipment like Fork Lift Truck, Conveyor etc.
Use variable speed drives.
Make use of attachment & accessories.
Use four ways pallets, skids and containers.
Utilize mobile in favor of fixed equipment (e.g., trucks in favor of fixed conveyors)

13. Dead-Weight Principle

Reduce the dead-weight movement.

Suggestions:
Movable materials handling equipment should be made of lightweight materials like
aluminum, magnesium etc.
Use lightweight, pallets, skids, containers etc.
Consider expendable pallets, containers etc.
Select lightweight equipment for light load.

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14. Motion Principle

Stoppage of mobile equipment should be minimum.

Suggestions:
Reduce loading/unloading time.
Load/unload while materials handling equipment is in motion, if possible.
Use mechanized loading/unloading equipment.
Use self-loading/unloading equipment like lift truck.
Plan materials movement on both ways movement of materials handling equipment.
Use equipment where carrying device is attached to motive unit like platform-type trucks,
trailers etc.
Use pallets, skids etc. to hasten loading/unloading.
Use devices like tipplers, bottom discharge containers etc.

15. Idle Time Principle

Reduce idle or unproductive time of both materials handling equipment and manpower. This
principle is similar to motion principle, so far as materials handling equipment are concerned,
hence same suggestions are applicable. Additional suggestions for ‘‘manpower’’ are:
Deliver materials at proper rate so that operators are not idle for materials.
Use indirect labor for materials handling.
Install handling equipment to reduce labor.
Combine jobs i.e., one man handles two or
more machines or jobs

16. Maintenance Principle

Do schedule maintenance and repair work of all materials handling equipment to minimize outage.
Suggestions:
Train operators/maintenance personnel properly.
Follow maintenance procedures as per manufacturers' recommendations.
Operators should check conditions daily and report.
Do repair/maintenance to avoid breakdowns.
Establish preventive maintenance program

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 Maintain adequate spares.
Standardize equipment to reduce spares.
Avoid over maintenance.
Avoid over loading of materials handling equipment.

17. Obsolescence Principle

Replace obsolete handling methods and equipment by more efficient methods or equipment to
improve operations.
Suggestions:
Establish a definite replacement policy.
Rent or lease new equipment to tryout.
Keep up-to-date as to what is new in the market through books, journals, expositions,
factory visits, conference, manufacturers' representatives etc.

18. Control Principle

Use materials handling equipment to improve production & inventory control and order
handling.
Suggestions:
Move materials in lots, batches, containers of a predetermined quantity and size.
Use containers with wire mesh for visual checking/counting.
Synchronize materials handling with production.
Coordinate materials handling program with purchasing and production.
Use mechanized handling.

19. Capacity Principle

Use Materials Handling so that full production capacity can be achieved.

Suggestions:
Use mechanical handling systems for uniform flow of materials.
Operate equipment at optimum rate.
Plan to utilize return run of the materials handling equipment.
Make full use of building volume.
Change size, shape of unit load to utilize space, equipment and manpower.

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 Use outdoor or rented storage space, when necessary.
Widen aisle ways to speed materials movement.

20. Performance Principle

Select materials handling systems with higher efficiency, measured in terms of expenses
per unit load handled.
Suggestions:
Identify all possible units, which could be used as a basis for comparison.
Select common, convenient, standard equipment.
Use versatile equipment.

1.6 Review Questions

1. State the factors that to be considered while selecting and implementing efficient and suitable
materials handling equipment.
2. Discuss the three main groups of the material handling equipment when they are threated
according to their design features.
3. What factors will be considered when selecting the most effective and economical loading and
unloading equipment.
4. What is the difference between Mechanization and Automation?

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 CHAPTER TWO

2. THEORY OF THE HOISTING EQUIPMENT

2.1 Introduction

Hosting equipment are usually powered equipment used for lifting and lowering unit and varying
loads intermittently. In certain equipment while lifting and lowering, shifting of the load can also
be accomplished, within an area known as the reach of the equipment. The primary function of
hoisting equipment is transferring through lifting and lowering operations. A variety of equipment
fall under the heading of hoisting equipment starting from hoists, different types of elevators and
cranes. Excepting for elevators, this equipment generally utilizes a drum, wire rope, pulleys and
load lifting attachments for performing the lifting and lowering (i.e., hoisting) motions. Hoisting
equipment can be stationary, portable or travelling type. Often hoisting equipment are mounted on
powered vehicles like truck, rail or ship, when the movement of the lifted load is not limited to a
fixed area of operation. There are different types of hoisting equipment whose accurate
classification is difficult.
There are three groups of hoisting equipment having the following main distinctive features.
i. Hoisting machines: a group of periodic action devices designed as self-lifting gears for
hoisting and moving loads.
ii. Cranes: a combination of separate hoisting mechanism with a frame for lifting and/or moving
loads.
iii. Elevators: a group of periodic action machine intended for raising loads with guide – ways
The main technical parameters of hoisting machines are:
lifting capacity: the maximum safe load a machine is designed to handle
Dead weight of the machine: the total weight of the machine without load
Speed of various movements: this may be the hoisting speed, the bridge travel speed and the
trolley traveling speed
lifting height: the height to which the load is intended to be raised.

Dear Learner, what are the three main groups of hoisting equipment, and discuss the
main technical parameter of hoisting machinery.

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2.2 Flexible hoisting appliances

The needs of hoisting machinery in flexible members are met widely by hemp rope, welded and
roller chains, and steel wire ropes.

1. Hemp Ropes

Because of their poor mechanical properties (rapid abrasion, inadequate strength, rapid damage
from sharp materials and atmospheric effects, etc.), they can be recommended only for hand
operated hoisting machinery (rope pulleys). The diameters of the sheaves over which the rope runs
should be at least 10d, where d is the nominal rope diameter. By the mode of manufacture and
number of strands, hemp ropes are classified as plain-laid or cable-laid., the latter being from
twisted from three ordinary ropes twisted from three ordinary ropes.

Figure 2.1 Cross-section of Hemp Ropes

2. Welded loaded chains

They are widely used in hoisting installations as flexible members.

Figure 2.1Welded loaded chains

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 Depending on the ratio between the pitch and the diameter of the chain bar, welded chains are
classified into:
i. Short – link chains with t ≤ 3d
ii. Long – link chains with t ˃ 3d
Manufacturing accuracy divides welded chains into:
i.Calibrated – with permissible deviation from the nominal
size within t ±0.03d and B±0.05d
ii.Uncalibrated – with permissible deviation from the nominal size within t ± 0.1d and B ±0.1d
Links for welded chain are formed most commonly hammer (forge) and electric resistance
welding. Because of the short comings, welded chains are used only in some hand – operated
mechanism (where Dmin > 20d) and in few powers drive mechanism (where Dmin > 30d). They
are employed for low-capacity hoisting machines (hoists, winches, hand – operated cranes, etc.).
Advantage of welded chain
Good flexibility in all direction
Possibility to use small diameter pulleys and drums
Simple design and manufacture
Disadvantages of welded chains
Heavy weight
Susceptibility to jerks and overload
Sudden failure
Concentrated wear at the link joints and
Low safe speed f movement.

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3. Roller Chains
Roller chains are composed of plates hinge jointed by pins and rollers. For light loads, two plates
are used. For very heavy loads the number of plates can be increased up to 12. The maximum
allowable speed of roller chain is V = 0.25m/s. Roller chains are used for hand operated hoists,
power driven winches and hoisting mechanisms of high load lifting capacity, operating at low
speed, if the weight is lifted between guide ways.

Figure 2.3 Roller Chains

Advantage of roller chains

Roller chains are superior to welded chains in a number of ways such as:

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 The reliability of operation is higher since the plates are solid.
Roller chain have good flexibility.
The friction in the joints is considerably less than that in the joints of welded chains.
But roller chains should not be allowed:
To carry weight acting at an angle to the plate (to prevent excessive wear and pin breakage)
To be used in dusty premises (unless the chain is sealed by cover which would cause excessive
wear).
4. Steel wire Ropes
The steel wire ropes are extensively used in hoisting machinery as flexible lifting appliance. The
wire is drawn cold and given heat treatment as well as chemical treatment between the drawing
stages in order to obtain required strength, structure, appearance and surface finish. They are most
popular types used in hoisting machinery. Normally steel wire ropes consist of 6 or 8 strands and
a core.

Figure 2.4 Steel wire Ropes

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Comparing to chains they have the following advantages: -
Lighter weight
Less susceptibility to damage from jerks
Silent operation even at high speeds
Greater reliability in operation
Non –Spinning Wire Ropes
Each individual wire and strand being laid is performed to correspond to its disposition in the rope.
As a result of unloaded wires are not subjected to internal stresses and tend to spin.
Advantages of non – spinning wire ropes over the general-purpose ropes: -
Uniform load distribution over the individual wires, which reduces internal stresses to a
minimum.
Better flexibility.
Less wear of the wire ropes running over drum or sheaves.
Greater operation safety.
The disadvantage of non- spinning wire ropes is that it is more expensive.
Fastening of Chains and Ropes
Various methods are used to secure the ends of chains and ropes.

2.3 Pulleys, Sprockets, Drums and Load Handling Attachments

A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of
direction of a rigid cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable along its
circumference. Pulleys are used in a variety of ways to lift loads, apply force, and to transmit
power. Pulleys are either fixed or movable in design. Where, Fixed pulleys are used to change the

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direction of the flexible appliance and Movable pulleys are used to gain mechanical advantage or
speed. Furthermore, several fixed and movable pulleys are combined in order to form a pulley
system for a gain in force or a gain in speed.
2.3.1 Classification of Pulleys
Pulleys are either fixed or movable in design.
1. Fixed Pulley
Fixed pulleys are used to change the direction of the flexible appliance. Disregarding the resistance
of the pulley, the pulling force Zo equals Q (weight to be pulled) I.E Zo = Q, without considering
pulley resisting.

Figure 2.5 Single fixed pulley

In reality due to the pulley resistance, partly due to the stiffness of the wire rope and partly due to
frictional resistance in the bearings, Z0 > Q.

e
e
P d

z(zo) Q

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 i. Resistance due to stiffness of the wire
Total Pulling
ii. Resistance due to friction of the bearings
Force
iii. Live load

(a) Resistance due to the stiffness of the wire

(b) Resistance due to friction resistance in the bearings

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(c) Total pulling force
𝑍=𝑄 (1+"resistance due to rigidity" +"resistance due to friction”)

2. Movable Pulley
Movable pulleys are used to gain mechanical advantage or speed/force. Movable pulleys are
classified into two.
(a) Pulleys for gain in force: Used to increase amount of force applied and it doesn’t change
direction of the force. The distance that effort moves is double that of the load, and the speed at
which the load is raised is half of that of the effort.

Figure 2.6 Single Movable Pulley for a Gain in Force

S=2h, C=2v

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(b) Pulleys for gain in speed

Used to increase amount of load speed and it doesn’t change Direction. The effort is applied at the
axle of the pulley and moves at half the speed of the load. The distance moved by the load is twice
that of the effort.

Figure 2.7 Single Movable Pulley for a Gain in Speed

Pulley Systems

Several fixed and movable pulleys are combined in order to form a pulley system for a gain in
force or a gain in speed.

(a) Pulley System for a Gain in Force (b) Pulley System for a Gain in Speed

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 Sheaves: A sheave is a pulley with a grooved wheel for holding belt, wire rope or rope.
Sheaves are grooved rims used for guiding ropes or chains. The sheaves are usually mounted
freely on their axles.

Figure 2.8 Sheaves

Rope life depends on the material of the groove. Practical experience goes to show that ropes
operating over steel sheaves wear down more rapidly than those used in conjunction with cast-iron
sheaves apparently due to higher contact stresses and poorer conditions of slipping of the rope over
the steel sheave. To increase rope life, sheave grooves are lined with aluminum, rubber, and
plastics.

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Sheaves for welded chains:
These sheaves are usually made of cast iron.
They are mainly used for hand operated hoists and rarely they are used for power driven
devices.
Sprockets
A sprocket or sprocket-wheel is a profiled wheel with teeth, that mesh with a chain, track or other
perforated or indented material. As a rule, sprockets are manufactured with a small number of teeth
and are small in size ensuring compactness and low cost of the driving mechanism.

Sprockets for welded chains: Sprockets are used as driving chain wheels of hand operated
hoists and manufactured with small number of teeth. Diameter of the sprocket can be found as
follows:

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Sprockets for rollers chains:
Sprockets are manufactured from cast iron and forged steel of steel castings and mainly used for
hand operated hoists.

Drums
Drums is a grooved wheel on which the rope is wound in more than one layer. During operation
the drum is subject to the combined action of torsion bending and compression. The machined
grooves increase the drum bearing surface, prevent friction between the adjacent rope turns and
consequently reduce the contact stresses and rope wear.
Friction Drums of ropes
Friction drums are rope driving drums in which motion is transmitted by friction between the rope
and drum. They have the advantage of being able to raise loads for great height. Are used for
winches and railway cars. Friction drums are capable of handling long ropes by means of a small
drum.

Figure 2.9 Friction Drums of ropes

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There are three types of friction drums
a) Simple friction drums: They are provided with helical grooves for the rope, which coil around
in one or several turn.
b) Double drum friction drive: In this case the rope is wound several times around two parallel
drums rotating in the same direction and driven by a single motor.
c) Capstan: Capstans are usually arranged vertically, driven by electromotor through a worm gear
drive and used to move railways cars.
2.3.2 Load Handling Attachments
The load is usually handled by many various methods.
They are three most commonly used load handling attachment
i. Hook’s
ii. Electric lifting magnets
iii. Grabs
i. Hook’s:
The load is usually handled by means of chain or rope slings attached to hooks. One – piece forged
hooks are used for lifting loads up to 100 tons while triangular and laminated hooks can be
employed to carry over 100 tons. Hook is forged from low carbon steel. In the process of
production hooks are carefully annealed after forging and machining. Generally, hooks have
trapezoidal section made wider on the inside for better material utilization.

Figure 2.10 Hook’s

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 ii. Electric Lifting Magnets:
Lifting magnets are used to handle magnetic materials of diverse form (ingots, beams, rails, steel
sheets and plates, scrap, metal chips etc.). These drastically reduces the time required for manual
suspension of loads.
iii. Grabs:
These are the holding attachments which are special type of buckets which mechanically grab and
automatically dump the materials. The grabs are designed considering the type of material to be
bold.

Figure 2.11 Grabs

2.3.3 Arresting Gear and Brakes
Arresting Gear

Arresting gear is used to hold the being lifted without interfering in the hoisting process but
preventing the load from coming down due to gravity. They are three most common arresting gear
types: -
i. Ratchet gearing
ii. Friction arresters
iii. Roller ratchets

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i. Ratchet Gearing; - Ratchet gearing consists of ratchet gear and pawl. The teeth in the ratchet
(internal teeth or external teeth) and so arranged that the ratchet gear runs free when the load is
being raised. The pawl engaging the ratchet assist its motion when the load is being lowered.

Figure 2.12 Ratchet Gearing with External Teeth

ii Friction Arresters: Friction arresters operate noiselessly compared to the operation of toothed
arresting gear. However, the pressure on the pawl pivot and shaft is considerably high. They have
a limited application. To avoid unidirectional action, the arrester is always provided with two pawls
arranged at diametrically opposite points.

Figure 2.13 Friction Arresters

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iii Roller Ratchets: This mechanism arrests the load within a minimum distance. The whole
system relies on friction for its successful operation. A roller wedged between the follower and the
driver is subjected to the action of normal forces N1 and N2 and tangential friction forces µ1N1
andµ2N2. With the roller in equilibrium, the resultant force R1 = R2. For equilibrium N1= N2

Figure 2.14 Design Diagram of Ratchet Roller

Brakes: A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving
system. It is used for slowing or stopping of moving vehicle, wheel axle or to prevent its motion,
most often accomplished by means of friction. In hoisting machinery, brakes are employed for
controlling the speed of load lowering and holding the suspended load at rest.

Depending on the purpose, brakes can be classified as: -

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i. Stopping brakes – These bring the drive at rest at the end of motion.
ii. Regulating brakes – These are serving to maintain the speed of motion within prescribed limits.
From operational aspect they can be classified as: -
i. Automatic brakes – These brakes are applied automatically irrespectively of the operator’s will
at the instant the motor of the mechanism is de-energized.
ii. Controlled brakes – These are set and released by the operator irrespectively of whether or not
the relevant drive is in operation.
2.4 Hoisting and Travelling Gear
In any lifting drive the hoisting mechanism is considered to be the vital element. Hoisting
mechanisms are subdivided into three groups.
a) Hand power drives
b) Individual power drives
c) A common drive for several mechanisms

a) Hand power drives

A hand drive" is employed in mechanisms with a low lifting capacity, or where the load has to be
moved a short distance, or for occasional lifts;
• Application area of Hand drives are: - winches with small lifting height, in jacks, and
sometimes in travelling overhead and gentry cranes and in light-duty rotary cranes.

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 b) Individual electric drives
An electric motor driven hoist has one or two rope drums for coiling and uncoiling the hoisting
wire rope. The hoisting motor drives the drum through a planetary gearing system. Electrically
driven cranes designed to handle up to 2000 tons are available. The drives can be hydraulic drive,
pneumatic drive, diesel electric drives etc.
Electric motor is generally preferred in most hoisting installations owing to the following
advantages.
i. Immediate readiness for operation.
ii. Possibility of driving every motion by a separate motor.
iii. Higher economic efficiency as compared with other drives.
iv. The ease of speed control over a wide range.
v. Convenient reversing of motions.
vi. Safe operation, simplicity of construction, and high reliability of safety devices.
vii. Ability to cope with short-time overloads of significant magnitude.

2.5 Review Questions

1. Why are hemp ropes recommended only for hand operated hoisting machinery?
2. Describe and classify pulley systems.
3. What are the conditions for classifying welded loaded chains short-link chains and long-link
chains?
4. Discuss the working principles of ratchet mechanism.
5. State the applications and limitations of welded chains.
6. Describe the three types of friction drums.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3. CONVEYORS

A conveyor is a mechanized device to move materials in relatively large quantities between

specific locations over a fixed path. Conveyor is equipment used to move materials over fixed path
between specific points.
Conveyors are used:
When material is to be moved frequently between specific points.
To move materials over a fixed path.
When there is a sufficient flow volume to justify the fixed conveyor investment.
Benefits of Conveyors
Automation of the flow of products.
Continuous flow of materials.
May be set up almost any place.
Can be utilized to move almost anything.
Improve safety, order accuracy, labor cost.
Shorten time from order to shipment.

Dear learner, what are the types of conveyors, and their main technical features?
3.1 Type of Conveyors
Conveyors can be classified in different ways
Type of product being handled: unit load or bulk load.
Location of the conveyor: in-floor, on-floor, or overhead.
Whether loads can accumulate on the conveyor or no accumulation is possible.
Some types of conveyors are: -
1. Chute conveyor 6. Belt conveyor

2. Wheel conveyor 7. Magnetic belt conveyor

3. Roller conveyor 8. Troughed belt conveyor

4. Chain conveyor 9. Bucket conveyor

5. Slat conveyor 10. Vibrating conveyor

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11. Screw conveyor 15. Tow conveyor

12. Pneumatic conveyor 16. Trolley conveyor

13. Vertical conveyor 17. Power-and-free conveyor

14. Cart-on-track conveyor 18. Monorail

19. Sortation conveyor 20. Oscillating conveyors

3.1.1. Belt conveyors

A belt conveyor consists of an endless flat and flexible belt of sufficient strength, made of fabric,
rubber, plastic, leather or metal, which is laid over two metallic flat pulleys at two ends, and driven
in one direction by driving one of the two end pulleys. The endless belt is kept taught by a belt
tensioning arrangement.

Figure 3.1 Belt conveyors

Belt conveyors occupy an outstanding position in the field of bulk material handling. They are the
most multipurpose and widely used of all conveyors. The range of sizes, which may be handled,
is limited only by the width of the belt. They can handle a wide range of capacities over longer
distance than possible with other types of conveyor’s system. Many varied arrangements or paths
of belt conveyors are possible. They can be any combination of horizontal ascending or descending
path. Belt conveyors are the mostly used for transport of solid objects and bulk materials at great
speed, covering great distances (up to 30 km).

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General Characteristics

i. Belt conveyors operate in one horizontally or with an inclination (up or down) depending
on the frictional property of the load conveyed.
ii. For changing direction of the materials being conveyed, in the horizontal plane, more than
one belt conveyors are needed.
iii. Conveying capacity of a conveyor can be controlled by changing belt speed.
iv. Belt conveyors are generally employed for continuous flow of materials.
v. Metal/special belts can carry hot, abrasive or reactive materials.
Advantages of Belt Conveyor
• Silent continuous transport.
• Require less manpower.
• Economical, low power consumption.
• Require simple arrangements both at loading and unloading ends.
• Low maintenance cost.
• Multipoint loading is convenient.
Disadvantages
Vertical transportation cannot be done.
A separate arrangement for material handling is required.
Hot materials cannot be transported.
High initial cost for short distances.
Not suitable for shorter distance and inclination > 20º
Not suitable for dust particles and slurry.
Types of Belt Conveyors
a) Flat Belt Conveyor: In this conveyor, the active side of belt remains flat supported by
cylindrical rollers or flat slider bed. The conveyor is generally short in length and suitable for
conveying unit loads like crates, boxes, packages, bundles etc. in manufacturing, shipping,
warehousing and assembly operations. Flat belts are conveniently used for conveying parts
between workstations or in an assembly line in mass production of goods.

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 Figure 3.2 A flat belt conveyor with drive control
b) Troughed Belt Conveyor: In this conveyor, comparatively wide flat belt is supported on
troughed carrying rollers or shaped supporting surface so that the two edges of the active side
of the belt are elevated from the middle part to form a trough. This provides a greater carrying
capacity than a flat belt of equal width for conveying bulk materials or those materials which
would slide off flat belts. These conveyors are used in handling bulk materials of different
classes.
c) Closed Belt Conveyor: In a closed belt conveyor, the specially fabricated belt, after being
loaded with the material, can be wrapped completely around the load. It essentially forms a
closed tube moving along with the material.
The advantages of a closed belt conveyor are:
It can handle fragile materials safely and without breaking by reducing inter particle collision,
It can handle fine bulk materials without being swept by air (however, it is not really air tight
at loading and unloading points),
Ability to handle corrosive and reactive materials without contamination and
The tubed belt can travel around bends in more than one plane.

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 Figure 3.3 Closed Belt Conveyor
d) Metallic Belt Conveyor: This is a flat belt conveyor where the flexible belt is replaced by a
cold rolled carbon or stainless-steel strip belt of thickness from 0.6 mm to 1.2 mm. Metallic
strip belt conveyors are used in food, chemical industry and for conveying hot and reactive
loads. Wire-mesh belts are being widely used to handle unit and lump materials through
furnaces (up to 1000°C temperature), as mobile base for baking industry and also for wetting,
cooling, dehydrating and similar operations.

