BULE HORA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING MECHANICS AND MATERIALS

MODULE 1

Prepared By:
1. Mr. Tesfaye Mengesha (M.Sc.)
2. Mr. Robsan Gena (M.Sc.)
3. Mr. Biniam Erkuye (M.Sc.)
4. Mr. Zemene Abebe (M.Sc.)

Module Coordinator: Mr. Tesfaye Mengesha (M.Sc.)

JANUARY 3, 2023
Table of Contents
ENGINEERING MATERIAL I ..................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND INTERATOMIC BONDING ........................................................... 11
CHAPTER 3 IMPERFECTION IN SOLIDS .................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 4 DISLCATION AND STRENGTHENING MECHANSIMS ............................................................. 27
CHAPTER 5 FAILURE ................................................................................................................................ 34
CHAPTER 6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS................................................................................ 39
CHAPTER 7 PHASE DIAGRAMS ................................................................................................................ 43
ENGINEERING MATERIAL II ............................................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER 1 STEEL .................................................................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER 2 CAST IRON ............................................................................................................................ 57
CHAPTER 3 LIGHT METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS ...................................................................................... 63
CHAPTER 4 COPPER ALLOYS.................................................................................................................... 68
CHAPTER 5 ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MATERIALS ............................................................................... 70
STRENGTH OF MATERIAL I ................................................................................................................ 78
CHAPTER 1 MECHANICS OF MATERIAL- CONCEPT OF STRESS ............................................................... 78
CHAPTER 2 STRESS AND STRAIN - AXIAL LOADING................................................................................. 79
CHAPTER 3 TORSION ............................................................................................................................... 84
CHAPTER 4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS .......................................................................... 85
CHAPTER 5 TRANSFORMATIONS OF STRESS AND STRAIN ...................................................................... 87
CHAPTER 6 DEFLECTION OF BEAM ......................................................................................................... 88
CHAPTER 7 COLUMNS ............................................................................................................................. 89
STRENGTH OF MATERIAL II ............................................................................................................... 93
CHAPTER 1 WORK & ENERGY METHODS ................................................................................................ 93
CHAPTER 2 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES ....................................................................... 103
CHAPTER 3 UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING............................................................................................... 111
CHAPTER 5 STRAINS BEYOND THE ELASTIC LIMIT ................................................................................ 135
CHAPTER 6 THICK CYLINDERS ............................................................................................................... 151
CHAPTER 7 Rings, Disks, and cylinders subjected to rotation and thermal gradients.......................... 165
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS ....................................................................................................... 178
ENGINEERING MATERIAL I
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The Material World
We live in a world of material possessions that largely define our social relationships and economic
quality of life. The material possessions of our earliest ancestors were probably their tools and
weapons. In fact, the most popular way of naming the era of early human civilization is in terms
of the materials from which these tools and weapons were made. The Stone Age has been traced
as far back as 2.5 million years ago when human ancestors, or hominids, chipped stones to form
weapons for hunting. The Bronze Age roughly spanned the period from 2000 B.c. to 1000 B.c.
and represents the foundation of metallurgy, in which alloys of copper and tin were discovered to
produce superior tools and weapons. (An alloy is a metal composed of more than one element.)
Modern culture in the second half of the 20th century is sometimes referred to as “plastic,” a not
entirely complimentary reference to the lightweight and economical polymeric materials from
which so many products are made. Some observers have suggested instead that this same time
frame should be labeled the “silicon age,” given the pervasive impact of modern electronics largely
based on silicon technology.
The development of many technologies that make our existence so comfortable has been intimately
associated with the accessibility of suitable materials. An advancement in the understanding of a
material type is often the forerunner to the stepwise progression of a technology. For example,
automobiles would not have been possible without the availability of inexpensive steel or some
other comparable substitute. In the contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on
components that are made from what are called semiconducting materials.
Materials Science and Engineering
Sometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of materials science and engineering into
materials science and materials engineering subdisciplines.
❖ Materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist between the structures
and properties of materials (i.e., why materials have their properties).
❖ Materials engineering involves, on the basis of these structure - property correlations,
designing or engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of
properties. From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or
synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new
 products or systems using existing materials and/or to develop techniques for processing
materials.
❖ Materials Science and Engineering (MSE) combines engineering, physics and chemistry
principles to solve real-world problems associated with nanotechnology, biotechnology,
information technology, energy, manufacturing and other major engineering disciplines.