Figure 3.4 Metallic belt conveyor

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e) Portable Conveyor: Short length flat conveyors carried on a wheeled structure is termed
portable conveyor. These are particularly useful for loading and unloading of trucks / transport
vehicles. The inclination of the conveyor can generally be adjusted to suit application.

Figure 3.5 Portable Conveyor

f) Chain or Rope Driven Belt Conveyor: In which the specially designed belt is driven by a
moving chain or rope, where belt only serves as load carrier, and motion is by a chain or rope
conveyor.
g) Submerged Belt Conveyor: In which a portion of the belt moves through a metallic trough
(casing) which is filled with free flowing, powdered material at the loading end. The moving
belt with holes, makes the material flow to the unloading end of the trough.

A typical submerged belt conveyor

3.1.2. Oscillating conveyors

A type of vibrating conveyor having a relatively low frequency and large amplitude of motion.
Oscillating conveyors move materials in a uniform, continuous flow by the upward and forward
oscillating motion of a continuous metal trough, mounted on robust inclined reactor legs. The
angle of α Inclination of the conveyor arm may vary from 25 to 30degree.The movement of
the conveyor follows harmonic motion and is governed by the equation.

201
𝑆 = ���𝑖���� 3.1

202
 Where, S= the magnitude of the movement of the conveyor in time t
A= maximum amplitude of the vibration
𝜔 = 2𝛱�� = √��/� 3.2
Where k= rigidity, m= mass
Advantages of Oscillating Conveyors:
simple construction and easy maintenance,
high strength and hard mining conditions resistance,
relatively low investments costs,
easy to disassemble, move and assemble,
easy and quick extension and shortening of trough, safety.
Disadvantages of Oscillating Conveyors:
unable to lift material (above 4° ineffective),
moving of material causes its attrition and increases dust,
poor efficiency.
Types of oscillating conveyors
There are basically three types of oscillating conveyors for light, medium and heavy-duty service.

a. Flexmount oscillating conveyors

They are used for light duty applications.
They have simple construction, remarkably rugged, compact and require minimum
maintenance and attention.
b. Coilmount oscillating conveyors
They are used for medium duty service.
They are rugged, well strengthened and require minimum maintenance.
The coil springs operate in the natural frequency rang.
c. Torqmount oscillating conveyors
They are used for heavy and extra duty applications.
They are rugged, dependable and easy to adjust and maintain.
Torsion bars fixed at one end and steel backed rubber bushed at the other end, absorb the
energy of the trough movement at the end of the stroke at all points of support along the trough
length.

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3.1.3 Chain Conveyors

A chain conveyor is a machine that transfers material or objects from one point to another by
means of a moving chain. The conveyor chain is driven by a head sprocket or roller, also called a
drive wheel. A conveyor chain may have plates, blocks or bars attached to it which are designed
to fastener, push or drag the object or material which is to be moved. Chain conveyors are used for
moving products down an assembly line and/or around a manufacturing or warehousing facility.
Chain conveyors are generally easy to install and have very minimum maintenance for users.
Chain, compared to belts of a belt conveyor, have certain advantages as well as disadvantages.
The major advantages are: -
The chain easily wraps around sprockets of small diameter, and the drive is positive.
No slippage takes place between chain and sprocket.
The chain stretch is also little.
The disadvantages of chain are: -
Its high weight,
High initial cost,
Higher maintenance cost and
Limited running speed
Chain Conveyor Applications
Transporting heavy products from one location to another.
Moving product through high temperature zones, for instance through ovens where other
conveyor types may not be suitable.
Conveying of products in either continuous or indexing modes (i.e., the chain stops and starts
each time to move a product to the end of the chain using a sensor).
Changing the speed is necessary. Importantly when fitted with a VFD (variable frequency
drive), a chain conveyor is a simple conveyor to adjust the speed on.
Types of Chain Conveyors
(a) Apron or Pan Conveyor: This is the most common type of chain conveyor. It consists of one
or more strands of endless chain, usually link plate roller type, running in steel guides. The
carrying surface of the conveyor is composed of a series of plates or shapes called apron, which
are attached to the links of the chains through cleats.

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 Figure 3.6 Apron or Pan Conveyor
b) Cross-Bar Conveyor: This type of conveyor consists of a single or two strands of endless
chain, to which are attached spaced, removable or fixed arms (or cross members) from which
materials are hung or festooned. The arms may be replaced by shelves/trays to support
packages or objects to carry them in a vertical or an inclined path.

Figure 3.7 Cross-Bar Conveyor

c) Car-Type Conveyor: This type of conveyor consists of a series of small platform cars,
propelled by an endless chain, running on a closed track. Car-type conveyors may have vertical
runarounds over sprockets having horizontal axis. However, more often they are designed with
horizontal runarounds (carousels) over sprockets (or sheaves for rope drive) with vertical axis.
This type of conveyor is also called a carousel conveyor or a pallet-type conveyor.

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 Figure 3.8 Car Conveyor
d) Carrier chain & Flat-top chain conveyor: Carrier chain conveyor consists of one or more
number of endless chains to which may be attached one of the many different attachments for
the purpose of carrying unit materials or objects. In many cases, the materials are conveyed
while being directly in contact with the chain/chains. Different designs of attachments are used
for different types of materials.
e) Trolley Conveyor: These conveyors consist of a series of trolleys supported from an
overhead endless track and propelled by an endless chain or cable, with the loads usually
suspended from the trolleys. This is one of the most multipurpose types of chain conveyors
which can work in horizontal and inclined paths, vertical curves and horizontal turns to follow
complicated routes.

Figure 3.9 Trolley Conveyor

3.1.4. Pneumatic Conveyors

Pneumatic conveying is the process of conveying granular / powdered materials by floating the

206
materials in a gas, primarily air, and then allowing it to flow to the destination through a closed
pipe. The operating principle common to all types of pneumatic conveying is that motion is
imparted to the material by a fast-moving stream of air. Thus, any pneumatic conveyor consists of
an air supply equipment (blower or compressor), pipelines, product storages, air lock feeders and
dust filters.
Advantages and disadvantages of Pneumatic Conveying
Pneumatic conveying system is used for delivery of non-sticky, dry materials via pipelines to
various storage or process points which are economically inaccessible by conventional conveyors.
The major advantages of using pneumatic conveying system are as follows:

(i) Materials can be picked from one or more points and can be delivered to one or more points in
a plant or even outside to a different plant.
(ii) The conveying of materials take place through air tight piping and auxiliary system and hence
neither pollutes the environment nor the materials get contaminated with foreign materials.
(iii)It makes possible unloading of materials from ships, barges, transport vessels directly to
storage bins.
(iv) It is self-cleaning system, preventing accumulation of materials in the conveying system.
Because of this, the same installation may be used for conveying different materials.
Despite many advantages cited above, there are certain limitations/disadvantages of pneumatic
conveying systems. These are:
a. The types of materials suitable for pneumatic conveying is limited to materials which are dry,
granulated, pulverized, crushed etc. and essentially free flowing.
b. Friable or too abrasive materials are not suitable to be transported by pneumatic conveyors.
c. The movement of transportation is fixed (uni-directional).
d. Relatively high energy consumption per unit weight of materials transported.
e. The length of pneumatic conveyors is limited. Vacuum systems are limited to 500 m while
high pressure systems up to 2 kms or marginally more.
Types of Pneumatic Conveyors
Pneumatic conveyors are broadly classified into following three groups, based on application:
a. Pipeline Conveyor.
b. Air-activated Gravity Conveyor (Airslide).
c. Tube Conveyor.

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A. Pipeline Conveyor
Further classification of pipeline conveyors is made on the basis of air pressure used.
(a) Low pressure system, in which the operating air pressure is normally limited to 1 atmosphere
(760 mmHg) gauge, supplied by a positive displacement lobe type blower (roots blower).
These systems are restricted to short distances (up to 500 m) and small flow rate. These systems
are further sub-classified into:
(i) Positive pressure system.
(ii) Negative pressure (or suction) systems.
(iii) Combined negative-positive pressure (or combination) system.
(b) Medium Pressure System, with air pressure from 1 to 3 atmospheres, gauge.
(c) High Pressure System with air pressure from 4 to 7 atmospheres, gauge.
B. Air-activated Gravity Conveyors (Airslide)
Dry powdered materials, when aerated acquires fluidity and can move along a plane having a slope
of only 4% to 5%. This principle is adopted in an airslide for short distance movement of powdery
materials at a fairly controlled rate. An airslide consists of an inclined covered metallic trough with
a longitudinal porous partition in between. Over the partition the material moves. Low-pressure air
is allowed to enter from the bottom of the porous partition. The air fluidizes the powdered /
pulverized material and makes it flow along the inclined partition due to gravity.
C. Tube Conveyor
When small piece goods in standardized containers, called carriers, are transported pneumatically
over short distance through pipe, it is called Tube conveyor. This type of transportation of piece
goods are used in telegraph offices, banks, stores, newspaper offices and also in industries. The
pipes of these installations may be round (up to 100 mm diameter) or elliptical. The carriers are
moved at speeds range of 6 to 12Mps.

REFERENCE

1. Rudenko, N., Materials Handling Equipment, Peace Publishers, Moscow.

2. Daniel Kitaw, Materials Handling Equipment, Addis Ababa University Press,2003.
3. Allegri, T.H. “Materials Handling: Principles and Practice”, CBS Publishers & Distributors,
New Delhi.
4. Immer, J.R., “Materials Handling”, McGraw Hills.

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Introductions to mechanisms of machinery
Kinematics:
• It deals with the relative motions of different parts of a mechanism without taking into
consideration the forces producing the motions.
• it is the study, from a geometric point of view, to know
• it is the study, from a geometric point of view, to know the displacement, velocity and
acceleration of a part of a mechanism.
Kinetics:
• Studies the forces on the system which is in motion.
• It deals with inertia forces which arises from the combined effect of mass and motion of
the machine parts.
Mechanism
• If a number of bodies are assembled in such a way that the motion of one causes
constrained and predictable motion to the others, it is known as a mechanism.
• A mechanism transmits and modifies a motion.
Machine
• A machine is a mechanism or a combination of mechanisms which, apart from
imparting definite motions to the parts, also transmits and modifies the available
mechanical energy into
Rigid body
• A body is said to be rigid if it under the action of forces, it does not suffer any
distortion.
• i.e. , the distance between any points on the body remains constant
TYPESOF MOTION
Pure rotation
The body possesses one point (center of rotation) which has no motion with respect to the
"stationary" frame of reference. All other points on the body describe arcs about that center. A
reference line drawn on the body through the center changes only its angular orientation.

Pure translation
All points on the body describe parallel (curvilinear or rectilinear) paths. A reference line on the
body changes its linear position but does not change its angular orientation.
Complex motion
a simultaneous combination of rotation and translation. Any reference line drawn on the body
will change both its linear position and its angular orientation. Points on the body will travel
nonparallel paths, and there will be, at every instant, a center of rotation, which will continuously
change location.
Degree of freedom
The system's DOF is equal to the number of in dependent parameters (measurements) which are
needed to uniquely define its position in space at any instant of time. Note that DOF is defined
with respect to a selected frame of reference.

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LINKAGES
KINEMATIC LINK:
It is defined as the part of machine which has a relative motion with respect to some other part of
same machine is called Kinematic link or element.
TYPES OF LKINEMATIC LINKS
1. Rigid link :- In this type of link there is no deformation while transmitting the motion.
2. Flexible link:- In this type of link there is partial deformation while transmitting the motion.
Belt drive is an example of flexible link.
3. Fluid link:- In this type of link the motion is transmitted with the help of fluid pressure.
Hydraulic brake is an example of fluid link.

KINEMATIC PAIRS
The two links or elements of a machine, when in contact with each other, are said to form a pair.
If the relative motion between them is completely or successfully constrained (i.e. in a definite
direction), the pair is known as kinematic pair. Let us discuss the various types of constrained
motions.
CONSTRAINED MOTIONS
1. Completely constrained motion :- When the motion between a pair is limited to a
definite direction irrespective of the direction of force applied, then the motion is
said to be a completely constrained motion.
2. Incompletely constrained motion:- When the motion between a pair can take place in
more than one direction, then the motion is called an incompletely constrained motion.
3. Successfully constrained motion:- When the motion between the elements, forming a
pair, is such that the constrained motion is not completed by itself, but by some
other means, then the motion is said to be successfully constrained motion.
Kinematic pairs classifications according to nature of contact:
a. Lower Pair: A pair of links having surfaced or area contact between the members
is known as a lower pair. The contact surfaces of two links are similar. Examples: Nut
turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing.
b. Higher Pair: When a pair has a point or line contact between the links, it is known as
a higher pair. The contact surfaces of two links are similar. Example: Wheel rolling on a
surface, Cam and Follower pair etc.
Kinematic pairs classification according to nature of contact:
a. Closed Pair: When the elements of a pair are held together mechanically, it is known as
a closed pair. The two elements are geometrically identical; one is solid and full and the
other is hollow or open. The latter not only envelops the former but also encloses it.
The contact between the two can be broken only by destruction of at least one of the
members.
b. Unclosed Pair: When two links of a pair are in contact either due to force of
gravity or some spring action, they constitute an unclosed pair. In this, the links are
not held together mechanically, e.g. cam and follower pair.

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 Kinematic pairs classifications according to Nature of Relative Motion:
a. Sliding pair: When two links have a sliding motion relative to another; the kinematic
pair is known as sliding pair.
b. Turning pair: When one link is revolve or turn with respect to the axis of first
link, the kinematic pair formed by two links is known as turning pair.
c. Rolling pair: When the links of a pair have a rolling motion relative to each
other, they form a rolling pair.
d. Screw pair: If two mating links have a turning as well as sliding motion between
them, they form a screw pair.
e. Spherical pair: When one link in the form of sphere turns inside a fixed link,
it is a spherical pair.
Types of Joint:
a. Binary Joint: If two links are joined at the same connection, it is called a binary joint.
b. Ternary Joint: If three links joined at a connection, it is known as a ternary link.
c. Quaternary Joint: If four links joined at a connection, it is known as a quaternary link.
Kinematic chain
Kinematic chain is defined as the combination of kinematic pairs in which each links forms a
part of two kinematic pairs and the relative motion between the links is either completely
constrained or successfully constrained.
If one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed to the ground and the motions of any of the
movable links results in definite motions of others, then it is known as mechanism.
• A mechanism may consist of a number of pairs belonging to different classes having different
no. of restraints
• Mobility of a mechanism defines the number of degrees of freedom a mechanism possess.
• For space mechanism
F = 6 (N-1) – 5 P1– 4 P2– 3 P3– 2 P4– 1P5
The above equation is the general form of Kutzbach criterion. This is applicable to any type
of mechanism including a spatial mechanism.
Most of mechanism are 2-D (i.e , translational along two direction, and rotation about an axis)
• So, eqn becomes,
• F= 3(N-1) - 2P1– P2
• Known as Gruebler’s criterion for dof of planar mechanism
• For linkages with only turning pair,P2= 0
• So eqn becomes,
• F= 3(N-1) - 2P1 Known as Kutzback’s criterion
The Four-Bar chain
Proffered mechanical device for the mechanization and control of motion due to its
simplicity and versatility. Basically, it consists of four rigid links which are connected in the
form of a quadrilateral by four pin-joints.
When one of the link fixed, it is known as mechanism or linkage. A link that makes
complete revolution is called the crank. The link opposite to the fixed link is called
coupler, and the forth link is called a lever or rocker if it oscillates or another crank if it rotates.

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 Grashofs law:
Grashof‟s ‟s law for a four bar mechanism states that, the sum of the shortest and longest
link lengths should not be greater than the sum of the remaining two link lengths if there
is to be continuous relative motion between the two links.
Inversion of Mechanism
The method of generating different mechanism by fixing a link is called the inversion of
mechanism.
The inversion of mechanism may be classified as:
a. Inversion of four-bar chain
b. Inversion of single slider crank chain
c. Inversion of double slider crank chain
Inversion of Four-Bar chain
Coupled wheel of locomotive
The mechanism of a coupling rod of a locomotive (also known as double crank mechanism)
which consists of four links is shown in Fig.

In this mechanism, the links AD and BC (having equal length) act as cranks and are
connected to the respective wheels. The link CD acts as a coupling rod and the link AB is
fixed in order to maintain a constant centre to Centre distance between them. This
mechanism is meant for transmitting rotary motion from one wheel to the other wheel.
Beam Engine
A part of the mechanism of a beam engine (also known as cranks and lever mechanism)
which consists of four links is shown in Fig.
in this mechanism, when the crank rotates about the fixed centre A, the lever oscillates
about a fixed centre D. The end E of the lever CDE is connected to a piston rod which
reciprocates due to the rotation of the crank

211
watts indicator mechanism
A Watt‟s indicator mechanism (also known as Watt's straight line mechanism or double lever
mechanism) which consists of four links is shown in Fig.
The four links are: fixed link at A, link AC, link CE and link BFD. It may be noted that BF and
FD form one link because these two parts have no relative motion between them. The
links CE and BFD act as levers.

which acts on the indicator plunger. On any small displacement of the mechanism, the
tracing point E at the end of the link CE traces out approximately a straight line.

212
The slider-crank chain
When one of the turning pairs of a four-bar chain is replaced by a sliding pair, it
becomes a single slider-crank chain or simply a slider-crank chain.
First inversion
This inversion is obtained when link 1 is fixed and links 2 and 4 are made the crank and slider
respectively.
Applications:
a Reciprocating engine
b Reciprocating compressor

Second inversion
Fixing of the link 2 of a slider-crank chain results in the second inversion.

a Whitworth quick-return mechanism

b Rotary engine
Third Inversion
By Fixing of the link 3 of the slider-crank mechanism, the third inversion is
obtained. Now the link 2 again acts as a crank and the link 4 oscillates.
Applications:
a Oscillating cylinder engine
b Crank and slotted-lever mechanism
Fourth Inversion
If the link 4 of the slider-crank mechanism is fixed, the fourth inversion is obtained.
Link 3 can oscillates about the fixed pivot B on the link 4. This makes the end A of the link 2 to
oscillate about B and the end O to reciprocate along the axis of the fixed link 4.
Application: Hand Pump

Whitworth Quick-Return Mechanism:

This mechanism used in shaping and slotting machines. In this mechanism the link CD (link
2) forming the turning pair is fixed; the driving crank CA (link 3) rotates at a uniform
angular speed and the slider (link 4) attached to the crank pin at a slides along the slotted bar
PA (link 1) which oscillates at D.

motion of the tool is constrained along the line RD produced.

213
Rotary engine
Sometimes back, rotary internal combustion engines were used in aviation. But now- a days gas
turbines are used in its place.
It consists of seven cylinders in one plane and all revolves about fixed center D, as
shown in Fig. while the crank (link 2) is fixed. In this mechanism, when the connecting
rod (link 4) rotates, the piston (link 3) reciprocates inside the cylinders forming link 1.

Oscillating cylinder engine

The arrangement of oscillating cylinder engine mechanism, as shown in Fig. Is used to
convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion.
In this mechanism, the link 3 forming the turning pair is fixed. The link 3 corresponds to the
connecting rod of a reciprocating steam engine mechanism. When the crank (link 2) rotates, the
piston attached to piston rod (link 1) reciprocates and the cylinder (link 4) oscillates about a
pin pivoted to the fixed link at A.

214
Crank and slotted -lever Mechanism
This mechanism is mostly used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary internal
combustion engines. In this mechanism, the link AC (i.e. link 3) forming th e turning pair is
fixed, as shown in Fig. The link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a reciprocating
steam engine.
The driving crank CB revolves with uniform angular speed about the fixed center C. A sliding
block attached to the crank pin at B slides along the slotted bar AP and thus causes AP to
oscillate about the pivoted point A.
A short link PR transmits the motion from AP to the ram which carries the tool and
reciprocates along the line of stroke R1R2. The line of stroke of the ram (i.e. R1R2) is
perpendicular to AC produced.

In the extreme positions, AP1 and AP2 are tangential to the circle and the cutting tool is at
the end of the stroke. The forward or cutting stroke occurs when the crank rotates from

215
the position CB1 to CB2 (or through an angle β) in the clockwise direction. The return
stroke occurs when the crank rotates from the position CB2 to CB1 (or through angle α)
in the clockwise direction. Since the crank has uniform angular speed, therefore,

Velocity and acceleration analysis of linkages

Displacement: All particles of a body move in parallel planes and travel by same distance is
known, linear displacement and is denoted by ‘x’. A body rotating about a fired point in such a
way that all particular move in circular path angular displacement and is denoted by ɵ.

216
Rubbing Velocity at a Pin Joint

The links in a mechanism are mostly connected by means of pin joints. The rubbing velocity is
defined as the algebraic sum between the angular velocities of the two links which are
connected by pin joints, multiplied by the radius of the pin.

217
218
219
Force analysis in mechanical linkages
If the acceleration of moving links in a mechanism are running with considerable amount of
linear and/or angular accelerations, inertia forces are generated and these inertia forces also must
be overcome by the driving motor as an addition to the forces exerted by the external load or
work the mechanism does.
Governing rules will be:

I and m are inertial (bodily) properties. At this stage we need to know the description of the
inertial properties.
Centroid and Mass Centre
Centroid is the point where the resultant of distributed force system is assumed to act and
generate the same dynamic results.
If the distributed force is gravity force acting on each particle of mass, then concentrated force
itself is called the “weight” and the centroid is called the “center of gravity” or “mass center”.
Mass times distance, mr, is called as the first mass moment.
Mass Moment of Inertia
Mass moment of inertia is the name given to rotational inertia, the rotational analog of mass for
linear motion. It appears in the relationships for the dynamics of rotational motion. The Mass
Moment of Inertia of a solid measures the solid's ability to resist changes in rotational speed
about a specific axis. The moment of inertia for a point mass is just the mass times the square of
perpendicular distance to the rotation axis.
When calculating the mass moment of inertia for a rigid body, one thinks of the body as a sum of
particles, each having a mass of dm. Integration is used to sum the moment of inertia of each dm
to get the mass moment of inertia of body. The equation for the mass moment of inertia of the
rigid body is

Radius of gyration:
Sometime in place of the mass moment of inertia the radius of gyration k is provided. The mass
moment of inertia can be calculated from k using the relation

Where m is the total mass of the body. One can interpret the radius of gyration as the distance
from the axis that one could put a single particle of mass m equal to the mass of the rigid body
and have this particle have the same mass moment ofi nertia as the original body.
Parallel-axis theorem:
The moment of inertia around any axis can be calculated from the moment of inertia around
parallel axis which passes through the center of mass. The equation to calculate this is called the
parallel axis theorem and is given as

220
D’Alembert’s Principle:
D’Alembert’s principle permits the reduction of a problem in dynamics to one in statics. This is
accomplished by introducing a fictitious force equal in magnitude to the product of the
mass of the body and its acceleration, and directed opposite to the acceleration. The result is a
condition of kinetic equilibrium. If we subtract a vector of magnitude –ma from both sides of the
Newton’s second law. The meaning of the equation; i.e. indication of a dynamic case still holds
true, but equation, having zero on right hand side becomes very easy to solve, like that in a
“static force analysis” problem.

Solution of a dynamic problem using D’Alembert’s principle

i) Do an acceleration analysis and calculate the linear acceleration of the mass centers of
each moving link. Also calculate the angular acceleration of each moving link.
ii) Masses and centroidal inertias of each moving link must be known beforehand.
iii) Add one fictitious force on each moving body equal to the mass of that body times the
acceleration of its mass center, direction opposite to its acceleration, applied directly onto the
center of gravity, apart from the already existing real forces.
iv) Add fictitious torque on each moving body equal to the centroidal inertia of that body times
its angular acceleration, direction or sense opposite to that of acceleration apart from the
already existing real torques.
v) Solve statically.

Cam and follower

A cam is a rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or oscillating motion to another
element known as follower.
The cam and the follower have a line contact and constitute a higher pair. The cams are
usually rotated at uniform speed by a shaft, but the follower motion is predetermined and will
be according to the shape of the cam. The cam and follower is one of the simplest as well
as one of the most important mechanisms found in modern machinery today.
The cams are widely used for operating the inlet and exhaust valves of internal
combustion engines, automatic attachment of machineries, paper cutting machines, spinning
and weaving textile machineries, feed mechanism of automatic lathes etc.
Terms used in radial cams
Base circle ፡- It is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile.
Trace point ፡- It is a reference point on the follower and is used to generate the pitch curve. In
case of knife edge follower, the knife edge represents the trace point and the pitch curve

221
corresponds to the cam profile. In a roller follower, the centre of the roller represents the
trace point.
Pressure angle ፡- It is the angle between the direction of the follower motion and a normal to
the pitch curve. This angle is very important in designing a cam profile. If the pressure angle is
too large, a reciprocating follower will jam in its bearings.
Pitch point ፡- It is a point on the pitch curve having the maximum pressure angle.
Pitch circle ፡- It is a circle drawn from the centre of the cam through the pitch points.
Pitch curve ፡- It is the curve generated by the trace point as the follower moves relative to the
cam. For a knife edge follower, the pitch curve and the cam profile are same whereas for
a roller follower, they are separated by the radius of the roller.
Prime circle፡- It is the smallest circle that can be drawn from the center of the cam and
tangent to the pitch curve. For a knife edge and a flat face follower, the prime circle
and the base circle are identical. For a roller follower, the prime circle is larger than the
base circle by the radius of the roller.
Lift or Stroke፡- It is the maximum travel of the follower from its lowest position to the
top most position

222
Clasification of fillower

According to surface in contact

A Knife edge follower
o When the contacting end of the follower has a sharp knife edge, it is called a knife edge
follower, as shown in Fig
o The sliding motion takes place between the contacting surfaces (i.e. the knife edge and
the cam surface). It is seldom used in practice because the small area of contacting surface
results in excessive wear. In knife edge followers, a considerable side thrust exists between
the follower and the guide.
B Roller follower
o When the contacting end of the follower is a roller, it is called a roller follower, as
shown in Fig.(b). Since the rolling motion takes place between the contacting surfaces
(i.e. the roller and the cam), therefore the rate of wear is greatly reduced.

223
o In roller followers also the side thrust exists between the follower and the guide. The
roller followers are extensively used where more space is available such as in stationary gas
and oil engines and aircraft engines.
C Flat faced or mushroom follower
o When the contacting end of the follower is a perfectly flat face, it is called a flat-faced
follower, as shown in Fig. 7.1 (c). It may be noted that the side thrust between the follower
and the guide is much reduced in case of flat faced followers.
o The only side thrust is due to friction between the contact surfaces of the follower and
the cam. The relative motion between these surfaces is largely of sliding nature but wear
may be reduced by off-setting the axis of the follower, as shown in Fig. (f) so that when
the cam rotates, the follower also rotates about its own axis.
o The flat faced followers are generally used where space is limited such as in cams which
operate the valves of automobile engines.
D Spherical faced follower
o When the contacting end of the follower is of spherical shape, it is called a spherical
faced follower, as shown in Fig. 7.1 (d). It may be noted that when a flat-faced follower is
used in automobile engines, high surface stresses are produced. In order to minimize these
stresses, the flat end of the follower is machined to a spherical shape.
According to the motion of follower
A Reciprocating or Translating Follower
o When the follower reciprocates in guides as the cam rotates uniformly, it is known as
reciprocating or translating follower. The followers as shown in Fig. (a) to (d) are all
reciprocating or translating followers.
B Oscillating or Rotating Follower
o When the uniform rotary motion of the cam is converted into predetermined oscillatory
motion of the follower, it is called oscillating or rotating follower. The follower, as shown in
Fig (e), is an oscillating or rotating follower.
According to the path of motion of the follower
A Radial Follower
o When the motion of the follower is along an axis passing through the centre of the cam, it is
known as radial follower. The followers, as shown inFig. (a) to (e), are all radial followers.
B Off-set Follower
o When the motion of the follower is along an axis away from the axis of the cam centre, it is
called off-set follower. The follower, as shown inFig. (f), is an off-set follower.
Classification of cams
A Radial or Disc cam
o In radial cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction perpendicular to the
cam axis. The cams as shown in Fig. are all radial cams.
B Cylindrical cam
o In cylindrical cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction parallel to the
cam axis. The follower rides in a groove at its cylindrical surface. A cylindrical grooved
cam with a reciprocating and an oscillating follower is shown in Fig. (a) and (b)respectively.
Motion of follower

224
The follower, during its travel, may have one of the following motions:
A Uniform velocity
B Simple harmonic motion
C Uniform acceleration and retardation
D Cycloidal motion

Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with Uniform
Velocity
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when a knife-edged follower moves
with uniform velocity are shown in Fig.(a), (b) and (c) respectively.
The abscissa (base) represents the time (i.e. the number of seconds required for the cam to
complete one revolution) or it may represent the angular displacement of the cam in
degrees. The ordinate represents the displacement, or velocity or acceleration of the follower.
Since the follower moves with uniform velocity during its rise and return stroke,
therefore the slope of the displacement curves must be constant. In other words,AB1 and
C1D must be straight lines.

A little consideration will show that the follower remains at rest during part of the
cam rotation. The periods during which the follower remains at rest are known as dwell periods,
as shown by lines B1C1 and DE in Fig (a). From Fig. (c), we see that the acceleration or
retardation of the follower at the beginning and at the end of each stroke is infinite. This is
due to the fact that the follower is required to start from rest and has to gain a velocity
within no time. This is only possible if the acceleration or retardation at the beginning
and at the end of each stroke is infinite. These conditions are however, impracticable.

225
In order to have the acceleration and retardation within the finite limits, it is necessary to
modify the conditions which govern the motion of the follower. This may be done by rounding
off the sharp corners of the displacement diagram atthe beginning and at the end of each
stroke, as shown in Fig. (a). By doing so, the velocity of the follower increases gradually to
its maximum value at the beginning of each stroke and decreases gradually to zero at the end of
each stroke as shown in Fig. (b).The modified displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams
are shown in Fig.. The round corners of the displacement diagram are usually parabolic curves
because the parabolic motion results in a very low acceleration of the follower for a given stroke
and cam speed.

Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with Simple
Harmonic Motion
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with simple
harmonic motion are shown in Fig. (a), (b) and (c) respectively. The displacement diagram is
drawn as follows:
a Draw a semi-circle on the follower stroke as diameter.
b Divide the semi-circle into any number of even equal parts (say eight).
c Divide the angular displacements of the cam during out stroke and return stroke into
the same number of equal parts.
d The displacement diagram is obtained by projecting the points as shown inFig.
(a).
The velocity and acceleration diagrams are shown in Fig. (b) and (c) respectively. Since the
follower moves with a simple harmonic motion, therefore velocity diagram consists of a
sine curve and the acceleration diagram is a cosine curve.
We see from Fig. (b) that the velocity of the follower is zero at the beginning and at the end of
its stroke and increases gradually to a maximum at mid-stroke. On the other hand, the
acceleration of the follower is maximum at the beginning and at the ends of the stroke and
diminishes to zero at mid-stroke.

226
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with Uniform
Acceleration and Retardation
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with
uniform acceleration and retardation are shown in Fig. (a), (b) and (c) respectively. We see
that the displacement diagram consists of a parabolic curve and may be drawn as discussed
below:
Divide the angular displacement of the cam during outstroke (Ɵ) into any even number of
equal parts and draw vertical lines through these points as shown in fig. (a)
Divide the stroke of the follower (S) into the same number of equal even parts. Join A to
intersect the vertical line through point 1 at B. Similarly, obtain the other points C, D etc.
as shown in Fig. (a). Now join these points to obtain the parabolic curve for the out stroke
of the follower.
In the similar way as discussed above, the displacement diagram for the follower during return
stroke may be drawn.

227
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with
cycloidal Motion
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower moves with
cycloidal motion are shown in Fig. (a), (b) and (c) respectively. We know that cycloid is a
curve traced by a point on a circle when the circle rolls without slipping on a straight line.

228
Universal joint
Hooke’s joint is a device that connects two shafts whose axes are neither coaxial nor parallel but
intersect at a point
•Used to transmit power from the engine to the rear axle of an automobile
•Transmission of drives to different spindle in multiple drilling machine

229
Applications of U-joint
U-joints have many applications in:- aircraft, Control mechanisms, electronics, instrumentation,
textile machinery tool drives etc.
Uses of U-joint
To carry maximum load-capacity for a given size.
Universal joints with thermoplastic body members are used in light industrial applications by
their Self lubricating feature, light weight, corrosion resistance and capability for high-speed
operation are significant advantages.
Universal Joint Characteristics
Speed variations፡- While operating at an angle, U-joints speed up and slow down twice per
revolution
Joint phasing፡- The vibrations caused by one U-joint are transmitted to the other one
Canceling angles ፡- The angle of the front U-joint is offset by the rear one. The correct angle
must be maintained to minimize vibration
VELOCITY RATIO OF SHAFTS
When driver shaft rotates with uniform speed, the driven shaft rotates at continuously varying
speed.
Consider the two shafts A and B which are the driver and follower respectively. The axes of the
two shafts ar plan view of the designer. When the shafts A and B
rotate A-A traces a circle (shown by b-b) while B-B traces an ellipse(shown by a-a).

The speed ration becomes

Where

230
Maximum and minimum speed of the shafts

The maximum speed of the shaft is

The minimum speed of the shaft is

Governor
The function of a governor is to keep the speed of a prime mover constant by adjusting the
output of the engine to be equal to the external load on the engine in a given duration.
• A governor regulates the speed by regulating the quantity of working agent of the prime mover.
Thus, a governor is a device for automatic control.
• If the load on the engine increases, the engine speed decreases and the governor adjusts the
quantity of fuel supplied and maintains the original speed of the engine. Similarly, if the load on
the engine decreases, the engine speed increases and the governor adjusts the fuel supply to
maintain speed of the engine.
Types of governors
• Centrifugal governor
• Inertia governor
Centrifugal governor
The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by
an equal and opposite radial force, known as the controlling force. Centrifugal governor consists
of two balls of equal mass, which are attached to the arms as shown in Fig.. These balls are
known as governor balls or fly balls. The balls revolve with a spindle, which is driven by the
engine through bevel gears.

231
The upper ends of the arms are pivoted to the spindle, so that the balls may rise up or fall down
as they revolve about the vertical axis. The arms are connected by the links to a sleeve,
which is keyed to the spindle. This sleeve revolves with the spindle; but can slide up and
down. The balls and the sleeve rises when the spindle speed increases, and falls when the speed
decreases. In order to limit the travel of the sleeve in upward and downward directions, two
stops S, S are provided on the spindle. The sleeve is connected by a bell crank lever to a
throttle valve. The supply of the working fluid decreases when the sleeve rises and increases
when it falls. When the load on the engine increases, the engine and the governor speed
decreases. This results in the decrease of centrifugal force on the balls. Hence the balls move
inwards and the sleeve moves downwards.
The downward movement of the sleeve operates a throttle valve at the other end of the bell crank
lever to increase the supply of working fluid and thus the engine speed is increased. In this case,
the extra power output is provided to balance the increased load. When the load on the engine
decreases, the engine and the governor speed increases, which results in the increase of
centrifugal force on the balls. Thus the balls move outwards and the sleeve rises upwards.
This upward movement of the sleeve reduces the supply of the working fluid and hence the
speed is decreased. In this case, the power output is reduced. The controlling force is
provided either by the action of gravity as in Watt governor or by a s pring as in case of Hartnell
governor.
A governor controls engine speed. As it rotates, the weights swing outwards, pulling down a
spindle that reduces the fuel supply at high speed. When the balls rotate at uniform speed,
controlling force is equal tothe centrifugal force and they balance each other.

232
Types of centrifugal governors
• Pendulum type Simple watt governor
• Loaded governor
– Dead weight type
• Porter governor
• Proell governor Proell governor
– Spring controlled type
• Hartnell governor
• Wilson Hartnell governor
• Hartung governor
• pichering governor
Terms Used in Governors
The following terms used in governors are important from the subject point of view ;
1. Height of a governor. It is the vertical distance from the centre of the ball to a point where the
axes of the arms (or arms produced) intersect on the spindle axis. It is usually denoted by h.
2. Equilibrium speed. It is the speed at which the governor balls, arms etc., are in complete
equilibrium and the sleeve does not tend to move upwards or downwards.
3. Mean equilibrium speed. It is the speed at the mean position of the balls or the sleeve.
4. Maximum and minimum equilibrium speeds. The speeds at the maximum and
minimum radius of rotation of the balls, without tending to move either way are known as
maximum and minimum equilibrium speeds respectively.
Note : There can be many equilibrium speeds between the mean and the maximum and the mean
and the minimum equilibrium speeds.
5. Sleeve lift. It is the vertical distance which the sleeve travels due to change in equilibrium
speed.

Simple watt governor

The ball is in equilibrium under the action of three forces:

• The ball is in equilibrium under the action of three forces: centrifugal force F, weight of the ball
w and tension in the arm T.
• Taking moment about O,
• F x h= w x r
• (w/g)ω2r x h= w x r

233
• h=g/ω2
• From the above equation,
• The speed of the governor is independent of the weightof the ball
• The height of the governor is inversely proportional to the square of the speed.
Porter governor
Porter governors are loaded centrally with dead weight as shown

Effect of friction in Porter governor

• Considering friction, the frictional resistance is assumed to be equivalent to a force R acting on
the sleeve.
• The equation for the Porter governor will be

234
The frictional resistance R will be acting downwards when the sleeve tends to move upwards
adding to the weight of the sleeve. Similarly, the frictional resistance R will be acting upwards
when the sleeve tends to move downwards decreasing the weight of the sleeve relatively.
Proell governor

By comparing speeds for same lift of sleeve in the two governors, the range of speed of Proell
type would be less than that of Porter type.
Hartnell governor

235
Analysis of Hartnell governor

Wilson Hartnell governor

236
Quality of governors
Following three quantities are considered to ascertain the quality of governors:
1. Sensitiveness
2. Stability
3. Effort and power
Sensitiveness
• It is generally used to compare the performance of two governors. Thus, a governor is said to
be more sensitive if the change in lift of its sleeve is more for a given percentage change in speed
compared to the other. It is sometimes defined as the change in levels of the balls for one percent
change in speed.
• As a governor is used to limit the change of speed of the
• As a governor is used to limit the change of speed of the engine between a minimum to full
load conditions, the sensitiveness is also defined as the ratio of the range of speed (difference of
maximum and minimum speeds) to the mean equilibrium speed.
Stability: A governor is said to stable when for each speed within the working range, there is
only one radius of rotation of the governor balls at which governor is in equilibrium.
Isochronism:
A governor is termed isochronous when the equilibrium speed is constant for all radii of rotation
of balls with in working range. For slightest change of speed due to change in load, such a
governor would jump from one extreme position to another. Thus, and would jump from one
extreme position to another. Thus, an isochronous governor is oversensitive.
Hunting: It is a condition in which the speed of the engine controlled by the governor fluctuates
continuously above and below the mean speed. This is caused by too sensitive governor. Its
result would be to cause wide fluctuation ins in speed of rotation.
Effort of a governor
• When a governor is running at constant speed, the system is in equilibrium and hence the force
acting on the sleeve is zero.
• When the load changes, the speed also changes and the sleeve changes its position. That means,
there is a force acts on the sleeve and the sleeve occupies new position and the resultant force
there is a force acts on the sleeve and the sleeve occupies new position and the resultant force
acting on the sleeve becomes zero again.
• The average force that acts on the sleeve for a given percentage change of speed is known as
the effort of the governor.

237
Power of a governor
• Power of a governor is defined as the work done on the sleeve for a given percentage change of
speed. Thus, for a porter governor

Controlling force
• When a governor is running steadily in a given configuration, all the forces acting on it are in
equilibrium.
• Considering one ball, the centrifugal force tends to move it radially outwards while the other
forces due to weight if the sleeve, central load, action of spring and friction try to pull it inwards.
A single force replacing all the forces that tries to pull the ball radially inwards is known as the
controlling force.

238
Gear train
Function of gears
• Power transmission
• Change rotational speed/torque
• Maintain constant speed ratio
Types of gears

Definition of Gear train

When two or more gears are made to mesh with each other to transmit power from one shaft to
another. Such a combination is called gear train or train of toothed wheels.
The nature of the train used depends upon the velocity ratio required and the relative position of
the axes of shafts. A gear train may consist of spur, bevel or spiral gears.
Types of Gear Trains
1. Simple gear train
2. Compound gear train
3. Reverted gear train
4. Epicyclic gear train
5. Compound epicyclic gear train
Simple gear train.

The gears are represented by their pitch circles.

distance between the two shafts is small, the two gears 1 and 2 are made to mesh
with each other to transmit motion from one shaft to the other, as shown inFig.

239
 alled
the driven or follower. It may be noted that the motion of the driven gear is opposite to the
motion of driving gear.

240
Compound gear train
When there is more than one gear on a shaft, as shown in Fig., it is called a compound train of
gear.

gears are useful in bridging over the space between the driver and the driven.
e driver and the driven or follower has to be bridged
over by intermediate gears and at the same time a great (or much less) speed ratio is required,
then the advantage of intermediate gears is intensified by providing compound gears on
intermediate shafts.

same speed. One of these two gears meshes with the driver and the other with the driven or
follower attached to the next shaft as shown in Fig.

241
Reverted gear train
When the axes of the first gear (i.e. first driver) and the last gear (i.e. last driven or follower) are
co-axial, then the gear train is known as reverted gear train.
follower) in the opposite direction.
Since the gears 2 and 3 are mounted on the same shaft, therefore they form a compound gear and
the gear 3 will rotate in the same direction as that of gear 2. The gear 3 (which is now the
second driver) drives the gear 4 (i.e. the last driven or follower) in the same direction as that of
gear 1. Thus we see that in a reverted gear train, the motion of the first gear and the last gear is
like.

242
Epicyclic gear train
In an epicyclic gear train, the axes of the shafts, over which the gears are mounted, may move
relative to a fixed axis. A simple epicyclic gear train is shown in Fig. where a gear A and the
arm C have a common axis at O1 about which they can rotate.
The gear B meshes with gear A and has its axis on the arm at O2, about which the gear B can
rotate.
- versa,but if
gear A is fixed and the arm is rotated about the axis of gear A (i.e. O1), then the gear B is
forced to rotate upon and around gear A. Such a motion is called epicyclic and the gear
trains arranged in such a manner that one or more of their members move upon and around
another member is known as epicyclic gear trains (epi. means upon and cyclic means around).
The epicyclic gear trains may be simple or compound.

243
Algebraic method

244
Compound Epicyclic Gear Train—Sun and Planet Gear
A compound epicyclic gear train is shown in Fig. It consists of two co-axial shafts S1 and S2, an
annulus gear A which is fixed, the compound gear (or planet gear) B-C, the sun gear D and the
arm H. The annulus gear has internal teeth and the compound gear is carried by the arm and
revolves freely on a pin of the arm H. The sun gear is co-axial with the annulus gear and the arm
but independent ofthem.

be noted that when the annulus gear is fixed, the sun gear provides the drive and when the sun
gear is fixed, the annulus gear provides the drive. In both cases, the arm acts as a follower.

Let TA, TB, TC, and TD be the teeth and NA, NB, NC and ND be the speeds for the gears A, B,
C and D respectively. A little consideration will show that when the arm is fixed and the sun gear
D is turned anticlockwise, then the compound gear B-C and the annulus gear A will rotate in the
clockwise direction.
The motion of rotations of the various elements is shown in the table below.

245
Flywheel
A flywheel is an energy storage device. It absorbs mechanical energy by increasing its angular
velocity and delivers energy by decreasing its angular velocity. Commonly, a flywheel is used to
smooth the flow of energy between a power source and its load.

The flywheel, whose motion is measured by the angular coordinate θ a mass moment of inertiaI.
An input torque Ti, corresponding to coordinate θi, causes the flywheel speed to increase. A load
or output torque, To, with corresponding coordinate θo, absorbs energy from the flywheel and
causes it to slow down. If the work entering into the system is considered positive and work
output is negative, the equation of motion of the flywheel is

Which can be written as

Assuming rigid shafting, giving θi =θo=θ

The energy input to the flywheel is the area of the rectangle betweenθ1andθ2,or

The energy output from the flywheel is the area of the rectangle betweenθ3andθ4,or

We can also write these relations in terms of kinetic energy. At θ=θ1, the flywheel has an angular
velocity of ω1rad/s, and so its kinetic energy is

246
Atθ=θ2, the angular velocity is ω2, and so its kinetic energy is

Therefore, the change in kinetic energy is

247
Balancing
Any link or member that is in pure rotation can, theoretically, be perfectly balanced to eliminate
all shaking forces and shaking moments. It is accepted design practice to balance all rotating
members in a machine unless shaking forces are desired (as in a vibrating shaker mechanism, for
example). A rotating member can be balanced either statically or dynamically. Static balance is a
subset of dynamic balance. To achieve complete balance requires that dynamic balancing be
done.
STATIC BALANCE
Despite its name, static balance does apply to things in motion. The unbalanced forces of
concern are due to the accelerations of masses in the system. The requirement for static balance
is simply that the sum of all forces on the moving system (including d'Alembert inertial forces)
must be zero.

Another name for static balance is single-plane balance, which means that the masses which are
generating the inertia forces are in, or nearly in, the same plane. It is essentially a two-
dimensional problem.