Why Study Materials Science and Engineering

Why do engineers and scientists study materials? Simply, because things engineers design is made
of materials. Many an applied scientist or engineer (e.g., mechanical, civil, chemical, electrical) is
at one time or another exposed to a design problem involving materials for example, a transmission
gear, the superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip.
Many times, an engineer has the option of selecting a best material from the thousands available.
The final decision is normally based on several criteria.
✓ First, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these dictate the properties
required of the material
✓ A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may occur
during service operation
✓ finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the finished
product cost?
Four components of materials science and engineering
1. Processing: - processing material by either heat or mechanical force.
2. Structure: -Structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal
components.
3. Properties: - A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of
response to a specific imposed stimulus.
4. Performance: -A material’s performance is a function of its properties.

Classification of Materials
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic categories based primarily on
chemical makeup and atomic structure.
1. Metals
2. Polymer
3. ceramics

Most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another. In addition, there are the composites that
are engineered combinations of two or more different materials. Another category is advanced
materials: - those used in high-technology applications, such as semiconductors, biomaterials,
smart materials, and nanoengineered materials.
Metals
Metals are composed of one or more metallic elements (e.g., iron, aluminum, copper, titanium,
gold, nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, oxygen) in relatively
small amounts.
Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner and are relatively
dense in comparison to the ceramics and polymers. With regard to mechanical
characteristics, these materials are relatively stiff and strong, yet are ductile (i.e., capable
of large amounts of deformation without fracture), and are resistant to fracture, which
accounts for their widespread use in structural applications.

Metallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons that is, these electrons are not
bound to particular atoms. Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons.
Metals are extremely good conductors of electricity and heat, and are not transparent to
visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. In addition, some of the
metals (i.e., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties.

Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently
oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide
(or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4),
and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics those composed of clay minerals
(e.g., porcelain), as well as cement and glass. With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic
materials are relatively stiff and strong stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the
metals.
In addition, they are typically very hard. Historically, ceramics have exhibited extreme brittleness
(lack of ductility) and are highly susceptible to fracture.
➢ However, newer ceramics are being engineered to have improved resistance to fracture;
these materials are used for cookware, cutlery, and even automobile engine parts.
Furthermore, ceramic materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and electricity
 (i.e., have low electrical conductivities and are more resistant to high temperatures and
harsh environments than are metals and polymers.

With regard to optical characteristics, ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque, and
some of the oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior.
Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic compounds
that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements (i.e., O, N, and Si).
Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often chainlike in nature, that often have
a backbone of carbon atoms. Some common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon,
poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber.
➢ These materials typically have low densities whereas their mechanical characteristics are
generally dissimilar to those of the metallic and ceramic materials they are not as stiff or
strong as these other material types. However, on the basis of their low densities, many
times their stiffnesses and strengths on a per-mass basis are comparable to those of the
metals and ceramics. In addition, many of the polymers are extremely ductile and pliable
(i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed into complex shapes.
➢ In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of
environments. Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities and are nonmagnetic.
❖ One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften and/or decompose
at modest temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their use.

Composites
A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials that come from the categories
previously discussed metals, ceramics, and polymers.
➢ The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not
displayed by any single material and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of
the component materials.

A large number of composite types are represented by different combinations of metals, ceramics,
and polymers. Furthermore, some naturally occurring materials are composites for example, wood
and bone. However, most of those we consider in our discussions are synthetic (or human-made)
composites.
 ➢ One of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which small glass fibers
are embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester). The glass
fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas the polymer is more flexible.
Thus, fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong and flexible. In addition, it has a low density.

Advanced Materials
Materials utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes termed advanced
materials. By high technology, we mean a device or product that operates or functions using
relatively intricate and sophisticated principles, including electronic equipment (cell phones, DVD
players, etc.), computers, fiber-optic systems, high-energy density batteries, energy-conversion
systems, and aircraft.
These advanced materials are typically traditional materials whose properties have been
enhanced and also newly developed, high-performance materials. Furthermore, they may
be of all material types (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers) and are normally expensive.

Advanced materials include semiconductors, biomaterials, and what we may term materials of
the future (i.e., smart materials and nanoengineered materials).
Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between those of electrical
conductors (i.e., metals and metal alloys) and insulators (i.e., ceramics and polymers).
Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence
of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the concentrations may be controlled over
very small spatial regions.
Biomaterials
The length and the quality of our lives are being extended and improved, in part, due to
advancements in the ability to replace diseased and injured body parts.
❖ Replacement implants are constructed of biomaterials nonviable (i.e., nonliving) materials
that are implanted into the body, so that they function in a reliable, safe, and physiologically
satisfactory manner, while interacting with living tissue.
That is, biomaterials must be biocompatible compatible with body tissues and fluids with
which they are in contact over acceptable time periods.
Biocompatible materials must neither elicit rejection or physiologically unacceptable responses
nor release toxic substances.
➢ biomaterial applications include joint (e.g., hip, knee) and heart valve replacements,
vascular (blood vessel) grafts, fracture-fixation devices, dental restorations, and generation
of new organ tissues.