248
In above Figure a shows a link in the shape of a vee which is part of a linkage. We want to
statically balance it. We can model this link dynamically as two point masses ml and m2
concentrated at the local CGs of each "leg" of the link as shown in Figure l2-lb.
These point masses each have a mass equal to that of the "leg" they replace and are supported on
massless rods at the position (R1or R2) of that leg's CG. We can solve for the required amount
and location of a third "balance mass" mb to be added to the system at some location Rb in order
to satisfy equation i.e d’alembert.
Writing vector eqn for the fig above

249
Converting into polar forms

Dynamic balance
Dynamic balance is two plane balance. And must satisfy the following two eqn

250
These moments act in planes that include the axis of rotation of the assembly such as planes XZ
and YZ in Figure. The moment's vector direction, or axis, is perpendicular to the assembly's axis
of rotation.
Any rotating object or assembly which is relatively long in the axial direction compared to the
radial direction requires dynamic balancing for complete balance. It is possible for an object to
be statically balanced but not be dynamically balanced. Consider the assembly in Figure above.
Two equal masses are at identical radii, 1800 apart rotationally, but separated along the shaft
length. A summation of -ma forces due to their rotation will be always zero. However, in the side
view, their inertia forces form a couple which rotates with the masses about the shaft. This
rocking couple causes a moment on the ground plane, alternately lifting and dropping the left and
right ends of the shaft.
Consider the system of three lumped masses arranged around and along the shaft like the
following figures

Assume that for some reason they cannot be individually statically balanced within their own
planes. So we can create two correction planes labeled A and B. in this design example the
unbalance masses are m1, m2, m3 are along with their angular locations ɵ1, ɵ2, and ɵ3. We
want to dynamically balance the system.
Here the summation of force is

251
Taking the moment from the plane A

Gyroscope
A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principles of
conservation of angular momentum. A mechanical gyroscope is essentially a spinning wheel or
disk whose axle is free to take any orientation. This orientation changes much less in response
to a given external torque than it would without the large angular momentum associated with
the gyroscope's high rate of spin. Since external torque is minimized by mounting the
device in gimbals, its orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of any motion of the platform
on which it is mounted.

Diagram of a gyro wheel. Reaction arrows about the output axis (blue) correspond to forces
applied about the input axis (green), and vice versa. Within mechanical systems or
devices, a conventional gyroscope is a mechanism comprising a rotor journal led to spin about
one axis, the journals of the rotor being mounted in an inner gimbal or ring, the inner gimbal is
journalled for oscillation in an outer gimbal which is journal led in another gimbal. So

252
basically there are three gimbals. The outer gimbal or ring which is the gyroscope frame is
mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer
gimbal possesses one degree of rotational freedom and its axis possesses none. The next inner
gimbal is mounted in the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal) so as to pivot about an axis in its own
plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal).
This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom. Similarly, next innermost
gimbal is attached to the inner gimbal which has three degree of rotational freedom and
its axis posses two. The axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor is
journaled to spin about an axis which is always perpendicular to the axis of the innermost
gimbal. So, ]the rotor possesses four degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses
three. The wheel responds to a force applied about the input axis by a reaction force about the
output axis.
The behavior of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front
wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the wheel
moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel also turns to the left. In other words, rotation on
one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis.

With the help of vector diagram here is the diagram based on right hand rule

253
Gyroscopic couple

254
C is active gyroscopic couple.

255
 1. Introduction to turbomachinery
Definition of turbo machine, parts of turbo machines, Comparison with positive displacement machines,
Classification, Dimensionless parameters and their significance, Effect of Reynolds number, Unit and specific
quantities, model studies. (Note: Since dimensional analysis is covered in Fluid Mechanics subject, questions
on dimensional analysis may not be given. However, dimensional parameters and model studies may be
given more weightage.) Thermodynamics of fluid flow: Application of first and second law of
thermodynamics to turbo machines, Efficiencies of turbo machines, Static and Stagnation states,
Incompressible fluids and perfect gases, overall isentropic efficiency, stage efficiency (their comparison) and
polytropic efficiency for both compression and expansion processes. Reheat factor for expansion process.

Energy exchange in Turbo machines: Euler’s turbine equation, Alternate form of Euler’s turbine equation,
Velocity triangles for different values of degree of reaction, Components of energy transfer, Degree of
Reaction, utilization factor, Relation between degree of reaction and Utilization factor, Problems. General
Analysis of Turbo machines: Radial flow compressors and pumps – general analysis, Expression for degree
of reaction, velocity triangles, Effect of blade discharge angle on energy transfer and degree of reaction,
Effect of blade discharge angle on performance, Theoretical head – capacity relationship, General analysis
of axial flow pumps and compressors, degree of reaction, velocity triangles.

Steam Turbines: Classification, Single stage impulse turbine, condition for maximum blade efficiency, stage
efficiency, Need and methods of compounding, Multi-stage impulse turbine, expression for maximum
utilization factor.

Reaction turbine – Parsons’s turbine, condition for maximum utilization factor,

reaction staging.

Hydraulic Turbines: Classification, various efficiencies. Pelton turbine – velocity triangles, design
parameters, Maximum efficiency. Francis turbine – velocity triangles, design parameters, runner shapes for
different blade speeds. Draft tube Types and functions. Kaplan and Propeller turbines – velocity triangles,
design parameters.

Centrifugal Pumps: Classification and parts of centrifugal pump, different heads and efficiencies of
centrifugal pump, Minimum speed for starting the flow, Maximum suction lift, Net positive suction head,
Cavitation, Need for priming, Pumps in series and parallel.
Centrifugal Compressors: Stage velocity triangles, slip factor, power input factor,
Stage work, Pressure developed, stage efficiency and surging and problems. Axial
flow Compressors: Expression for pressure ratio developed in a stage, work done

256
factor, efficiencies and stalling.

2. Definition of turbo machine

Q. Define a turbomachine. With a neat sketch explain the parts of a turbomachine?
A turbo machine is a device in which energy transfer occurs between a flowing fluid and rotating element
due to dynamic action. This results in change of pressure and momentum of the fluid.
Parts of turbo machine

Figure 1. Schematic cross-sectional view of a turbine showing the principal parts of the turbomachine
The principle components of a turbo machine are:
1. Rotating element (vane, impeller or blades)– operating in a stream of fluid.
2. Stationary elements – which usually guide the fluid in proper direction for efficient energy
conversion process.
3. Shaft – This either gives input power or takes output power from fluid under dynamic
conditions and runs at required speed.
4. Housing – to keep various rotating, stationery and other passages safely under dynamic
conditions of the flowing fluid. E.g. Steam turbine parts and Pelton turbine parts

2.1 Classification of turbo machines

Q. Explain how turbomachines are classified. Give at least one example of each?
1. Based on energy transfer
Q. Explain with examples the power generating, power absorbing and power transmitting
turbomachines?
a) Energy is given by fluid to the rotor - Power generating turbo machine E.g. Turbines
b) Energy given by the rotor to the fluid – Power absorbing turbo machineE.g. Pumps, blowers and
compressors

257
2. Based on fluid flowing in turbo machine
a) Water
b) Air
c) Steam
d) Hot gases
e) Liquids like petrol etc
3. Based on direction of flow through the impeller or vanes or blades, with reference to the
axis of shaft rotation
Q. What is an axial flow turbomachine? How is it different from a radial flow turbo machine?
a) Axial flow – Axial pump, compressor or turbine
b) Mixed flow – Mixed flow pump, Francis turbine
c) Radial flow – Centrifugal pump or compressor
d) Tangential flow – Pelton water turbine
4. Based on condition of fluid in turbo machine
a) Impulse type (constant pressure) E.g. Pelton water turbine
b) Reaction type (variable pressure) E.g. Francis reaction turbines
5. Based on position of rotating shaft
a) Horizontal shaft – Steam turbines
b) Vertical shaft – Kaplan water turbines
c)Inclined shaft – Modern bulb micro
Comparison between positive displacement machines and Turbo machines
Turbo machine Positive
It creates Thermodynamic & Dynamic, It creates Thermodynamic &Mechanical
action b/w rotating element & flowing fluid, action b/w moving member & static fluid,
energy transfer takes place if pressure and energy transfer takes place with
momentum changes displacement of fluid
It involves a steady flow of fluid & rotating It involves a unsteady flow of fluid &
motion of mechanical element reciprocating motion
They operate at high rotational speed They operate at low speed
Change of phase during fluid flow causes Change of phase during fluid flow causes
serious problems in turbomachine less problems in Positive displacement

258
 Machines

Efficiency is usually less Efficiency is higher

It is simple in design It is complex in design
Due to rotary motion vibration problems are Due to reciprocating motion vibration
less problems are more
E.g. Hydraulic turbines, Gas turbines, Steam E.g. I.C engines, Reciprocating air
turbines etc. compressor, pumps etc

Effect of Reynolds Number

Just like flow in pipes with friction, with decreasing Reynolds number, the loss factor increases at first slowly,
then more and more rapidly in Turbo machines.

The majority of ordinary turbo machines, (handling water, air, steam or gas) are found to operate in fully
rough region. The critical Reynolds number, at which the flow becomes fully rough, varies with the size of
the machine (it depends on relative roughness) and its exact location for a given machine is difficult to predict.
The understanding of boundary layer and its separation is of importance in loss effects.

3. First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics Applied to

Turbomachines:
Q. Explain the applications of first and second laws of thermodynamics toturbomachines? Starting
from the first law, derive an expression for the work output of a turbomachine in terms of properties at
inlet and outlet. Or Deducing an expression, explain the significance of first and second law of
thermodynamics applied to a turbomachine.
Consider single inlet and single output steady state turbomachine, across the sections ofwhich the
velocities, pressures, temperatures and other relevant properties are uniform.
Application of first law of thermodynamics: The steady flow equation of the first law of
thermodynamics in the unit mass basis is:
� �
�+ℎ + + =� + + + (3.1)
𝑔� ℎ 𝑔�
1 12 1 2 22 2

2 2

Here, q and w are heat transfer and work transfer per unit mass flow across the boundary of the control
volume respectively.
�2
Since, the stagnation enthalpy: ℎ� = ℎ + + 𝑔�.
2

259
Then, equation (3.1) becomes: � − � = ℎ�2 − ℎ�1 = ∆ℎ� (3.2)

260
 Generally, all turbomachines are well-insulated devices, therefore q=0. Then equation (3.2) can be
written as: ∆ℎ� = −� (3.3)
The equation (3.3) represents that, the energy transfer as work is numerically equal to the change in
stagnation enthalpy of the fluid between the inlet and outlet of the turbomachine.
In a power-generating turbomachine, w is positive as defined so that Δho is negative, i.e., the
stagnation enthalpy at the exit of the machine is less than that at the inlet. The machine produces out
work at the shaft. In a power-absorbing turbomachine, w is negative as defined so that Δho is positive.
The stagnation enthalpy at the outlet will be greater than that at the inlet and work is done on the flowing
fluid due to the rotation of the shaft.
Application of second law of thermodynamics: The second law equation of states, applied to
stagnation properties is:
(3.4) But equation � ���� = �ℎ� − �����
(1.3) in differential form is, �ℎ = −��.
Then equation (1.4) can be written as:
−�� = ����� + �����

(3.5)
In a power-generating machine, dpo is negative since the flowing fluid undergoes a pressure drop when
mechanical energy output is obtained. However, the Clausius inequality for a turbomachine is given that
����� ≥ 0. The sign of equality applies only to a reversible process which has a work output �����

=
����� . In a real machine (irreversible machine), ����� > 0 , which has a work output ��i��
= �����
− �����. So that ����� − ��i�� = ����� and represents the decrease in work output
due to the
irreversibilities in the machine. Therefore, the reversible power-generating machine exhibits the highest
mechanical output of all the machines undergoing a given stagnation pressure change. A similar
argument may be used to prove that the reversible power-absorbing machine needs the minimum work
input of all the machines for a given stagnation pressure rise (i.e., ��i�� − �����

=�����).

4. Efficiency of Turbomachines
Q. Define: (i) adiabatic efficiency and (ii) mechanical efficiency for power generatingand power
absorbing turbomachines.

261
The performance of a real machine is always inferior to that of a frictionless and loss-free ideal machine.
A measure of its performance is the efficiency, defined differently for power-generatingand power-
absorbing machines.
For power-generating machine, the efficiency is defined as:
������� Shaft Work ��ƒ�
5�g = =
�i
Output
����� W���
�������

������� Shaft Work ��ƒ�

Output

262
���, 5�g = =
����������i� ����𝑔� ����i����� ƒ���i �ℎ� ���i�

�
For power-absorbing machine, the efficiency is defined as:

����� W��� ����� �i

5�� = =
������� Shaft Work Input �
�ƒ�
����������i� ����𝑔� �����i�� �� �ℎ� ���i�
�i
𝑂�, 5�� = =
𝐴����� Shaft Work Input ��ƒ�
Generally, losses occur in turbomachines are due to: (a) mechanical losses like bearing friction,
windage, etc., (b) fluid-rotor losses like unsteady flow, friction between the blade and the fluid,
leakage across blades etc. If the mechanical and fluid-rotor losses are separated, the efficiencies may be
rewritten in the following forms:
For power-generating turbomachine,
Mechanical Energy Supplied by the Rotor ������� Shaft Work Output
5�g = ×
����������i� ������� ����i����� ƒ��� �ℎ� ���i� Mechanical Energy

Supplied by the Rotor

Or, 5�g = 5� × 5�
For power-absorbing turbomachines,
����������i� ������� Mechanical Energy Supplied to the Rotor
5�� ×
������� Shaft Work Input
�����i�� �� �ℎ� ���i�
= Mechanical Energy Supplied to the Rotor

Or, 5�g = 5� × 5� ��

where ηa and ηm are adiabatic and mechanical efficiencies respectively.

For power-generating turbomachine, adiabatic or isentropic or hydraulic
efficiency may be written as,

Mechanical Energy Supplied by the Rotor

5� =
����������i� ����𝑔�
= ����i����� ƒ���i
�ℎ� ���i� �
For power-absorbing turbomachine, adiabatic or isentropic or hydraulic efficiency may be written as,
����������i� ������� �����i�� ��
�ℎ� ���i� �i
261
 5� = =
Mechanical Energy Supplied to the Rotor
��
Note: (i) Hydrodynamic energy is defined as the energy possessed by the fluid in motion.
(ii) Windage loss is caused by fluid friction as the turbine wheel and blades rotate through the surrounding
fluid.
(iii) Leakage loss is caused by the fluid when it passes over the blades tip without doing any useful work.

5. Dimensional Analysis
The dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique deals with the dimensions of the quantities

262
 involved in the process. Basically, dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number and
complexity of experimental variable that affect a given physical phenomenon, by using a sort of
compacting technique.
The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are:
1. To generate non-dimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments and in the
reporting of experimental results.
2. To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model
performance.
3. To predict the relationship between the parameters.
Fundamental Quantities: Mass (M), length (L), time (T) and temperature (ɵ) are called fundamental
quantities since there is no direct relation between these quantities. There are seven basic quantities in physics
namely, mass, length, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity and amount of a substance.
Secondary Quantities or Derived Quantities: The quantities derived from fundamental quantitie are
called derived quantities or secondary quantities. Examples: area, volume, velocity, force, acceleration,
etc.Dimensional Homogeneity: An equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the fundamental
dimensions have identical powers of M, L, T on both sides.
For example: � = ���
In dimensional form:

The Performance of a turbomachine like pumps, water turbines, fans or blowers for incompressible
flow can be expressed as a function of:

Density of the fluid

(ii) Speed of the rotor N
(iii) Characteristic diameter D
(iv) Discharge Q
(v) Gravity head (gH)
(vi) Power developed P and
(vii) Viscosity μ.
Obtain dimensionless groups and explain their significance.

263
Solution
Using Buckingham p theorem
Turbo machine = f [ , N, D, Q, gH, P, μ] Performance
Taking N, D as repeating variables and grouping with other variables as non-
dimensional groups.

Q. Give the significance of the dimensionless terms (i) Flow coefficient (ii) Head coefficient (iii) Power
coefficient with respect to turbomachines?
Q. Explain capacity coefficient, head coefficient and power coefficient referring to a turbo machine?
Q. Discuss the effect of Reynolds number on turbomachine?
Q. Explain the following dimensionless numbers: (i) Froude’s number, (ii) Weber’s number, (iii) Mach’s
number and (iv) Euler’s number?
Remember: The thermodynamics fluid flow are discussed on thermodynamic point, therefore we should
recall the importance of thermodynamics fluid flow in turbo machinery.

6. Energy Transfer In Turbomachines

6.1 Introduction:
In this section, general analysis of kinematic and dynamic factors for different types of turbomachines is
made. Kinematics relates to movement (velocities, accelerations, etc.), without paying attention to what
brought about the motion. Dynamics is related to detailed examination of the forces that bring about the
motion described by kinematics. The kinematic and dynamic factors depend on the velocities of fluid flow
in the machine as well as the rotor velocity itself and the forces of interaction due to velocity changes.

263
 6.2 Euler’s Turbine Equation
Q. Derive Euler’s turbine equation for power generating or power absorbing turbomachines and clearly
state the assumptions made.
The figure 6.1 shows the rotor of a generalized turbomachine with axis of rotation 0-0, with an angular
velocity ω. The fluid enters the rotor at radius r1 with an absolute velocity V1 and leaves the rotor at radius
r2 with an absolute velocity V2.

Figure 6.1 Fluid flow through a rotor of a turbomachine.

Assumptions:

i. Fluid flow through the turbomachine is steady flow.

ii. Mass flow rate is constant and the state of the fluid doesn‟t vary with time.

iii. Rate of energy transfer at the rotor is constant.

iv. Losses due to leakage are neglected.

The absolute velocity of the fluid can be resolved in to:

a. Axial component (Va), which is parallel to the axis of rotation of the rotor.

b. Radial component (Vm), which is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the rotor.

c. Tangential component (Vu), which is along the tangential direction of the rotor.

The only velocity component which changes the angular momentum of the rotor is the tangential component
(Vu) and by Newton‟s second law of motion forces applied on the rotor is equal to rate of change of
momentum of the fluid.

Force applied on the rotor = Rate of change of momentum

��u
� = ∆( ) = � (� − � )
�
��2�2)�(�
1−
Then, � = �1
But, Torque = Force × Radius
264
 � �1 �2

� = ��

But, Rate of energy transfer = Torque × Angular velocity

� = �×

�
Then, � = � (��1�1��1 − ��2�2��2)
But, tangential velocity of rotor � = �×𝜔
Then, � = � (�1��1 − �2��2)
Energy transfer per unit mass flow of fluid is
�
�= = (� � − � � )

(6.1)

� 1 �1 2 �2

The equation (3.1) is the general Euler‟s equation for all kind of turbomachines.
For power generating turbomachine energy transfer is positive (i.e., �1��1 >

�2��2)
Therefore, � = (�1��1 − �2��2) (6.2)
For power absorbing turbomachine energy transfer is negative (i.e., �2��2 >
�1��1)
Therefore, � = (�2��2 − �1��1) (6.3)
Note: (a) The change in magnitude of axial velocity components give rise to an axial thrust which must
be taken up by the thrust bearings. The change in magnitude of radial velocity components give rise to
a radial thrust which must be taken up by the journal bearing. Neither of these forces causes any angular
rotation nor has any effect on the torque exerted on the rotor.
(b) The Euler‟s turbine equation may be used for the flow of fluids like water, steam, air and combustion
products, since their viscosities are reasonably small. For fluids of very large viscosity like heavy oils
or petroleum products, errors in the calculated torque and power output may result due to: (i) non-
uniformity of velocity profiles at the inlet and the exit and
(ii) the boundary layers near the housing and the stator surfaces. Both these tend reduce the magnitude
of the torque in comparison with the ideal torque predicted by Euler‟s turbine equation.
Procedure to draw velocity diagram
In turbomachinery, a velocity triangle or a velocity diagram is a triangle representing the various components
of velocities of the working fluid in a turbomachine. Velocity triangles may be drawn for both the inlet and
outlet sections of any turbomachine. The vector nature of velocity is utilized in the triangles, and the most
basic form of a velocity triangle consists of the tangential velocity, the absolute velocity and the relative
velocity of the fluid making up three sides of the triangle.

Consider turbomachine consisting of a stator and a rotor. The three points that are very much important to
draw the velocity triangles are entry to the stator, the gap between the stator and rotor and exit from the rotor.
265
These points labelled 3, 1 and 2 respectively in figure 3.2 and combination of rotor and stator is called stage
in turbomachines.

The fluid enters the stator at point 3 but as the stator is not moving there is no relative motion between the
incoming flow and the stator so there is no velocity triangle to draw at this point. At point 1 the flow leaves
the stator and enters the rotor. Here there are two flow velocities, the absolute velocity of the flow (V) viewed
from the point of view of stationary stator and relative velocity of flow (Vr) viewed from the point of view
of moving rotor. The rotor is moving with a tangential velocity of magnitude U. At point 2 the flow leaves
the rotor and exits the stage. Again, there are two flow velocities, one by viewing from the moving rotor and
another by viewing from outside the rotor where there is no motion.

Figure 6.2 Velocity triangles for a turbomachine.

Therefore, velocity triangles can be drawn for the point 1 and point 2 as shown in figure 3.2, the methodology
for this is as follows

1. Draw the flow that is known

2. Draw the blade speed

3. Close the triangle with the remaining vector

4. Check that the key rule applies: � → = � → + �

�→

The velocity triangles at inlet and outlet of the rotor are utmost important in deciding the size of the
turbomachine for the given power output.

6.3 General Analysis of Turbomachines

In general, turbomachines may be classified into impulse and reaction types, depending upon the type of
energy exchange that occurs in the rotor blades. An impulse stage is one in which the static pressure at the

266
rotor inlet is the same as that at the rotor outlet (i.e.��1 = ��2 ��� �1 = �2). In an impulse stage, the

energy
exchange is purely due to change in the direction of the fluid (i.e., change in dynamic pressure) and there is

267
a negligible change in the magnitude of velocity as fluid flows over the rotor blades. The force exerted on
the blades is due to change in the direction of the fluid during flow over the moving blade.

A reaction stage is one where a change in static pressure occurs during flow over each rotor stage. In a reaction
stage, the direction and magnitude of the relative velocity are changed by shaping the blade passage as a nozzle
(or as a diffuser, depending upon whether it is generating or absorbing power). The force exerted on the blades
is due to both changes in magnitude and in direction of the fluid velocity. Therefore, to make analysis on
turbo machine we need to know the degree of reaction and utilization factor

Q. Identify the relation of those parameter (degree of reaction and utilization factor)and the condition of
maximum utilization factor for the analysis of these two types of turbo machinery?

6.3.1 General Analysis of Turbines

Power generating turbomachines are generally referred to as turbines. Turbines may run with compressible
fluids like air or steam or with incompressible fluids like water. The quantity of interest in the power
generating device is the work output. These machines are divided into axial, radial and mixed flow devices
depending on the flow direction in the rotor blades.

I. Axial Flow Turbines: Axial flow machine are those in which the fluid enters and leaves the rotor
at the same radius as shown in figure 3.5. Hence, for axial flow turbines U1=U2. In these kinds
of machines, the flow velocity (Vf or Va) is assumed to be constant from inlet to outlet. Axial
flow turbines comprise the familiar steam turbines, gas turbines etc.
Energy transfer for axial flow turbine is:
1
� = [(�2 − �2) − (�2 − �2 )]

1 2 �1 �2
2
Degree of reaction for axial flow turbine is:

[(�2 − �2
)]
� = [(�2 − � �2 �1
( −
� )]

2) + �2 2
1 2 �2 �1
Utilization factor for axial flow turbine is:

268
 [(�2 − �2) − (�2 − �2
1 2
)] �1 �2
c= [� −
2 − � 2 )]
(� 2

1 �1

�2

269
 Figure 6.3 Axial flow turbine

Q. Explain why turbines with reaction R>1 and R<0 are not in practical us?

268
Velocity diagram

Q. Sketch velocity diagrams for R=0, R=0.5 and R=1 and label?

For impulse axial flow turbine, R=0, thus Vr1 should be equal to Vr2 and if the blades are equiangular
then, β1=β2 as shown in figure 3.6 (a). Here energy transfer is purely due to change in dynamic pressure.

Figure 6.4 Velocity triangles for axial flow turbine R = 0, R = 0.5 and R = 1
For 50% reaction axial flow turbine, R=0.5, thus (�2 − �2) = (�2 − �2 ) and if the stator

and
1 2 �2 �1

rotor blades are symmetric (two blades are identical but orientations are different) then, α1=β2 and α2=β1
and also V1=Vr2 and V2=Vr1 as shown in figure 6.4 (b). Here energy transfer due to change in dynamic
pressure is equal to energy transfer due to change in static pressure.
For fully (100%) reaction axial flow turbine, R=1, thus V1 should be equal to V2 and also α1=α2
as shown in figure 6.4 (c). Here stator acts purely as a directional device and doesn’t take part in the
energy conversion process. The rotor acts both as the nozzle and as the energy transfer device, so energy
transfer is purely due to change in static pressure.

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II. Radial Flow Turbines

270
Radial flow turbines are radial inward flow turbomachines, here fluid flows across the rotor blades radially
from outer radius (tip radius) to inner radius (hub radius) of the rotor as shown in figure 3.15. Therefore,
radial turbines are also known as centripetal turbomachines. Since the fluid enters and leaves the rotor at
different radius U1≠U2.

Velocity diagram

The data given in the problem are:

��1 = 0, �2 = 2�1, ��1 = ��2 = ��, ��1 = 45�(∴ �1 = ��1)

Figure 6.5 Radial flow

turbineThe velocity diagram for the above conditions is as
follows

Figure 6.6 velocity diagram radial flow

Energy transfer of general radial flow turbomachine is given by,

� = (�1��1 −
�2��2)
But ��1 =
� = −�2��2 (6.4)
0,

271
From outlet velocity triangle, ��2 = �2 − �2
�
But, ���𝛽 = 2 ⟹ � = � ���𝛽
2 ��2 2 �2 2

272
Then, ��2 = �2 − ��2�����2 Substitute Vu2 in equation

(6.4)
� = −�2(�2 −
��2�����2)
From given data, �2 = 2�1 = 2��1 = 2��2 =
2��
� = −2��(2�� − �������2)
� = 2�2 (�����2− 2)

(6.5)

7. General Analysis of Power-absorbing Turbomachines

Compressors and pumps are power absorbing turbomachines, since they raise the stagnation
pressure or enthalpy of a fluid through mechanical energy intake. The quantity of interest in the
power absorbing device is the stagnation enthalpy or pressure rise of the flowing fluid due to the
work. In power absorbing machines, the reference direction to define the various angles is often
the axis than the tangent to the rotor-tip. Like turbines, these machines may be divided into axial,
radial and mixed flow devices depending on the flow direction in the rotor blades.

Axial Flow Compressors and Pumps: In axial flow machines, the blade speed is the same at the
rotor inlet and outlet. Each compressor stage consists usually of a stator and a rotor just as in a
turbine. Further, there is diffuser at the exit to recover part of the exit kinetic energy of the fluid to
produce an increase in static pressure. The pressure at the compressor exit will have risen due to
the diffusive action in rotors and stators. If stator blades are present at the inlet they are called inlet
guide-vanes. The blades at the exit section in the diffuser are called exit guide-vanes.

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 Figure 7.1 Axial flow compressor

The general velocity diagram for axial flow compressor stage is as shown in figure 3.18. For axial
flow machines the blade speed and the axial velocity may assume to be constant. That is,

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�1 = �2 = � ��� ��1 = ��2

= ��

Figure 7.2 General velocity diagram for axial flow compressor stage

Usually in an axial flow turbomachine the working fluid is either combustion gas or air. Whenever,
the energy transfer occurs in these machines, then pressure energy or enthalpy of the working fluid
changes. Therefore, energy transfer of an axial flow compressor is given as:

� = ∆ℎ � = �(��2 − ��1)

From inlet velocity triangle

From outlet velocity triangle,

273
274
Where γ1 and γ2 are the inlet and outlet blade angles with respect to axial direction are also known
as Air angles.

Where β1 and β2 are the inlet and outlet blade angles with respect to tangential direction.

Radial Flow Compressors and Pumps: Radial flow compressors and pumps are radial outward
flow turbomachines, here fluid flows across the rotor blades radially from inner radius (hub radius)
to outer radius (tip radius) of the rotor as shown in figure 3.19. Therefore, radial compressors and
pumps are also known as centrifugal turbomachines. Since the fluid enters and leaves the rotor at
different radius U1≠U2. In centrifugal compressor or pump usually, the absolute velocity at the
entry has no tangential component, i.e., Vu1= 0.

For the centrifugal compressor there are different types of vanes shape. Those are

I. Backward curved vane

II. Radial vane
III. Forward curved vane.

The vane is said to be backward curved if the angle between the rotor blade-tip and the tangent to
the rotor at the exit is acute (β2<90o). If it is a right angle (β2=90o) the blade said to be radial and
if it is greater than 90o, the blade is said to be forward curved. Here the blade angles measured
with respect to direction of rotor (clockwise direction). The velocity triangles at the outlet of
centrifugal machines are shown in figure 7.3

The head-capacity characteristic curve for the above 3 types of vanes is given in figure 3.16, if β2
lies between 0 to 90o (backward curved vanes), cotβ2 in H-Q relation is always positive. So for
backward curved vanes the head developed by the machine falls with increasing discharge. For
values of β2 between 90o to 180o, cotβ2 in H-Q relation is negative. So for forward curved vanes
the head developed by the machine continuously rise with increasing discharge. For β2=90o (radial

275
vanes), the head is independent of flow rates and is remains constant. For centrifugal machines
usually, the absolute velocity at the entry has no tangential component (i.e., Vu1= 0), thus the inlet
velocity triangle for all the 3 types of vanes is same.

Figure 7.3 Types of centrifugal vanes

8. Steam Turbines
Steam turbines use the steam as a working fluid. In steam turbines, high pressure steam from the
boiler is expanded in nozzle, in which the enthalpy of steam being converted into kinetic energy.
Thus, the steam at high velocity at the exit of nozzle impinges over the moving blades (rotor)
which cause to change the flow direction of steam and thus cause a tangential force on the rotor
blades. Due to this dynamic action between the rotor and the steam, thus the work is developed.

276
These machines may be of axial or radial flow type devices. Steam turbines may be of two kinds,
namely, (i) impulse turbine and (ii) Reaction turbine

Figure 8.1 A) Impulse Turbine B) Reaction turbine

8.1 Classification of Steam Turbines

Based on the action of steam on blades, steam turbines are classified into impulse turbines and
reaction turbines (or impulse reaction turbines).

Impulse Steam Turbine: Impulse or impetus means sudden tendency of action without reflexes.
A single-stage impulse turbine consists of a set of nozzles and moving blades as shown in figure
8.2 High pressure steam at boiler pressure enters the nozzle and expands to low condenser pressure
in the nozzle. Thus, the pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy increasing the velocity of
steam. The high velocity steam is then directed on a series of blades where the kinetic energy is
absorbed and converted into an impulse force by changing the direction of flow of steam which
gives rise to a change in momentum and therefore to a force. This causes the motion of blades. The
velocity of steam decreases as it flows over the blades but the pressure remains constant, i.e. the
pressure at the outlet side of the blade is equal to that at the inlet side. Such a turbine is termed as
impulse turbine. Examples: De-Laval, Curtis, Moore, Zoelly, Rateau etc.

277
 Figure 8.2 Impulse steam turbine

Impulse Reaction Steam Turbine: In the impulse reaction turbine, power is generated by the
combination of impulse action and reaction by expanding the steam in both fixed blades (act as
nozzles) and moving blades as shown in figure 8.1 B . Here the pressure of the steam drops partially
in fixed blades and partially in moving blades. Steam enters the fixed row of blades, undergoes a
small drop in pressure and increases in velocity. Then steam enters the moving row of blades,
undergoes a change in direction and momentum (impulse action), and a small drop in pressure too
(reaction), giving rise to increase in kinetic energy. Hence, such a turbine is termed as impulse
reaction turbine. Examples: Parson, Ljungstrom etc.

Figure 8.3 Reaction steam turbine

The differences between impulse and reaction turbines are

278
 Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
Complete expansion of the steam take place in Partial expansion of the steam takes place in
the nozzle, hence steam is ejected with very the fixed blade (acts as nozzle) and further
high kinetic energy. expansion takes place in the rotor blades.
Blades are symmetrical in shape. Blades are non-symmetrical in shape, i.e.
aerofoil section.
Pressure remains constant between the ends of Pressure drops from inlet to outlet of the
the moving blade. Hence relative velocity moving blade. Hence relative velocity
remains constant i.e., ��1 = ��2 increases from inlet to outlet i.e., ��2 > ��1
Steam velocity at the inlet of machine is very Steam velocity at the inlet of machine is
high, hence needs compounding.
moderate or low, hence doesn‟t need
compounding.
Blade efficiency is comparatively low. Blade efficiency is high.
Few number of stages required for given More number of stages required for given
pressure drop or power output, hence machine pressure drop or power output, hence machine
is compact.
is bulky.
Used for small power generation. Used for medium and large power generation.
Suitable, where the efficiency is not a matter of Suitable, where the efficiency is a matter of
fact. fact.

8.2 Need for Compounding of Steam Turbines

If the steam pressure drops from boiler pressure to condenser pressure in a single stage, exit
velocity of steam from the nozzle will become very high and the turbine speed will be of the order
of 30,000 rpm or more. As turbine speed is proportional to steam velocity, the carryover loss or
leaving loss will be more (10% to 12%). Due to this very high speed, centrifugal stresses are
developed on the turbine blades resulting in blade failure. In order to overcome all these difficulties
it is necessary to reduce the turbine speed by the method of compounding. Compounding is the
method of reducing blade speed for a given overall pressure drop.

8.2.1 Methods of Compounding of Steam Turbine

Following are the methods of compounding of steam turbines:
1. Velocity compounding
2. Pressure compounding
3. Pressure and velocity compounding

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1. Velocity Compounding
A simple velocity compounded impulse turbine is shown in figure 8.4. It consists of a set of nozzles
and a rotating wheel fitted with two or more rows of moving blades. One row of fixed blades fitted
between the rows of moving blades. The function of the fixed blade is to direct the steam coming
from the first row of moving blades to the next row of moving blades without appreciable change
in velocity.

Steam from the boiler expands completely in the nozzle, hence whole of the pressure energy
converts into kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of steam gained in the nozzle is successively
absorbed by rows of moving blades and steam is exited from the last row axially with very low
velocity. Due to this, the rotor speed decreases considerably. The velocity compounded impulse
turbine is also called the Curtis turbine stage.

Figure 8.4 Two stage velocity compounded impulse turbine.

2.Pressure Compounding

: If a number of simple impulse stages arranged in series is known as pressure compounding. The
arrangement contains one set of nozzles (fixed blades) at the entry of each row of moving blades.
The total pressure drop doesn‟t take place in the first row of nozzles, but divided equally between
all the nozzles as shown in figure 8.5 .

280
 Figure 8.5 Two stage pressure compounded impulse turbine.

The steam from the boiler is passed through the first set of nozzles in which it is partially expanded.
Steam then passes over the first row of moving blades where almost all its velocity is absorbed.
This completes expansion of steam in one stage. In the next stage, steam again enters the second
set of nozzles and partially expands and enters the moving blades. Again, the steam velocity is
absorbed. This process continues till steam reaches the condenser pressure. Due to pressure
compounding, smaller transformation of heat energy into kinetic energy takes place. Hence steam
velocities become much lower and rotor speed decrease considerably. The pressure compounded
impulse turbine is also called the Rateau turbine stage.

3.Pressure-Velocity Compounding

If pressure and velocity are both compounded using two or more number of stages by having a
series arrangement of simple velocity compounded turbines on the same shaft, it is known as
pressure-velocity compounding. In this type of turbine both pressure compounding and velocity
compounding methods are used. The total pressure drop of the steam is dividing into two stages
and the velocity obtained in each stage is also compounded. Pressure drop occurs only in nozzles
and remains constant in moving and fixed blades. As pressure drop is large in each stage only a
few stages are necessary. This makes the turbine more compact than the other two types. Pressure-
velocity compounding is used in Curtis turbine.

281
 Figure 8.6 Pressure-velocity compounded impulse turbine

Efficiencies of Steam Turbine

Q. Define and explain? (i) blade coefficient (ii) nozzle efficiency (iii) diagram efficiency (iv)
stage efficiency.

The performance parameter of steam turbines are Blade coefficient, Nozzle efficiency, diagram
efficiency, and stage efficiency. Therefore, it shall to understand the relation of those performance
parameters to expand students’ knowledge and should focus on it.

9. Hydraulic turbine
9.1 Introduction
The energy source which does not depend on thermal energy input to produce mechanical output
is hydraulic energy. It may be either in the form of potential energy as we find in dams, reservoirs
or in the form of kinetic energy in flowing water. Hydraulic turbines are the machines which
convert the hydraulic energy in to mechanical energy.

9.2 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic turbines are classified based on the following important factors:

1.Based on the action of water on blades or the energy available at the turbine inlet, hydraulic
turbines are classified as impulse and reaction turbines.

282
Impulse turbine: In this type of turbine the energy of the fluid entering the rotor is in the form of
kinetic energy of jets. Example: Pelton turbine.

Reaction turbine: In this turbine the energy of the fluid entering the rotor is in the form of kinetic
energy of jets and pressure energy of turbine. Example: Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine.

2.Based on the direction of fluid flow through the runner, turbine are classified as tangential
flow turbine, radial flow turbine, axial flow turbine and mixed flow turbine.

Tangential flow turbine: In this type of turbine water strikes the runner along the tangential
direction, these turbines are also known as peripheral flow turbines. Example: Pelton turbine.

Radial flow turbine: In this type of turbine water flow through the runner along the radial direction.
Example: Francis turbine.

Axial flow turbine: In this type of turbine water flow through the runner along the axial direction.
Example: Kaplan turbine.

Mixed flow turbine: In this type of turbine water enters the runner radially and leaves the runner
axially. Example: Francis turbine.

3. Based on specific speed of runner, turbines are classified as low specific speed turbines,
medium specific speed turbines and high specific speed turbines.

Low specific speed turbines: Such turbines have usually high head in the range of 200 m to 1700
m and these machines require low discharge. These turbines have specific speed in the range of 10
to 30 for single jet and 30 to 50 for double jet. Example: Pelton turbine.

A) Medium specific speed turbines: Such turbines have usually medium head in the range
of 50 m to 200 m and these machines require medium discharge. These turbines have
specific speed in the range of 60 to 400. Example: Francis turbine.
B) High specific speed turbines: Such turbines have usually very low head in the range of
2.5 m to 50 m and these machines require high discharge. These turbines have specific
speed in the range of 300 to 1000. Example: Kaplan turbine.

The general characteristics features of Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines

283
Pelton wheel turbine is an impulse turbine. These turbines have usually high head in the range of
200 m to 1700 m and these machines require low discharge, hence the specific speed is low in
the range of 10 to 30. In this type of turbine water strikes the runner along the tangential direction,
these turbines are also known as peripheral (tangential) flow turbines.

Francis turbine is a reaction turbine. These turbines have usually medium head in the range of
50 m to 200 m and these machines require medium discharge, hence the specific speed is medium
in the range of 60 to 400. In this type of turbine water enters radially and leaves axially or vice
versa, these turbines are also known as mixed flow turbines.

Kaplan turbine is also a reaction turbine. These turbines have usually very low head in the range
of 2.5 m to 50 m and these machines require high discharge, hence the specific speed is high in
the range of 300 to 1000. In this type of turbine water flow through the runner along the axial
direction, these turbines are also known as axial flow turbines.

9.3 Heads and Efficiencies of Hydraulic Turbines

Gross head (Hg): It is the head of water available for doing useful work. It is the difference
between the head race and tail race level when there is no flow. It is also known as static head.

Net head (H): It is the head available at the inlet of the turbine. It is obtained by considering all
losses, like loss in kinetic energy of water due to friction, pipe bends and fittings. If hf is the total
loss, then net head is given by � = �g − ℎ

ƒ..

Volumetric efficiency (ηv): It is the ratio of the quantity of water striking the runner of the
turbineto the quantity of water supplied at the turbine inlet.
�−

∆�
5� =

�
Where ΔQ is the amount of water that slips directly to the tail race.

Hydraulic efficiency (ηH): It is the ratio of work done by the runner to the energy available at
theinlet of the turbine.

284
285
Where H is net head and hL = (hLr+hLc) is head loss in the runner and casing. If leakage losses
are considered then actual hydraulic efficiency is,

Mechanical efficiency (y�): It is the ratio of shaft work output by the turbine to the work done
by the runner.
wsft w
sft
Sm
u(vu1 vu 2 ) g (H hL )

Overall efficiency (y�): It is the ratio of shaft work output by the turbine to the energy available at
the inlet of the turbine.

As mentioned above there are different types of hydraulic turbines classified based on specific
speed such as Francis, Pelton, and Kaplan. The detail analysis is required which is force, power
and, efficiency. The students shall be to father reading and referring different relevant materials on
this regard.

These questions useful for recall those different types of hydraulic turbines.

Q. What is the reason for the provision of a splitter in a Pelton wheel bucket?

Q. Derive an expression for force, power and efficiency of a Pelton wheel with the help of
velocity triangles. and, obtain an expression for the work done per second by water on the runner
a Pelton wheel and hydraulic efficiency.

Q. With a neat sketch explain the working of Francis turbine. Draw the velocity triangles of
Francis turbine.

Q. identify design parameters for each hydraulic turbine

Q. Explain the functioning of a Kaplan turbine with the help of a sectional arrangement
diagram. Draw the velocity triangles of Kaplan turbine.

286
Q. identify which types of turbine installed for Ethiopian renaissance dam and explain the
reason?

Q. Explain the functions of a draft tube in a reaction hydraulic turbine?

The students must able to answer the above questions and the question address main knowledge
about the hydraulic turbine.

10. Hydraulic Pumps

10.1 Introduction
Hydraulics is defined as the science of the conveyance of liquids through pipes. The pump is often
used to raise water from a low level to a high level where it can be stored in a tank. Most of the
theory applicable to hydraulic pumps has been derived using water as the working fluid, but other
liquids can also be used. In this section, we will assume that liquids are totally incompressible
unless otherwise specified. This means that the density of liquids will be considered constant no
matter how much pressure is applied. Unless the change in pressure in a particular situation is very
great, this assumption will not cause a significant error in calculations. Centrifugal and axial flow
pumps are very common hydraulic pumps. Both work on the principle that the energy of the liquid
is increased by imparting kinetic energy to it as it flows through the pump. This energy is supplied
by the impeller, which is driven by an electric motor or some other drive. The centrifugal and axial
flow pumps will be discussed separately in the following sections.

Centrifugal pump is a power absorbing turbomachine used to raise liquids from a lower level
toa higher level by creating the required pressure with help of centrifugal action. Thus it can be
defined as a machine which converts mechanical energy into pressure energy (hydraulic energy)
by means of centrifugal action on the liquids.
When a certain amount of liquid is rotated by an external energy (mechanical energy) inside
the pump casing, a forced vortex is set up, which raises the pressure head of the rotating liquid
purely by centrifugal action.
Working principle

Figure 6.1(a) shows the working principal of a centrifugal pump. The liquid to be pumped
enters the centre of the impeller which is known as eye of the pump and discharge into the
space around the casing and hence filling the space. Due to the rotation of the impeller inside

287
 the pump casing a forced vortex is set up which imparts pressure head to the liquid purely by
centrifugal action.
The pressure head developed by centrifugal action is entirely by the velocity imparted to the
liquid by rotating impeller and not due to any displacement or impact. Thus the mechanical
action of the pump is to impart velocity to liquid so that its speed is enough to produce
necessary centrifugal head for discharging.

Figure 10.1 Classification based on pump casings

The classifications are,

Based on types of casing: volute pump and diffusion or turbine pump

Based on types fluid entrance: Single and double entry pumps

Figure 10.2 Classification based on fluid entrance

Based on types impeller
Q. Explain different types of centrifugal pump impellers and list their merits and demerits.
Based on the type of impeller centrifugal pumps are classified as closed impeller pump, semi-
closed (semi-open) impeller pump and open impeller pump as shown in figure 10.3.

288
 Figure 10.3 Classification based on type of impeller
1.Closed Impeller Pump: If the impeller vanes are covered with shrouds on both sides of the
impeller, then it is a closed impeller pump. This pump can handle non-viscous liquids like water
(hot and cold), hot oil, acids etc.
2.Semi-closed (Semi-open) Impeller Pump: If the vanes are covered with shroud on one side
of the impeller only, then it is a semi-closed impeller pump. The height of the vanes are increased
and number of vanes are reduced so as avoid clogging of impeller. This pump can be used to
discharge sewage water, pulp etc.
3.Open Impeller Pump: If the vanes are not covered with shroud, then it is open impeller pump.
The impeller is made of forged steel and is designed to work under rough operating conditions.
This pump can be used discharge mixtures of water, sand, clay etc.
The closed and semi-closed type impellers cover most industrial applications due to their
superior performance and efficiency. The open type with no shroud is employed due to its
simplicity, low cost and negligible maintenance. But its efficiency is very poor since it has poor
flow confinement and the vanes are not formed to provide the best efficiency.
Q. Define the following with respect to centrifugal pumps: (i) Static head (ii) Manometric head
(iii)Total head with the help of a schematic diagram?

Q. Explain the following with mathematical expression: (i) Manometric efficiency (ii) Mechanical
efficiency (iii) Volumetric efficiency (iv) Overall efficiency?