Smart Materials
Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being
developed that will have a significant influence on many of our technologies.
➢ The adjective smart implies that these materials are able to sense changes in their
environment and then respond to these changes in predetermined manners traits that are
also found in living organisms. In addition, this smart concept is being extended to rather
sophisticated systems that consist of both smart and traditional materials

Components of a smart material (or system) include some type of sensor (which detects an input
signal) and an actuator (which performs a responsive and adaptive function). Actuators may be
called upon to change shape, position, natural frequency, or mechanical characteristics in response
to changes in temperature, electric fields, and/or magnetic fields.
Four types of materials are commonly used for actuators: shape-memory alloys, piezoelectric
ceramics, magnetostrictive materials, and electrorheological/magnetorheo logical fluids.
Shape-memory alloys are metals that, after having been deformed, revert to their original
shape when temperature is changed.
Piezoelectric ceramics expand and contract in response to an applied electric field (or
voltage); conversely, they also generate an electric field when their dimensions are altered.
The behavior of magnetostrictive materials is analogous to that of the piezo electrics,
except that they are responsive to magnetic fields.
electrorheological and magnetorheological fluids are liquids that experience dramatic
changes in viscosity upon the application of electric and magnetic fields, respectively.

Nanomaterials
One new material class that has fascinating properties and tremendous technological promise is
the nanomaterials, which may be any one of the four basic types metals, ceramics, polymers, or
composites. However, unlike these other materials, they are not distinguished on the basis of their
chemistry but rather their size; the nano prefix denotes that the dimensions of these structural
entities are on the order of a nanometer (10−9 m).
SUMMARY
• Six different property classifications of materials determine their applicability: mechanical,
electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative.
• One important relationship in the science of materials is the dependence of a material’s
properties on its structural elements. By structure, we mean how the internal component(s)
of the material is (are) arranged. In terms of (and with increasing) dimensionality, structural
elements include subatomic, atomic, nanoscopic, microscopic, and macroscopic.
• With regard to the design, production, and utilization of materials, there are four elements
to consider: - processing, structure, properties, and performance. The performance of a
material depends on its properties, which in turn are a function of its structure(s);
structure(s) is (are) determined by how the material was processed. The interrelationship
among these four elements is sometimes called the central paradigm of materials science
and engineering.
• Three important criteria in materials selection are in-service conditions to which the
material will be subjected, any deterioration of material properties during operation, and
economics or cost of the fabricated piece
• On the basis of chemistry and atomic structure, materials are classified into three general
categories: metals (metallic elements), ceramics (compounds between metallic and
nonmetallic elements), and polymers (compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
other nonmetallic elements). In addition, composites are composed of at least two different
material types.
• Another materials category is the advanced materials that are used in high-tech
applications, including semiconductors (having electrical conductivities intermediate
between those of conductors and insulators), biomaterials (which must be compatible with
body tissues), smart materials (those that sense and respond to changes in their
environments in predetermined manners), and nanomaterials (those that have structural
features on the order of a nanometer, some of which may be designed on the
atomic/molecular level)
CHAPTER 2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND INTERATOMIC BONDING
Atomic Structure
Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons and is encircled by
moving electrons. Both electrons and protons are electrically charged, the charge magnitude being
1.602 × 10−19 C, which is negative in sign for electrons and positive for protons; neutrons are
electrically neutral. Masses for these subatomic particles are extremely small; protons and neutrons
have approximately the same mass, 1.67 × 10−27 kg, which is significantly larger than that of an
electron, 9.11 × 10−31 kg.
➢ Each chemical element is characterized by the number of protons in the nucleus, or the
atomic number (Z). For an electrically neutral or complete atom, the atomic number also
equals the number of electrons.

The atomic mass (A) of a specific atom may be expressed as the sum of the masses of protons and
neutrons within the nucleus.
A≅Z+N
Atoms of some elements have two or more different atomic masses but similar atomic number,
which are called isotopes.
ELECTRONS IN ATOMS, ATOMIC MODELS
Atomic Models During the latter part of the nineteenth century, it was realized that many
phenomena involving electrons in solids could not be explained in terms of classical mechanics.
What followed was the establishment of a set of principles and laws that govern systems of atomic
and subatomic entities that came to be known as quantum mechanics.
➢ An understanding of the behavior of electrons in atoms and crystalline solids necessarily
involves the discussion of quantum-mechanical concepts.