Q. What are the applications of multi-stage centrifugal pumps?

10.2 Cavitation and Priming on pump

If the pressure at any point in a suction side of centrifugal pump falls below the vapour

289
 pressure, then the water starts boiling forming saturated vapour bubbles. Thus, formed bubbles
moves at very high velocity to the more pressure side of the impeller blade and strikes the
surface of the bladeand collapse there. In this way, as the pressure further decreases, more
bubbles will be formed and collapses on the surface of the blades, physically enables to
erosion and pitting, forming the cavities on blades. This process takes place many thousand
times in a second and damages the blade of a centrifugal pump. This phenomenon is known
as cavitation.
Causes of cavitation: The causes of cavitation are as follows,
1. The metallic surfaces damaged and cavities are formed on the impeller surface.
2. Considerable noise and vibration are produced due to the sudden collapse of vapor
bubble.
3. The efficiency of the machine reduces.
Steps to avoid cavitation: The following steps should be taken to avoid cavitation,
1. The suction losses should be minimized through the use of large diameter suction
tubes withfewer bends than in the delivery pipe.
2. The pressure of the fluid flow in any part of the system should not fall below
the vaporpressure.
3. The impeller should be made of better cavitation resistant materials such as
aluminum, bronzeand stainless steel.

11. Centrifugal Compressors

Centrifugal compressors work very much like centrifugal pumps except that they handle gases
instead of liquids. Compressors as well as blowers and fans are the devices used to increase the
pressure of a compressible fluid (gas).

A fan usually consists of a single rotor with or without a stator element and causes only a small
rise in stagnation pressure of the flowing fluid, perhaps as low as 20 to 30 mm of water and very
rarely in excess of 0.07 bar. Fans are used to provide strong circulating air currents or for air
circulation and ventilation of buildings.

A blower may consist of one or more stages of compression with the rotors mounted on a common
shaft. The air is compressed in a series of successive stages and is often led through a diffuser

290
located near the exit. Blowers may run at very high shaft speeds and cause overall pressure rise in
the range 1.5 to 2.5 bar. Blowers are used in ventilators, power stations, workshops, etc.

A compressor is a device used to produce large pressure changes ranging from 2.5 to 10 bar or
more. Centrifugal compressors are mainly used in turbo-chargers.

The advantages of centrifugal compressor over the axial flow compressor are smaller length and
wide range of mass flow rate of gas. The disadvantages are larger frontal area and lower maximum
efficiency.

11.1 Components of Centrifugal Compressor

The principal components are the impeller and the diffuser. When the impeller is rotating at high
speed, air is drawn in through the eye of the impeller. The absolute velocity of the inflow air is
axial. The air then flows radially through the impeller passages due to centrifugal force. The total
mechanical energy driving the compressor is transmitted to the fluid stream in the impeller where
it is converted into kinetic energy, pressure and heat due to friction. The function of the diffuser is
to convert the kinetic energy of air that leaving the impeller into pressure. The air leaving the
diffuser is collected in a spiral casing from which it is discharged from compressor. The pressure
and velocity variation across the centrifugal compressor is shown in figure 11.1

Figure 11.1 Pressure and velocity diagram for centrifugal compressor

291
 11.2 Types of Vane Shapes
There are three types of vane shapes in centrifugal machines namely, (i) Backward curved vane
(ii) Radial vane (iii) Forward curved vane.

The vane is said to be backward curved if the angle between the rotor blade-tip and the tangent to
the rotor at the exit is acute (β2<90o). If it is a right angle (β2=90o) the blade said to be radial and
if it is greater than 90o, the blade is said to be forward curved. Here the blade angles measured
with respect to direction of rotor (clockwise direction). The velocity triangles at the outlet of
centrifugal machines are shown below.

For centrifugal machines usually, the absolute velocity at the entry has no tangential component
(i.e., Vu1= 0), thus the inlet velocity triangle for all the 3 types of vanes is same.

Figure 11.2 Different vane shapes in centrifugal compressors

Q. Discuss with velocity diagram why backward curved vanes are preferred for radial flow
(centrifugal) compressors? And its influence of impeller vanes on centrifugal compressor?

289
Q. Describe the losses that occur in a compressor?

Q. Discuss the compressibility for a centrifugal compressor?

Q. What is the necessity of providing the pre-whirl at the inlet of the centrifugal compressor? Q.

What is the function of a diffuser? Name different types of diffusers used in centrifugal
compressor and explain them?

Q. Explain the surging phenomena in centrifugal compressors with the help of head-discharge
curves?

Q. Explain the choking phenomena in centrifugal compressors and characteristics of

centrifugal compressors?

11.3 The axial flow compressor

The axial flow compressor, however, can achieve higher pressures at a higher level of efficiency.
There are two important characteristics of the axial flow compressor—high-pressure ratios at good

efficiency and thrust per unit frontal area. Although in overall appearance, axial turbines are very
similar, examination of the blade cross-section will indicate a big difference. In the turbine, inlet
passage area is greater than the outlet. The opposite occurs in the compressor.

Thus, the process in turbine blades can be described as an accelerating flow, the increase in velocity
being achieved by the nozzle. However, in the axial flow compressor, the flow is decelerating or
diffusing and the pressure rise occurs when the fluid passes through the blades.

Figure 11.3 Schematic of an axial compressor section

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11.3.1 Velocity diagram for axial compressor
The basic principle of axial compressor operation is that kinetic energy is imparted to the air in the
rotating blade row, and then diffused through passages of both rotating and stationary blades. The
process is carried out over multiple numbers of stages. As mentioned earlier, diffusion is a
deceleration process. It is efficient only when the pressure rise per stage is very small. The blading
diagram and the velocity triangle for an axial flow compressor stage are shown in Fig. 5.4. Air
enters the rotor blade with absolute velocity C1 at an angle a1 measured from the axial direction.
Air leaves the rotor blade with absolute velocity C2 at an angle a2. Air passes through the diverging
passages formed between the rotor blades.

As work is done on the air in the rotor blades, C2 is larger than C1. The rotor row has tangential
velocity U. Combining the two velocity vectors gives the relative velocity at inlet V1 at an angle
b1. V2 is the relative velocity at the rotor outlet. It is less than V1, showing diffusion of the relative
velocity has taken place with some static pressure rise across the rotor blades. Turning of the air
towards the axial direction is brought about by the camber of the blades. Euler’s equation provides
the work done on the air, Wc U (Cw2 Cw1 )

Figure 11.4 Velocity diagrams for a compressor stage.

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Axial flow compressor characteristics

The forms of characteristic curves of axial flow compressors. These curves are quite similar to the
centrifugal compressor. However, axial flow compressors cover a narrower range of mass flow
than the centrifugal compressors, and the surge line is also steeper than that of a centrifugal
compressor. Surging and choking limit the curves at the two ends. However, the surge points in
the axial flow compressors are reached before the curves reach a maximum value. In practice, the
design points is very close to the surge line. Therefore, the operating range of axial flow
compressors is quite narrow. The curve taking or select from text book of turbomachinery(getting
from references) during design.

N.B: This module prepared for students’ main parts of the course and the points are condensed the
entire course outline with in this small number of pages. The students should not restrict only on
this document farther referring of other related materials are mandatory.

References
1. Text Book Turbo machinery design and theory by Rama S.R. Gorla, Aijaz A. Khan N.E.D
university Engineering and technology
2. Fluid Mechanics & Thermodynamics of Turbo machines, S. L. Dixon, Elsevier (2005)
3. Turbo machine, B.K.Venkanna PHI, New Delhi 2009.
4. Text Book of Turbo machines, M. S. Govindgouda and A. M. Nagaraj, M. M.
5. Publications, 4Th Ed, 2008.

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 MODULE IV OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. When the axes of the shafts, over which the gears are mounted, may move relative to
a fixed axis the train is called
A. Simple gear train
B. Compound gear train
C. Reverted gear train
D. Epicyclic gear train
2. In a complex motion
A. The body possesses one point which has no motion with respect to the
stationary frame of reference
B. All points on the body describe parallel paths.
C. Simultaneous combination of rotation and translation occurs.
D. Neither rotation nor translation motions occurs.
3. A Follower directly works with
A. Roller
B. Gears
C. Cams
D. Cylinder
4. Balancing
A. Increase quality of operation.
B. Maximizes vibration.
C. Maximizes audible and signal noises.
D. Decreases bearing life.
5. Four bar mechanism with one link fixed have
A. One Degree of freedom
B. Two Degree of freedom
C. Three Degree of freedom
D. Four Degree of freedom
6. For a rotating link at a constant rotational speed which one is true
A. The tangential acceleration away from the rotating axis in the link is
significant
B. The normal acceleration away from the rotating axis in the link is
significant
C. The tangential acceleration away from the rotating axis in the link is zero
D. The velocity away from the rotating axis in the link is zero
7. Which one regulate the speed of the prime mover by adjusting the working fluid in
the engine
A. Gears
B. Gyroscope
C. Governor
D. Cam
8. A temporary mechanical energy storage device is
A. Gears

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 B. Flywheel
C. Gyroscope
D. Governor
9. For a continuous relative motion in four bar mechanisms shown in the figure below
which condition should satisfy

a) L4+L3<L1+L2
b) L4+L2<L1+L3
c) L3+L2>L1+L4
d) L2+L4>L1+L3
10. A hunting governor is
a) Less sensitive
b) More stable
c) More sensitive
d) Isochronous
11. In flywheel the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is called
a) Fluctuation of speed
b) Coefficient of fluctuation of speed
c) Critical speed
d) Maximum fluctuation of speed
12. The engine of an airplane rotates in clockwise direction when seen from the tail end
and the airplane takes a turn to the left. The effect of the gyroscopic couple on the
airplane will be
a) To raise the nose and tail
b) To raise the nose and dip the tail
c) To dip the nose and raise the tail
d) To dip the nose and tail
13. A differential gear in automobile is used to
a) Help in turning
b) Assist in changing speed
c) Reduce speed
d) Provide jerk free movement to the car

294
14. The instantaneous center which vary with the configuration of the mechanism, are
called
a) Permanent instantaneous center
b) Fixed instantaneous center
c) Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous center
d) None of the above
15. A combination of kinematic pair is called kinematic chain when
A. Neither completely constrained nor successfully constrained.
B. Does not have relative motion between the combinations
C. Incomplete constrained
D. Successful constrained
16. Which one of the following is not a controlling force in centrifugal governor
A. Central load,
B. Centrifugal force
C. Spring
D. Weight of the sleeve
17. in which of the following mechanism the relative motions of the rigid bodies are in
one plane or in parallel planes?
a) spatial mechanism
b) spherical mechanism
c) flexure mechanism
d) planar mechanism
18. If there are redundant constraints in the chain and it forms a statically indeterminate
structure, what is the degree of freedom or the mobility of this structure?
a) More than 0
b) Less than 0
c) 1
d) 2
19. If the shortest link is fixed, what type of mechanism is obtained?
a) Crank rocker mechanism
b) Linkage is not planar
c) Double crank mechanism
d) Double rocker mechanism
20. Which of the following mechanism is an approximately straight-line motion
mechanism?
a) Hart’s mechanism
b) Watt’s mechanism
c) Scott Russell’s mechanism
d) Peaucellier mechanism
21. When large gear reductions are needed which gears are used.
a) bevel
b) worm

295
 c) helical
d) spur
22. Which of the gears has the highest contact ratio?
a) Worm
b) Bevel
c) Helical
d) Spur
23. A higher pair has .
a) Point contact
b) Surface contact
c) No contact
d) None of the above
24. In a ball bearing, ball and bearing forms a
a) Turning pair
b) Rolling pair
c) Screw pair
d) Spherical pair
25. Transmission angle is the angle between
a) Input link and coupler
b) Input link and fixed link
c) Output link and coupler
d) Output link and fixed link
26. Which of the following is an inversion of Single slider crank chain?
a) Beam engine
b) Rotary engine
c) Oldham’s coupling
d) Elliptical trammel
27. A ball and a socket forms a
a) Turning pair
b) Rolling pair
c) Screw pair
d) Spherical pair
28. Which gear is used for connecting two coplanar and intersecting shafts?
a) Spur gear
b) Helical gear
c) Bevel gear
d) None of the above
29. Module of a gear is
a) D/T
b) T/D c)
2D/T d)
2T/D
30. To connect two parallel and coplanar shafts the following type of gearing is used
a) Spur gear
b) Bevel gear
c) Spiral gear

296
 d) None of the above
31. In which of the following type of gear train the first gear and the last gear are co-
axial.
a) Simple gear train
b) Compound gear train
c) Reverted gear train
d) None of the above
32. Which gear train is used for higher velocity ratios in a small space?
a) Simple gear train
b) Compound gear train
c) Reverted gear train
d) Epicyclic gear train
34. A governor is said to be isochronous when equilibrium speed of all radii of rotation of
the balls with in the working range
a) Is constant
b) Varies uniformly
c) Is not constant
d) None of the above
35. The tooth profile most commonly used in gear drives for power transmission is
a) A cycloid
b) An involute
c) An ellipse
d) A parabola
36. A Hartnell governor is a governor of the
a) inertia type
b) pendulum type c)
centrifugal type d)
dead weight type
37. Which one of the following is an exact straight line mechanism using lower pairs?
a) Watt’s mechanism
b) Grasshopper mechanism
c) Robert’s mechanism
d) Paucellier’s mechanism
38. The purpose of a link is to
a) Transmit motion
b) Guide other links
c) Act as a support
d) all of the above
39. 13. Rectilinear motion of piston is converted into rotary by
a) Cross head
b) Slider crank
c) Connecting rod
d) Dudgeon pin
40. Transmission of power from the engine to the rear axle of an automobile is by means
of
a) Compound gears

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 b) Worm and wheel method
c) Hooke's joint
d) None

41. The probability of knocking in diesel engines is increased by

A. High self-ignition temperature
B. Low volatility
C. Higher viscosity
D. All of the above
42. Most high speed compression engines operate on
A. Otto cycle
B. Diesel cycle
C. Dual cycle
D. Carnot cycle
43. The size of inlet valve of.an engine in comparison to exhaust valve is
A. More
B. Less
C. Same
D. More/less depending on capacity of engine
44. The operation of forcing additional air under pressure in the engine cylinder is
known as
A. Scavenging
B. Turbulence
C. Supercharging
D. Pre-ignition
45. The working cycle in case of four stroke engine is completed in number
of revolutions of crankshaft
A. 1/2
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

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46. If the temperature of intake air in internal combustion engine increases, then its efficiency
will
A. Remain same
B. Decrease
C. Increase
D. None of the above
47. Scavenging air in diesel engine means
A. Air used for combustion sent under pres-sure
B. Forced air for cooling cylinder
C. Burnt air containing products of combustion
D. Air used for forcing burnt gases out of engine’s cylinder during the exhaust period
48. Supercharging is the process of
A. Supplying the intake of an engine with air at a density greater than the
density of the surrounding atmosphere (b) providing forced cooling air
B. Injecting excess fuel for raising more load
C. Supplying compressed air to remove combustion products fully
D. raising exhaust pressure.
49. The ratio of indicated thermal efficiency to the corresponding air standard cycle efficiency is
called
A. Net efficiency
B. Efficiency ratio
C. Relative efficiency (d) overall efficiency (e) cycle efficiency.
50. The air standard efficiency of an Otto cycle compared to diesel cycle for the given
compression ratio is
A. Same
B. Less
C. More
D. More or less depending on power rating
51. The calorific value of gaseous fuels is expressed in terms of
A. Kcal
B. Kcal/kg
C. Kcal/m2
D. Kcal/n
52. All heat engines utilize
A. Low heat value of oil
B. High heat value of oil
C. Net calorific value of oil
D. Calorific value of fuel
53. Fuel oil consumption guarantees for I .C. Engine are usually based on
A. Low heat value of oil
B. High heat value of oil
C. Net calorific value of oil

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 D. Calorific value of fuel
E. All of the above.
54. In case of gas turbines, the gaseous fuel consumption guarantees are based on
A. High heat value
B. Low heat value
C. Net calorific value
D. Middle heat value
E. Calorific value.
55. In a typical medium speed 4-stroke cycle diesel engine the inlet valve
A. Opens at 20° before top dead center and closes at 35° after the bottom dead center
B. Opens at top dead center and closes at bottom dead center
C. Opens at 10° after top dead center and closes 20° before the bottom dead center
D. May open or close anywhere
E. Remains open for 200°.
56. The pressure at the end of compression in the case of diesel engine is of the order of
A. 6 kg/cm
B. 12kg/cmz
C. 20 kg/cmz
D. 27.5 kg/cmz
E. 35 kg/cm
57. The thermal efficiency of a diesel cycle having fixed compression ratio, with increase in cutoff
ratio will
A. Increase
B. Decrease
C. Be independent
D. May increase or decrease depending on other factors
E. None of the above.
58. Combustion in compression ignition engines is
A. Homogeneous
B. Heterogeneous
C. Both (a) and (b)
D. Laminar
E. Turbulent.
59. Compression loss in I.C engines occurs due to
A. Leaking piston rings
B. Use of thick head gasket
C. Clogged air-inlet slots
D. All of the above.
60. In a typical medium speed 4-stroke cycle diesel engine
A. Compression starts at 35° after bottom dead center and ends at top dead center
B. Compression starts at bottom dead center and ends at top dead center

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 C. Compression starts at 10° before bottom dead center and, ends just before top dead
center
D. May start and end anywhere
61. The accumulation of carbon in a cylinder results in increase of
A. Clearance volume
B. Volumetric efficiency
C. Ignition time
D. Effective compression ratio
62. In a typical medium speed, 4-stroke cycle diesel engine
A. Fuel injection starts at 10° before to dead center and ends at 20° after tor dead center
B. Fuel injection starts at top dead center and ends at 20° after top dead center
C. Fuel injection starts at just before top dead center and ends just after top dead center
D. May start and end anywhere
63. The term scavenging is generally associated with
A. 2-stroke cycle engines
B. 4-stroke cycle engines
C. Aeroplane engines
D. High efficiency engines.
64. In a typical medium speed 4 stroke cycle diesel engine
A. Exhaust valve opens at 35° before bot-tom dead center and closes at 20° after top
dead center
B. Exhaust valve opens at bottom ‘dead center and closes at top dead center
C. Exhaust valve opens just after bottom dead center and closes just before top dead
center
D. May open and close anywhere
65. Air fuel ratio for idling speed of a petrol engine is approximately
A. 1 : 1
B. 5 : 1
C. 10:1
D. 15 : 1
66. For maximum power generation, the air fuel ratio for a petrol engine for vehicles, is of
the order of
A. 9 : 1
B. 12 : 1
C. 18 : 1
D. 20: 1.
67. The knock in diesel engine occurs due to
A. Instantaneous and rapid burning of the first part of the charge
B. Instantaneous auto ignition of last part of charge
C. Delayed burning of the first part of the charge
D. All ot the above.

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68. Volatility of diesel fuel oil is
A. Minimum temperature to which oil is heated in order to give off inflammable vapours
in sufficient quantity to ignite momentarily when brought in contact with a flame
B. Temperature at which it solidifies or congeals
C. It catches fire without external aid
D. Indicated by 90% distillation temperature, i.e., when 90% of sample oil has distilled
off

69. A stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is

A. Chemically correct mixture
B. Lean mixture
C. Rich mixture for idling
D. Rich mixture for over loads
70. In the crankcase method of scavenging, the air pressure is produced by
A. Supercharger
B. Centrifugal pump
C. Natural aspirator
D. Movement of engine piston

71. Which of the following is a type of belt drive?

A) Chain drive
B) Gear drive
C) V-belt drive
D) Direct drive
E) None of the above
72. Which of the following is a type of gear?
A) Bevel gear
B) Worm gear
C) Spur gear
D) Helical gear
E) All of the above

73. What is the purpose of a coupling in a machine element?

A) To transmit power between two machine elements
B) To allow for relative motion between two machine elements
C) To prevent relative motion between two machine elements
D) To provide support to the machine element
E) None of the above
74. Which of the following is NOT a type of bearing?
A) Ball bearing
B) Roller bearing

302
 C) Plain bearing
D) Magnetic bearing
E) All of the above are types of bearings
75. Which of the following is a type of lubrication system?
A) Splash lubrication
B) Forced lubrication
C) Grease lubrication
D) Oil mist lubrication
E) All of the above
76. What is the purpose of a spring in a machine element?
A) To transmit power between two machine elements
B) To provide support to the machine element
C) To allow for relative motion between two machine elements
D) To prevent relative motion between two machine elements
E) To store and release energy
77. Which of the following is a type of shaft?
A) Hollow shaft
B) Solid shaft
C) Flanged shaft
D) Tapered shaft
E) All of the above
78. Which of the following is a type of fastener?
A) Bolt
B) Screw
C) Nut
D) Washer
E) All of the above
79. Which of the following is a type of clutch?
A) Friction clutch
B) Electromagnetic clutch
C) Fluid clutch
D) Centrifugal clutch
E) All of the above
80. Which of the following is a type of brake?
A) Disk brake
B) Drum brake
C) Band brake
D) Hydraulic brake
E) All of the above
81. Which of the following is NOT a type of rolling bearing?
A) Ball bearing
B) Tapered roller bearing
C) Spherical roller bearing

303
 D) Cylindrical roller bearing
E) None of the above
82. What is the purpose of a key in a machine element?
A) To provide support to the machine element
B) To transmit power between two machine elements
C) To allow for relative motion between two machine elements
D) To prevent relative motion between two machine elements
E) To reduce the friction between two machine elements
83. What is the purpose of a seal in a machine element?
A) To transmit power between two machine elements
B) To provide support to the machine element
C) To prevent the entry of contaminants into the machine element
D) To allow for relative motion between two machine elements
E) To reduce the friction between two machine elements
84. Which of the following is a type of bearing preload?
A) Radial preload
B) Axial preload
C) Angular preload
D) Both A and B
E) All of the above
85. Which of the following is a type of belt tensioning device?
A) Idler pulley
B) Taper lock bushing
C) Set screw
D) Snap ring
E) None of the above
86. What is the purpose of a thrust bearing?
A) To transmit power between two machine elements
B) To allow for relative motion between two machine elements
C) To prevent relative motion between two machine elements
D) To support axial loads
E) None of the above
87. Which of the following is a type of chain drive?
A) Silent chain
B) Timing chain
C) Roller chain
D) All of the above
E) None of the above
88. Which of the following is a type of screw thread?
A) Acme thread
B) Buttress thread
C) Square thread

304
 D) All of the above
E) None of the above
89. What is the purpose of a shaft collar?
A) To provide support to the machine element
B) To prevent relative motion between two machine elements
C) To allow for relative motion between two machine elements
D) To transmit power between two machine elements
E) None of the above
90. Which of the following is a type of bearing lubrication method?
A) Oil lubrication
B) Grease lubrication
C) Solid lubrication
D) All of the above
E) None of the above
91. Which of the following is a type of gear train?
A) Spur gear train
B) Helical gear train
C) Worm gear train
D) All of the above
E) None of the above
92. Which of the following is a type of bearing fit?
A) Clearance fit
B) Interference fit
C) Transition fit
D) All of the above
E) None of the above
93. What is the purpose of a dowel pin?
A) To transmit power between two machine elements
B) To prevent relative motion between two machine elements
C) To allow for relative motion between two machine elements
D) To provide support to the machine element
E) None of the above
94. Which of the following is a type of gear tooth profile?
A) Cycloidal profile
B) Involute profile
C) Hypocycloid profile
D) All of the above
E) None of the above
95. Which of the following is a type of roller bearing?
A) Spherical roller bearing
B) Cylindrical roller bearing
C) Tapered roller bearing

305
 D) All of the above
E) None of the above
96. What is the purpose of a bearing retainer?
A) To provide support to the machine element
B) To prevent relative motion between two machine elements
C) To allow for relative motion between two machine elements
D) To separate and retain the rolling elements
E) None of the above
97. Which of the following is a type of belt drive?
A) V-belt drive
B) Flat belt drive
C) Round belt drive
D) All of the above
E) None of the above
98. Which of the following is a type of screw fastener?
A) Machine screw
B) Wood screw
C) Sheet metal screw
D) All of the above
E) None of the above
99. What is the purpose of a key?
A) To provide support to the machine element
B) To prevent relative motion between two machine elements
C) To allow for relative motion between two machine elements
D) To transmit torque between two machine elements
E) None of the above
100. Which of the following is a type of bearing material?
A) Steel
B) Bronze
C) Ceramic
D) All of the above
E) None of the above
101. Which of the following is a type of gear lubrication method?
A) Splash lubrication
B) Forced lubrication
C) Oil mist lubrication
D) All of the above
E) None of the above
102. What is the purpose of a circlip?
A) To prevent relative motion between two machine elements
B) To allow for relative motion between two machine elements
C) To provide support to the machine element

306
 D) To retain a machine component in a bore or on a shaft
E) None of the above
103. Which of the following is a type of bearing misalignment?
A) Angular misalignment
B) Parallel misalignment
C) Axial misalignment
D) All of the above
E) None of the above
104. Which type of bearing uses rolling elements to reduce friction?
a) Journal bearings
b) Thrust bearings
c) Ball bearings
d) Sleeve bearings
105. Which type of bearing is typically used in high load, low-speed applications?
a) Journal bearings
b) Thrust bearings
c) Ball bearings
d) Roller bearings
106. Which type of bearing is designed to handle axial loads?
a) Journal bearings
b) Thrust bearings
c) Ball bearings
d) Roller bearings
107. Which type of bearing is used in applications where high radial loads are present?
a) Journal bearings
b) Thrust bearings
c) Ball bearings
d) Roller bearings
108. What is the most common material used for bearing races?
a) Steel
b) Bronze
c) Ceramic
d) Plastic
109. Which type of bearing is used to support rotating shafts in machinery?
a) Journal bearings
b) Thrust bearings
c) Ball bearings
d) All of the above
110. Which type of bearing is used in high-temperature applications?
a) Ball bearings
b) Roller bearings
c) Ceramic bearings
d) Sleeve bearings

307
111. Which type of bearing requires periodic lubrication to reduce friction?
a) Journal bearings
b) Thrust bearings
c) Ball bearings
d) All of the above
112. Which type of bearing is commonly used in car wheel hubs?
a) Ball bearings
b) Roller bearings
c) Tapered roller bearings
d) Spherical roller bearings
113. Which type of bearing is used in applications where misalignment is present?
a) Spherical roller bearings
b) Tapered roller bearings
c) Needle roller bearings
d) Thrust bearings
114. What is the main advantage of using a plain bearing over a rolling bearing?
a) Lower friction
b) Higher speed capability
c) Higher load capacity
d) Better shock resistance
115. What is the purpose of a bearing cage or separator?
a) To reduce friction between the rolling elements and the races
b) To reduce wear on the rolling elements
c) To maintain a consistent spacing between the rolling elements
d) To prevent the rolling elements from contacting each other
116. Which type of bearing is commonly used in electric motors?
a) Ball bearings
b) Roller bearings
c) Thrust bearings
d) Sleeve bearings
117. What is the most common type of roller bearing?
a) Tapered roller bearing
b) Cylindrical roller bearing
c) Spherical roller bearing
d) Needle roller bearing
118. What is the main advantage of a sealed bearing?
a) Higher speed capability
b) Lower friction
c) Better protection against contaminants
d) Higher load capacity
119. What is the main purpose of a mechanical shaft?
a) To transmit power
b) To support rotating elements

308
 c) To control speed
d) To reduce friction
120. Which type of mechanical shaft is most commonly used in machinery?
a) Solid shafts
b) Hollow shafts
c) Flanged shafts
d) Splined shafts
121. Which factor determines the minimum diameter of a mechanical shaft?
a) The amount of torque to be transmitted
b) The speed of rotation
c) The length of the shaft
d) The material of the shaft
122. Which material is commonly used for mechanical shafts in high-stress applications?
a) Aluminum
b) Brass
c) Steel
d) Plastic
123. What is the purpose of a keyway in a mechanical shaft?
a) To provide a secure attachment point for couplings or other rotating elements
b) To prevent the shaft from rotating
c) To reduce friction between the shaft and the bearing
d) To control the speed of the shaft
124. Which type of shaft coupling provides the highest torque capacity?
a) Gear coupling
b) Flexible coupling
c) Rigid coupling
d) Chain coupling
125. What is the purpose of a shaft seal?
a) To prevent lubricant from escaping the bearing
b) To prevent contaminants from entering the bearing
c) To reduce friction between the shaft and the bearing
d) To control the speed of the shaft
126. What is the main disadvantage of using a hollow shaft?
a) Lower strength compared to solid shafts
b) Higher cost compared to solid shafts
c) Higher weight compared to solid shafts
d) Limited availability compared to solid shafts
127. Which type of shaft is commonly used in high-speed applications?
a) Solid shafts
b) Hollow shafts
c) Flanged shafts
d) Splined shafts

309
128. What is the main advantage of using a splined shaft?
a) Greater torque capacity compared to solid shafts
b) Greater flexibility compared to solid shafts
c) Greater strength compared to solid shafts
d) Greater speed capability compared to solid shafts
129. Which type of shaft end is commonly used in machinery to facilitate easy assembly and
disassembly?
a) Keyed shaft end
b) Threaded shaft end
c) Flanged shaft end
d) Splined shaft end
130. Which type of shaft misalignment can cause premature bearing failure?
a) Angular misalignment
b) Parallel misalignment
c) Axial misalignment
d) Torsional misalignment
131. Which type of shaft is commonly used in applications where the shaft is required to bend
or flex?
a) Solid shaft
b) Hollow shaft
c) Flexible shaft
d) Flanged shaft
132. Which type of shaft coupling is best suited for applications where misalignment is
present?
a) Gear coupling
b) Flexible coupling
c) Rigid coupling
d) Chain coupling
133. Which type of shaft seal is commonly used in applications where high pressures or
temperatures are present?
a) Lip seal
b) Mechanical seal
c) V-ring seal
d) O-ring seal
134. What is the main purpose of a coupling?
a) To transmit power between two shafts
b) To support rotating elements
c) To control speed
d) To reduce friction
135. Which factor determines the appropriate size of a coupling?
a) The amount of torque to be transmitted
b) The speed of rotation

310
 c) The length of the shaft
d) The material of the shaft
136. Which type of coupling is best suited for applications where misalignment is present?
a) Gear coupling
b) Flexible coupling
c) Rigid coupling
d) Chain coupling
137. Which type of clutch is commonly used in manual transmissions for vehicles?
a) Centrifugal clutch
b) Cone clutch
c) Electromagnetic clutch
d) Hydraulic clutch
138. What is the main purpose of a clutch?
a) To engage and disengage power transmission
b) To control the speed of the driven component
c) To support rotating elements
d) To reduce friction
139. Which type of clutch is commonly used in automatic transmissions for vehicles?
a) Centrifugal clutch
b) Cone clutch
c) Electromagnetic clutch
d) Hydraulic clutch
140. Which type of clutch is commonly used in industrial applications where high torque is
required?
a) Centrifugal clutch
b) Cone clutch
c) Electromagnetic clutch
d) Hydraulic clutch
141. Which factor determines the torque capacity of a clutch?
a) The diameter of the clutch
b) The number of clutch plates
c) The material of the clutch plates
d) All of the above
142. Which type of clutch is commonly used in lawn mowers and other small engines?
a) Centrifugal clutch
b) Cone clutch
c) Electromagnetic clutch
d) Hydraulic clutch
143. Which type of coupling is best suited for applications where torque overload protection is
required?
a) Gear coupling
b) Flexible coupling

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 c) Rigid coupling
d) Shear pin coupling
144. Which type of clutch is commonly used in machine tools for precise speed control?
a) Centrifugal clutch
b) Cone clutch
c) Electromagnetic clutch
d) Hysteresis clutch
145. Which type of coupling is commonly used in applications where shock absorption is
required?
a) Gear coupling
b) Flexible coupling
c) Rigid coupling
d) Chain coupling
146. Which type of clutch is commonly used in power take-off (PTO) systems for tractors and
other farm equipment?
a) Centrifugal clutch
b) Cone clutch
c) Electromagnetic clutch
d) Mechanical clutch
147. Which type of coupling is commonly used in marine applications to allow for movement
between the engine and propeller shaft?
a) Gear coupling
b) Flexible coupling
c) Rigid coupling
d) Chain coupling
148. Which type of clutch is commonly used in heavy-duty trucks for power transmission
between the engine and transmission?
a) Centrifugal clutch
b) Cone clutch
c) Electromagnetic clutch
d) Fluid coupling
149. Which type of brake is suitable for use in high-speed applications where a large amount
of heat is generated during braking?
a) Disc brake b)
Drum brake c)
Caliper brake
d) Magnetic brake
150. Which type of brake is typically used in applications where the brake must operate in
both directions of rotation?
a) Disc brake b)
Drum brake c)
Caliper brake d)
Band brake

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151. Which type of brake is ideal for use in applications where the brake must engage rapidly
in the event of an emergency?
a) Disc brake b)
Drum brake c)
Caliper brake
d) Spring applied brake
152. Which type of brake offers high heat dissipation capabilities, making it suitable for use in
high-performance racing applications?
a) Disc brake b)
Drum brake c)
Caliper brake
d) Carbon ceramic brake
153. Which type of brake offers the highest accuracy in controlling the stopping position of a
rotating component?
a) Disc brake b)
Drum brake c)
Caliper brake
d) Electromagnetic brake
154. Which type of brake is commonly used in elevators to control the descent speed of the
car?
a) Disc brake b)
Drum brake c)
Caliper brake
d) Electromagnetic brake
155. Which type of brake is ideal for use in applications where the brake must operate at high
temperatures?
a) Disc brake b)
Drum brake c)
Caliper brake
d) Hydraulic brake
156. Which type of brake is commonly used in the automotive industry to stop vehicles?
a) Disc brake b)
Drum brake c)
Caliper brake
d) Magnetic brake
157. Which type of brake is suitable for use in applications where the brake must operate in a
vacuum?
a) Disc brake b)
Drum brake c)
Caliper brake
d) Friction brake
158. Which type of brake is ideal for use in applications where the brake must provide high
holding torque without power input?

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 a) Disc brake b)
Drum brake c)
Caliper brake
d) Permanent magnet brake
159. Which of the following is a type of belt drive that uses two or more pulleys to transmit
power?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Cable belt drive
160. Which type of belt is best suited for high-power transmission and high-speed
applications?
a) Flat belt
b) V-belt
c) Timing belt
d) Round belt
161. Which type of belt drive is most commonly used in automotive engines?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Cable belt drive

162. Which type of belt drive is best suited for use in applications where high shock loading is
present?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Ribbed belt drive
163. Which type of belt drive is used to transmit power to machine tools such as lathes and
milling machines?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Chain drive
164. Which type of belt drive is most commonly used to drive industrial fans and blowers?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Ribbed belt drive
165. Which type of belt drive is best suited for use in applications where high torque is
required?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive

314
 c) Timing belt drive
d) Round belt drive
166. Which type of belt drive is best suited for use in applications where the distance between
the driving and driven pulleys is small?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Ribbed belt drive
167. Which type of belt drive is best suited for use in applications where the driven pulley
must rotate in the opposite direction to the driving pulley?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Serpentine belt drive
168. Which type of belt drive is best suited for use in applications where the load is variable
and the speed must be continuously adjustable?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Variable speed belt drive
169. What is the primary factor that determines the amount of tension required in a belt drive
system?
a) The power rating of the drive motor
b) The distance between the driving and driven pulleys
c) The width of the belt
d) The coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulleys
170. In a belt drive system, what is the angle between the belt and the pulley called?
a) Angle of wrap
b) Angle of attack
c) Angle of deflection
d) Angle of incidence
171. Which type of belt is best suited for use in high-speed applications where high power
transmission is required?
a) Flat belt
b) V-belt
c) Timing belt
d) Round belt
172. Which type of belt drive is best suited for use in applications where the center distance
between the pulleys is small?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Serpentine belt drive

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173. What is the primary cause of belt slippage in a belt drive system?
a) Insufficient belt tension
b) Insufficient pulley diameter
c) Insufficient belt width
d) Insufficient pulley surface area
174. Which of the following is a factor that affects the service life of a belt drive system?
a) Ambient temperature
b) Belt width
c) Pulley diameter
d) Power rating of the motor
175. What is the purpose of a belt tensioner in a belt drive system?
a) To reduce belt slippage
b) To increase the power transmission capacity
c) To maintain the proper belt tension
d) To reduce the wear and tear of the belt
176. Which type of belt drive is best suited for use in applications where a smooth and quiet
operation is required?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Ribbed belt drive
177. Which type of belt drive is best suited for use in applications where the speed ratio
between the driving and driven pulleys is greater than 3:1?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Serpentine belt drive
178. Which type of belt drive is best suited for use in applications where the belt must be able
to transmit power in both directions?
a) Flat belt drive
b) V-belt drive
c) Timing belt drive
d) Reversible belt drive
179. What is the purpose of a gear drive?
a) To transmit power between two rotating shafts
b) To increase the speed of a rotating shaft
c) To reduce the torque of a rotating shaft
d) To reduce the noise of a rotating shaft
180. Which of the following types of gears is best suited for transmitting high power at low
speeds?
a) Spur gear
b) Helical gear

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 c) Bevel gear
d) Worm gear
181. In a gear drive system, what is the pitch diameter of a gear?
a) The diameter of the gear at the center of its teeth
b) The diameter of the gear at the base of its teeth
c) The diameter of the gear at the top of its teeth
d) The diameter of the gear at the midpoint of its teeth
182. Which type of gear is best suited for use in applications where the shafts are not parallel
and the direction of rotation must be changed?
a) Spur gear
b) Helical gear
c) Bevel gear
d) Worm gear
183. Which of the following is a factor that affects the efficiency of a gear drive system?
a) Gear material
b) Gear tooth profile
c) Lubrication
d) All of the above
184. Which type of gear is best suited for transmitting power between two non-parallel and
non-intersecting shafts?
a) Spur gear
b) Helical gear
c) Bevel gear
d) Worm gear
185. In a gear drive system, what is the module of a gear?
a) The number of teeth on the gear
b) The distance between two adjacent teeth on the gear
c) The angle between the teeth on the gear
d) The thickness of the gear
186. Which type of gear is best suited for use in applications where a smooth and quiet
operation is required?
a) Spur gear
b) Helical gear
c) Bevel gear
d) Hypoid gear
187. Which of the following is a factor that affects the load carrying capacity of a gear drive
system?
a) Gear size
b) Gear material
c) Lubrication
d) All of the above
188. Which type of gear is best suited for use in applications where high torque is required but
the speed of rotation is low?

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 a) Spur gear
b) Helical gear
c) Bevel gear
d) Planetary gear
189. Which of the following is a factor that affects the selection of a chain drive?
a) Load capacity
b) Pitch size
c) Chain speed
d) All of the above
190. What is the maximum power that can be transmitted through a chain drive?
a) 50 kW
b) 100 kW
c) 500 kW
d) It depends on the size and type of the chain and sprockets
191. In a chain drive system, what is the pitch of a chain?
a) The distance between two adjacent links
b) The thickness of a link
c) The length of a link
d) The width of a link
192. Which of the following types of chain drives is best suited for use in high-speed
applications?
a) Roller chain drive
b) Silent chain drive
c) Inverted tooth chain drive
d) Block chain drive
193. Which of the following is a factor that affects the wear rate of a chain drive?
a) Chain tension
b) Chain speed
c) Lubrication
d) All of the above
194. Which of the following is a factor that affects the noise level of a chain drive?
a) Pitch size
b) Chain speed
c) Lubrication
d) All of the above
195. In a chain drive system, what is the center distance between two sprockets?
a) The distance between the two shafts
b) The distance between the two sprocket centers
c) The distance between two adjacent chain links
d) The distance between the teeth of the sprockets
196. Which of the following types of chain drives is best suited for use in applications where
high precision and accuracy are required?
a) Roller chain drive

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 b) Silent chain drive
c) Inverted tooth chain drive
d) Block chain drive
197. What is the effect of increasing the chain tension in a chain drive system?
a) It increases the wear rate of the chain and sprockets
b) It decreases the load carrying capacity of the chain and sprockets
c) It increases the power transmission capacity of the chain and sprockets
d) It has no effect on the chain and sprockets
198. Which of the following types of chains is best suited for use in applications where high
shock loads are expected?
a) Roller chain
b) Silent chain
c) Block chain
d) Engineering chain
199. Which of the following lubrication methods is best suited for high-speed, high-
temperature applications?
a) Grease lubrication
b) Oil lubrication
c) Dry lubrication
d) Solid lubrication
200. Which of the following is a factor that affects the selection of a lubricant for a particular
application?
a) Viscosity
b) Additives
c) Base oil
d) All of the above
201. Which of the following types of lubricants is best suited for use in applications where
high temperatures are expected?
a) Mineral oil-based lubricants
b) Synthetic oil-based lubricants
c) Vegetable oil-based lubricants
d) Animal fat-based lubricants
202. Which of the following is a factor that affects the lubrication film thickness in a
lubricated contact?
a) Load
b) Speed
c) Viscosity
d) All of the above
203. What is the purpose of a lubricant in a mechanical system?
a) To reduce friction
b) To prevent wear and corrosion
c) To dissipate heat
d) All of the above

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204. Which of the following lubrication methods is best suited for applications where
lubrication is difficult or impossible?
a) Grease lubrication
b) Oil lubrication
c) Dry lubrication
d) Solid lubrication
205. What is the effect of increasing the oil viscosity in a lubricated contact?
a) It reduces the lubrication film thickness
b) It increases the friction coefficient
c) It increases the load carrying capacity
d) It has no effect on the lubrication properties
206. Which of the following types of lubricants is best suited for use in applications where
biodegradability is required?
a) Mineral oil-based lubricants
b) Synthetic oil-based lubricants
c) Vegetable oil-based lubricants
d) Animal fat-based lubricants
207. Which of the following factors can lead to lubricant degradation?
a) Oxidation
b) Contamination
c) Thermal degradation
d) All of the above
208. What is the effect of increasing the lubricant flow rate in a lubricated contact?
a) It increases the friction coefficient
b) It reduces the lubrication film thickness
c) It increases the load carrying capacity
d) It has no effect on the lubrication properties
209. What is the difference between a key and a spline in mechanical power transmission?
a) A key is used to transfer torque, while a spline is used to locate components
b) A key is a type of spline
c) A spline is used to transfer torque, while a key is used to locate components
d) A key and a spline are interchangeable terms
210. Which of the following factors affects the selection of a gear lubricant for a particular
application?
a) Viscosity
b) Additives
c) Base oil
d) All of the above
211. What is the purpose of a bearing in a mechanical system?
a) To reduce friction
b) To support and guide rotating shafts
c) To prevent wear and corrosion
d) All of the above

320
212. Which of the following factors affects the selection of a chain lubricant for a particular
application?
a) Viscosity
b) Additives
c) Base oil
d) All of the above
213. Which of the following types of couplings is best suited for applications where high
torque and misalignment are present?
a) Gear couplings
b) Disc couplings
c) Jaw couplings
d) All of the above
Answer: a) Gear couplings

214. What is the difference between a ball bearing and a roller bearing?
a) A ball bearing is more suitable for high-speed applications, while a roller bearing is
more suitable for high-load applications
b) A ball bearing has a lower friction coefficient than a roller bearing
c) A roller bearing has a higher load carrying capacity than a ball bearing
d) A ball bearing and a roller bearing are interchangeable terms
215. Which of the following factors affects the selection of a belt for a particular application?
a) Belt width
b) Belt length
c) Belt material
d) All of the above
216. Which of the following types of gears is best suited for applications where high speeds
and low noise levels are required?
a) Spur gears
b) Helical gears
c) Bevel gears
d) Worm gears
217. Which of the following types of lubrication systems is best suited for applications where
continuous lubrication is required?
a) Splash lubrication
b) Pressure lubrication
c) Mist lubrication
d) None of the above
218. Which of the following factors affects the selection of a clutch for a particular
application?
a) Torque capacity
b) Engagement speed
c) Engagement method
d) All of the above

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219. Which of the following types of bearings is best suited for applications where high loads
and low speeds are present?
a) Deep groove ball bearings
b) Tapered roller bearings
c) Cylindrical roller bearings
d) Needle roller bearings
220. What is the difference between a flexible coupling and a rigid coupling?
a) A flexible coupling allows for misalignment, while a rigid coupling does not
b) A flexible coupling is used to transfer torque, while a rigid coupling is used to locate
components
c) A rigid coupling is more suitable for high speed applications, while a flexible coupling
is more suitable for low speed applications
d) A flexible coupling and a rigid coupling are interchangeable terms
221. Which of the following types of gears is best suited for applications where high precision
and high load carrying capacity are required?
a) Spur gears
b) Helical gears
c) Bevel gears
d) Herringbone gears
222. Which of the following types of lubrication systems is best suited for applications where
high viscosity lubricants are used?
a) Splash lubrication
b) Pressure lubrication
c) Mist lubrication
d) Circulating lubrication
223. What is the difference between a centrifugal clutch and a torque converter?
a) A centrifugal clutch is more suitable for high-speed applications, while a torque
converter is more suitable for low-speed applications
b) A centrifugal clutch operates by centrifugal force, while a torque converter uses a fluid
coupling
c) A centrifugal clutch and a torque converter are interchangeable terms
d) A centrifugal clutch and a torque converter are both types of friction clutches
Answer: b) A centrifugal clutch operates by centrifugal force, while a torque converter
uses a fluid coupling
224. Which of the following types of chains is best suited for applications where high
precision and low noise levels are required?
a) Roller chains
b) Silent chains
c) Leaf chains
d) Pintle chains
225. What is the difference between a synchronous belt drive and a V-belt drive?
a) A synchronous belt drive uses a toothed belt, while a V-belt drive uses a V-shaped belt
b) A synchronous belt drive is more suitable for high-speed applications, while a V-belt

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 drive is more suitable for low-speed applications
c) A synchronous belt drive requires less maintenance than a V-belt drive
d) A synchronous belt drive and a V-belt drive are interchangeable terms
226. Which of the following types of bearings is best suited for applications where high speeds
and low friction are required?
a) Deep groove ball bearings
b) Angular contact ball bearings
c) Thrust ball bearings
d) Self-aligning ball bearings
227. What is the difference between a dog clutch and a friction clutch?
a) A dog clutch uses dogs to engage the clutch, while a friction clutch uses friction plates
b) A dog clutch and a friction clutch are interchangeable terms
c) A dog clutch is more suitable for high-speed applications, while a friction clutch is
more suitable for low-speed applications
d) A dog clutch requires less maintenance than a friction clutch
228. Which of the following factors affects the selection of a lubricant for a particular
application?
a) Operating temperature
b) Operating speed
c) Load carrying capacity
d) All of the above
229. Pump transfers the mechanical energy of a motor or of an engine into of a fluid.
A. kinetic energy
B. pressure energy
C. All of above
D. either pressure energy or kinetic energy
230. components of fluid velocity have the responsibility of the transportation of
fluid through the machine.
A. Tangential and axial
B. Radial and tangential
C. Radial and axial
D. None of the above
231. turbines are also called as parallel flow turbine.
a. Axial flow
b. Radial flow
c. All of above
d. None of the above

232. The energy of water entering the reaction turbine is

A. fully the pressure energy
B. partly the pressure energy and partly the kinetic energy
C. fully the kinetic energy
D. None of above
233. The nozzle efficiency can be defined as the ratio of
A. actual enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop

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 B. isentropic enthalpy drop to actual enthalpy drop
C. isothermal enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop
D. isentropic enthalpy drop to isothermal enthalpy drop

234. turbines are also called as parallel flow turbine.

A. Axial flow B.
Radial flow C.
All of above
D. None of the above
235. turbines are also called as parallel flow turbine.
A. Axial flow B.
Radial flow C.
All of above
D. None of the above
236. In which type of reaction turbine does the water flow in radial direction at the outer periphery
of runner and leave at the center in the direction parallel to the axis of rotation of runner?
A. Axial flow turbine
B. Radial flow turbine
C. Mixed flow turbine
D. All of the above
237. What is the effect of increasing number of stages in axial flow compressor on the mean work
input factor (Ψw)?
A. Mean work input factor (Ψw) decreases
B. Mean work input factor (Ψw) increases
C. Mean work input factor (Ψw) remains constant
D. Unpredictable
238. Which pump is more suitable for an application where very high pressure is required to be
developed at moderate discharge?
A. Reciprocating pump
B. Centrifugal pump
C. Turbine
D. None of the above
239. In which type of turbine, the runner needs to be run full of water?
A. Impulse turbine
B. Reaction turbine
C. Both a. and b.
D. None of the above

240. The nozzle efficiency can be defined as the ratio of

A. actual enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop
B. isentropic enthalpy drop to actual enthalpy drop
C. isothermal enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop
D. isentropic enthalpy drop to isothermal enthalpy drop
241. The water from runner in reaction turbine is discharged into tail race through a draft tube which
has cross sectional area.

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 A. gradually decreasing
B. constant
C. gradually increasing
D. None of above
242. In reaction turbine work is done_ .
A. totally due to change in kinetic energy of jet
B. totally due to change in pressure head
C. mostly due to change in pressure head and small amount of work is due to change
in kinetic energy
D. mostly due to change in kinetic energy and small amount of work is due to change in
pressure head
243. Generally, the value of specific speed of Kaplan turbine is that of the Pelton
turbine
A. higher than
B. lower than
C. All of above
D. None of above
244. What is the effect of increasing flow coefficient (Φ) in an axial flow compressor on blade loading
coefficient (Ψ)?
A. Blade loading coefficient (Ψ) increases
B. Blade loading coefficient (Ψ) decreases
C. Blade loading coefficient (Ψ) remains constant
D. Unpredictable
245. The process of filling the liquid into the suction pipe and pump casing upto the level of delivery
valve is called as _.
A. filling
B. pumping
C. priming
D. leveling
246. Which of the following pumps has higher specific speed than the others?
A. Axial flow
B. Radial flow
C. Mixed flow
D. All have same specific speed
247. turbines are also called as parallel flow turbine.
A. Axial flow B.
Radial flow C.
All of above
D. None of the above
248. What is the ratio of isentropic work to Euler work in an centrifugal compressor called?
A. Work coefficient
B. Velocity coefficient
C. Pressure coefficient
D. Flow coefficient

325
249. An can be defined as the ratio of the pressure rise in rotor blades to the pressure
rise in stages in an axial flow compressor.
A. Degree of pressure
B. Degree of reaction
C. Pressure ratio
D. Reaction ratio
250. What is the ratio of the actual work absorbed by an axial flow compressor to the theoretical
work called?
A. Work input factor
B. Work done factor
C. Both a. and b.
D. None of the above
251. turbines are also called as parallel flow turbine.

A. Axial flow
B. Radial flow
C. All of above
D. None of the above
252. The nozzle efficiency can be defined as the ratio of
A. actual enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop
B. isentropic enthalpy drop to actual enthalpy drop
C. isothermal enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop
D. isentropic enthalpy drop to isothermal enthalpy drop
253. Which of the following is an example of impulse turbine?
A. Pelton wheel
B. Propeller turbine
C. Kaplan turbine
D. Francis turbine
254. Discharge capacity of the reciprocating pump is that of the centrifugal pump.
A. lower than
B. higher than
C. same as
D. unpredictable
255. components of fluid velocity have the responsibility of the transportation of
fluid through the machine.
A. Tangential and axial
B. Radial and tangential
C. Radial and axial
D. None of the above
256. Pump transfers the mechanical energy of a motor or of an engine into of a fluid.
A. kinetic energy
B. pressure energy
C. All of above
D. either pressure energy or kinetic energy
257. Pump transfers the mechanical energy of a motor or of an engine into of a fluid.

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 A. kinetic energy
B. pressure energy
C. All of above
D. either pressure energy or kinetic energy
258. A good material handling system may reduce cost by: -
(A) Utilizing space to better advantage
(B) Providing safer working conditions
(C) Maintaining proper control over the in- and out of stock handling process
(D) Providing a better organization of storage facilities
259. Why do materials handling methods and equipment should be standardized?
(A) To avoid additional capital cost involved
(B) To integrate materials handling system
(C) To reduce handling cost and facilitate dependent variables
(D) To avoid maintenance
260. When do we recommend mechanized materials handling system during movement
of
materials in manufacturing facility?
(A) Repetitive movement
(B) Hazardous move/materials
(C) Large quantities of materials
(D) Heavy materials
(E) All
261. What type of plant layout would you suggest for Bottling plant for cold drink
(A) Process Layout
(B) Product Layout
(C) Fixed – Position
(D) All
262. The simplification principle in material handling method deals with
(A) Make optimum use of equipment
(B) Eliminate obstacles from materials flow
(C) Integrate operations into Handling systems
(D) Reduce combine or eliminate unnecessary movement
263. Material handling system is a function of
(A) Quantity
(B) Space
(C) Time
(D) All
264. Special purpose material handling equipment’s are used in
(A) Process Layout
(B) Fixed – Position
(C) Line Layout
(D) A & B
265. Match the following with their device and purpose Device Purpose1. Overhead Crane
P. Horizontal Transportation 2. Pumps Q. Lifting and Lowering 3. Chutes R. Lifting and
transportation
(A) 1-Q, 2-P, 3-R

327
 (B) 1-P, 2-Q, 3-R
(C) 1-R, 2-Q, 3-P
(D) 1-Q, 2-R, 3-P
266. Escalators have the advantage of
(A) Continuity of motion
(B) Greater capacity
(C) Small space requirement
(D) All of the above
267. The following is used to transport materials having flat bottoms
(A) Belt conveyor
(B) Roller conveyor
(C) Chain conveyor
(D) Screw conveyor
268. Economy in material handling can be achieved by
(A) Minimizing distance of travel
(B) By carrying material to destination without using manual labor
(C) Employing gravity feed movements
(D) All of the above
269. Which of the following is a property of bulk load?
(A) Hardness
(B) Cake forming tendency
(C) Suspension part
(D) Weight
270. Based on air pressures, pneumatic conveying systems may be classified as
(A) Dilute phase and dense phase
(B) Blow vessels and air slides
(C) Positive pressure, negative pressure, combined positive negative system
(D) None of these
271. The choice of appropriate type of pneumatic conveying system depends upon
(A) Flowability
(B) Abrasiveness
(C) Bulk density and particle size
(D) All of these
272. An essential requirement of a good material handling system is
(A) Flexibility reduction
(B) Capital cost expenditure
(C) Storing Materials utilizing minimum space
(D) Sale ability of Plant & equipment
273. Chains for material handling equipment are generally made of
(A) Carbon s teel
(B) Cast iron
(C) Wrought iron
(D) Mild steel
274. Which of the following is not a hoisting equipment with lifting gear?
(A) Cage elevators
(B) Jib cranes

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 (C) Pulleys
(D) Troughed belts
275. Cranes are used for
(A) Lifting and lowering
(B) V ertical transportation
(C) A& B
(D) None of above
276. What are factors to be considered during selection of material handling equipment
(A) Production flow
(B) Cost considerations
(C) Layout and characteristics of the building
(D) Properties of the material
(E) All
277. In screw conveyors, ribbon screw is used for
(A) Wet and sticky materials
(B) Granular materials
(C) A & B
278. In case of a single girder overhead travelling crane, the section used is
(A) I-beam (B)
Z-section (C)
A channel (D)
Angle iron
279. Which of the following does not form a part of specification for steel wire rope
(A) Length
(B) Material of core
(C) Surface finish
(D) Lay
280. Which one of the following shovel excavators is considered most efficient in
loading carriers?
(A) Clam Shell
(B) Back Hoe
(C) Dipper Shovel
(D) Drag Line
281. Material handling consists of movement of material from
(A) One machine to another
(B) One shop to another shop
(C) Stores to shop
(D) All of the above
282. Flight conveyors are used for the transportation of
(A) Granular materials
(B) Lumpy materials
(C) Pulverized materials
(D) All of the above
283. Which of the following item can be conveyed using pneumatic conveyors?
(A) Soda ash
(B) Salt cake

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 (C) Carbon black
(D) All of the above
284. Lifting magnets cannot be used for
(A) Under water handling
(B) Handling materials above dull red heat
(C) Handling dust of magnetic materials
(D) Handling ferrous castings
285. Electric overhead travelling cranes operate on
(A) DC only
(B) AC only
(C) Either AC or DC
(D) None of these
286. Lift trucks are used in industries generally for the transportation of
(A) Batches of material
(B) Heavy equipment
(C) Nonferrous materials
(D) Castings only
287. Transportation by locomotives is known as
(A) Dragging
(B) Hauling
(C) Pushing
(D) Lifting

288. Which of the following is measure of stiffness?

A. Modulus of elasticity B. Modulus of plasticity
C. Resilience D. Toughness
289. Hooke’s law holds good up to
A. Yield point B. Elastic limit
C. Plastic limit D. Breaking point
290. The endurance limit is always depends on
A. Strength B. Temperature
C. Hardness D. Stiffness
291. If the material fails bellow its yield point, failure would be due to :
A. Straining B. Fatigue
C. Creep D. Sudden Impact
292. If the material fails bellow its yield point , failure would be due to :
A. Straining B. Fatigue
C. Creep D. Sudden impact
293. When the material is loaded within elastic limit, then the stress is ......... to strain
A. Equal B. Directly proportional
C. Inversely proportional
294. The strain energy stored in a body, when suddenly loaded, is .............. the strain energy
stored
when same load is applied gradually.
A. Equal to B. One-half
C. Twice D. Four times

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295. The torsional shear stress on any cross-section normal to the axis is ......... the distance from
the centre of the axis.
A. Directly proportional to B. Inversely proportional to
296. The transverse fillet welded joints are designed for
A. Tensile strength B. Compressive strength
C. Bending strength D. Shear strength
297. The parallel fillet welded joint is designed for
A. Tensile strength B. Compressive strength
C. Bending strength D. Shear strength
298. A pressure vessel is said to be a thin cylindrical shell, if the ratio of the wall thickness of
the
shell to its diameter is
A. Equal to 1/10 B. Less than 1/10
C. More than 1/10 D. Done of these
299. Which of the following joins two rotating shafts to each other?
A. Key B. Coupling
C. Gear D. Belt drive
300. In case of pressure vessels having open ends, the fluid pressure induces
A. Longitudinal stress B. Circumferential stress
C. Shear stress D. None of these
301. The longitudinal stress is ...... of the circumferential stress.
A. One-half
B. Two-third
C. Three-fourth
302. Which of the following is not a type of sunk key?
A. Gib headed key
B. Woodruff key
C. Square key
D. Hollow saddle key
303. In a thick cylindrical shell, the maximum radial stress at the outer surfaces of the shell is
A. Zero B. P
C. – P D.2P
304. The design of the pressure vessel is based on
A. Longitudinal stress B. Hoop stress
C. Longitudinal and hoop stress D. None of these
305. The main advantage of sunk key is that it is a drive.
A. Positive B. Negative
C. Neutral D. None of the listed
306. In case of thick cylinders, the tangential stress across the thickness of cylinder is
A. Maximum at the outer surface and minimum at the inner surface
B. Maximum at the inner surface and minimum at the outer surface
C. Maximum at the inner surface and zero at the outer surface
D. Maximum at the outer surface and zero at the inner surface
307. Which of the following is not a type of welding joint?
A. Lap joint B. Butt joint
C. Tee joint D. Single strap joint

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308 The type of stresses developed in the key is/are
A. Shear stress alone B. Bearing stress alone
C. Both shear and bearing stresses D. Shearing, bearing and bending stresses
309. The sleeve or muff coupling is designed as a
A. Thin cylinder B. Thick cylinder
C. Solid shaft D. Hollow shaft
310. A keyway lowers
A. The strength of the shaft B. The rigidity of the shaft
C. Both the strength and rigidity of the shaft D. The ductility of the material of the shaft
311. When a pulley or other mating piece is required to slide along the shaft, a ................ sunk
key is used.
A. Rectangular B. Square C. Parallel
312. The helical spring ad wire of helical torsion spring, both are subjected to torsional shear
stresses.
A. True B. False
313. Which is not a possible type of failure in a riveted joint?
A. Crushing failure of the plate
B. Shear failure of rivet
C. Tensile failure of the plate between rivets
D. Shear failure of plate
314. In leaf springs, the longest leaf is known as
A. Lower leaf B. Master leaf
C. Upper leaf D. None of these
315. A leaf spring in automobiles is used
A. To apply forces B. To measure forces
C. To absorb shocks D. To store strain energy
316. If the spring is compressed completely and the adjacent coils touch each other,the the length
of spring is called as?
A. Solid length
B. Compressed length
C. Free length
D. None of the mentioned

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Answers
1. D
2. C.
3. C.
4. A.
5. A.
6. C.
7. C.
8. B.
9. B
10.c) More sensitive
11.b) Coefficient of fluctuation of speed
12.b) To raise the nose and dip the tail
13.a) Help in turning
14.c) Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous center
15.D
16.B
17.d) Planar mechanism
18.b) less than 0
19.a) Crank rocker mechanism
20.d) Peaucellier mechanism
21.b) worm
22.c) Helical
23.A
24.b) Rolling pair
25.d) Output link and fixed link
26.a) Beam engine
27.d) Spherical pair
28.c) Bevel gear
29.a) D/T
30.A
31.c) Reverted gear train
32.d) Epicyclic gear train
33.
34.a) Is constant
35.b) An involute
36.c) Centrifugal type
37.d) Paucellier’s mechanism

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38.d) all of the above
39.b) Slider crank
40.C
41.D. All of the above
42.C
43.B
44.C. Supercharging
45.B
46.B. Decrease
47.D. Air used for forcing burnt gases out of engine’s cylinder during the
exhaust period
48.A. Supplying the intake of an engine with air at a density greater than
the density of the surrounding atmosphere
49.C
50.C. More
51.D
52.A
53.B
54.B
55.A. Opens at 20° before top dead center and closes at 35° after the
bottom dead center
56.E. 35 kg/cm
57.B
58.B. Heterogeneous
59.D
60.A
61.D. Effective compression ratio
62.A
63.D
64.A
65.C. 10:1
66.B. 12:1
67.A. Instantaneous and rapid burning of the first part of the charge
68.D
69.A. Chemically correct mixture
70.D. Movement of engine piston

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71.C. V-belt drive
72.E. All of the above
73.B
74.E
75.E. All of the above
76.E. To store and release energy
77.E. All of the above
78.E. All of the above
79.E. All of the above
80.E. All of the above
81.E. None of the above
82.D
83.C. To prevent the entry of contaminants into the machine element
84.D
85.A. Idler pulley
86.D. To support axial loads
87.D. All of the above
88.D. All of the above
89.B. To prevent relative motion between two machine elements
90.D. All of the above
91.D. All of the above
92.D. All of the above
93.B. To prevent relative motion between two machine elements
94.D. All of the above
95.D. All of the above
96.D. To separate and retain the rolling elements
97.D. All of the above
98.D. All of the above
99.D. To transmit torque between two machine elements
100. D. All of the above
101. D) All of the above
102. D) To retain a machine component in a bore or on a shaft
103. D) All of the above
104. C) Ball bearings
105. A
106. B) Thrust bearings

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107. D) Roller bearings
108. A) Steel
109. D) All of the above
110. C) Ceramic bearings
111. D) All of the above
112. C
113. A) Spherical roller bearings
114. A) Lower friction
115. C) To maintain a consistent spacing between the rolling elements
116. A) Ball bearings
117. B) Cylindrical roller bearing
118. C) Better protection against contaminants
119. A) To transmit power
120. A) Solid shafts
121. A) The amount of torque to be transmitted
122. C) Steel
123. A) To provide a secure attachment point for couplings or other
rotating elements
124. A) Gear coupling
125. B
126. A) Lower strength compared to solid shafts
127. B) Hollow shafts
128. B) Greater flexibility compared to solid shafts
129. B) Threaded shaft end
130. A) Angular misalignment
131. C) Flexible shaft
132. B) Flexible coupling
133. B) Mechanical seal
134. A) To transmit power between two shafts
135. A) The amount of torque to be transmitted
136. B) Flexible coupling
137. B) Cone clutch
138. A) To engage and disengage power transmission
139. C) Electromagnetic clutch
140. D) Hydraulic clutch
141. D) All of the above

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142. A) Centrifugal clutch
143. D) Shear pin coupling
144. D) Hysteresis clutch
145. B) Flexible coupling
146. D) Mechanical clutch
147. B) Flexible coupling
148. D) Fluid coupling
149. A) Disc brake
150. D) Band brake
151. D) Spring applied brake
152. D) Carbon ceramic brake
153. D) Electromagnetic brake
154. B
155. A) Disc brake
156. A) Disc brake
157. D) Friction brake
158. D) Permanent magnet brake
159. B) V-belt drive
160. C) Timing belt
161. C) Timing belt drive
162. A
163. A
164. B) V-belt drive
165. B) V-belt drive
166. D
167. d) Serpentine belt drive
168. d) Variable speed belt drive
169. B
170. a) Angle of wrap
171. c) Timing belt
172. d) Serpentine belt drive
173. a) Insufficient belt tension
174. a) Ambient temperature
175. c) To maintain the proper belt tension
176. D
177. B

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178. d) Reversible belt drive
179. a) To transmit power between two rotating shafts
180. A
181. a) The diameter of the gear at the center of its teeth
182. c) Bevel gear
183. d) All of the above
184. d) Worm gear
185. b) The distance between two adjacent teeth on the gear
186. b) Helical gear
187. d) All of the above
188. d) Planetary gear
189. d) All of the above
190. d) It depends on the size and type of the chain and sprockets
191. a) The distance between two adjacent links
192. C
193. d) All of the above
194. d) All of the above
195. b) The distance between the two sprocket centers
196. c) Inverted tooth chain drive
197. a) It increases the wear rate of the chain and sprockets
198. D
199. b) Oil lubrication
200. d) All of the above
201. b) Synthetic oil-based lubricants
202. d) All of the above
203. d) All of the above
204. c) Dry lubrication
205. c) It increases the load carrying capacity
206. c) Vegetable oil-based lubricants
207. d) All of the above
208. c) It increases the load carrying capacity
209. a) A key is used to transfer torque, while a spline is used to locate
components
210. d) All of the above
211. B
212. d) All of the above

338
213. a) Gear couplings
214. c) A roller bearing has a higher load carrying capacity than a ball
bearing
215. d) All of the above
216. b) Helical gears
217. b) Pressure lubrication
218. D
219. C
220. a) A flexible coupling allows for misalignment, while a rigid
coupling does not
221. D
222. d) Circulating lubrication
223. b) A centrifugal clutch operates by centrifugal force, while a
torque converter uses a fluid coupling
224. b) Silent chains
225. a) A synchronous belt drive uses a toothed belt, while a V-belt
drive uses a V-shaped belt
226. b) Angular contact ball bearings
227. a) A dog clutch uses dogs to engage the clutch, while a friction
clutch uses friction plates
228. d) All of the above (operating temperature, operating speed, load
carrying capacity)
229. C
230. C. Radial and axial
231. a. Axial flow
232. B. partly the pressure energy and partly the kinetic energy
233. A. actual enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop
234. a. Axial flow
235. A
236. C
237. A. Mean work input factor (Ψw) decreases
238. A. Reciprocating pump
239. B. Reaction turbine
240. A
241. A. gradually decreasing
242. C.

339
243. A. higher than
244. B. Blade loading coefficient (Ψ) decreases
245. C. priming
246. A. Axial flow
247. a. Axial flow
248. C
249. B. Degree of reaction
250. C
251. A. Axial flow
252. A. Actual enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop
253. A. Pelton wheel
254. A. Lower than
255. C
256. D.
257. D.
258. A
259. C. To reduce handling cost and facilitate dependent variables
260. E. All
261. B. Product Layout
262. D. Reduce combine or eliminate unnecessary movement
263. D. All
264. C
265. A. 1-Q, 2-P, 3-R
266. D. All of the above
267. B. Roller conveyor
268. D. All of the above
269. D
270. C
271. D. All of these
272. C
273. A. Carbon steel
274. D. Troughed belts
275. C. A & B
276. E. All
277. A. Wet and sticky materials
278. A. I-beam

340
279. C
280. C. Dipper Shovel
281. D. All of the above
282. D. All of the above
283. D. All of the above
284. B
285. C. Either AC or DC
286. A. Batches of material
287. B. Hauling
288. A.
289. B. Elastic limit
290. B. Temperature
291. B
292. B
293. B. Directly proportional
294. D
295. A
296. A
297. D. Shear strength
298. B. Less than 1/10
299. B. Coupling
300. B. Circumferential stress
301. A. One-half
302. D. Hollow saddle key
303. A
304. B
305. A. Positive
306. B
307. D. Single strap joint
308. C. Both shear and bearing stresses
309. D
310. C. Both the strength and rigidity of the shaft
311. C. Parallel
312. A. True
313. D. Shear failure of plate
314. B. Master leaf

341
315. C. To absorb shocks
316. A. Solid length

342