One early outgrowth of quantum mechanics was the simplified Bohr atomic model, in which
electrons are assumed to revolve around the atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals, and the position
of any particular electron is more or less well defined in terms of its orbital.
Another important quantum-mechanical principle stipulates that the energies of electrons are
quantized that is, electrons are permitted to have only specific values of energy.
 An electron may change energy, but in doing so, it must make a quantum jump either to an
allowed higher energy (with absorption of energy) or to a lower energy (with emission of
energy).
❖ Thus, the Bohr model represents an early attempt to describe electrons in atoms, in terms
of both position (electron orbitals) and energy (quantized energy levels). This Bohr model
was eventually found to have some significant limitations because of its inability to explain
several phenomena involving electrons.

A resolution was reached with a wave-mechanical model, in which the electron is considered to
exhibit both wave-like and particle-like characteristics. With this model, an electron is no longer
treated as a particle moving in a discrete orbital; rather, position is considered to be the probability
of an electron being at various locations around the nucleus.
In other words, position is described by a probability distribution or electron cloud. compares Bohr
and wave-mechanical models for the hydrogen atom. Both models are used throughout the course
of this text; the choice depends on which model allows the simplest explanation.
Quantum Numbers
In wave mechanics, every electron in an atom is characterized by four parameters called quantum
numbers.
❖ The size, shape, and spatial orientation of an electron’s probability density (or orbital) are
specified by three of these quantum numbers. Furthermore, Bohr energy levels separate
into electron subshells, and quantum numbers dictate the number of states within each
subshell.

Electron Configurations
The preceding discussion has dealt primarily with electron states values of energy that are
permitted for electrons. To determine the manner in which these states are filled with electrons,
we use the Pauli exclusion principle, another quantum-mechanical concept, which stipulates
that each electron state can hold no more than two electrons that must have opposite spins. Thus,
s, p, d, and f subshells may each accommodate, respectively, a total of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons.
➢ For most atoms, the electrons fill up the lowest possible energy states in the electron
shells and subshells, two electrons (having opposite spins) per state.
 ➢ When all the electrons occupy the lowest possible energies in accord with the
foregoing restrictions, an atom is said to be in its ground state.

Most of the elements really come under the metal classification. These are sometimes termed
electropositive elements, indicating that they are capable of giving up their few valence electrons
to become positively charged ions.
Furthermore, the elements situated on the right side of the table are electronegative that
is, they readily accept electrons to form negatively charged ions, or sometimes they share
electrons with other atoms.

BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES

An understanding of many of the physical properties of materials is enhanced by a knowledge of
the interatomic forces that bind the atoms together. o the principles of atomic bonding are best
illustrated by considering how two isolated atoms interact as they are brought close together from
an infinite separation.
At large distances, interactions are negligible because the atoms are too far apart to have
an influence on each other; however, at small separation distances, each atom exerts
forces on the others. These forces are of two types, attractive (FA) and repulsive (FR), and
the magnitude of each depends on the separation or interatomic distance (r).
The net force FN between the two atoms is just the sum of both attractive and repulsive
components; that is, FN = FA + FR.

a) The dependence of repulsive, attractive, and net forces on interatomic separation for two isolated
atoms.
(b) The dependence of repulsive, attractive, and net potential energies on interatomic separation
for two isolated atoms.
Types bonding
Three different types of primary or chemical bond are found in solids; - ionic, covalent, and
metallic. For each type, the bonding necessarily involves the valence electrons; furthermore, the
nature of the bond depends on the electron structures of the constituent atoms.
In general, each of these three types of bonding arises from the tendency of the atoms to
assume stable electron structures, like those of the inert gases, by completely filling the
outermost electron shell. Secondary or physical forces and energies are also found in
many solid materials; they are weaker than the primary ones but nonetheless influence the
physical properties of some materials.

PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS

Ionic Bonding
An ionic bond is the result of electron transfer from one atom to another. Figure below illustrates
an ionic bond between sodium and chlorine.
The transfer of an electron from sodium is favored because it produces a more stable
electronic configuration; that is, the resulting Na+ species has a full outer orbital shell,
defined as a set of electrons in a given orbital. Similarly, the chlorine readily accepts the
electron, producing a stable Cl - species, also with a full outer orbital shell. The charged
species (Na+ and Cl -) are termed ions, giving rise to the name ionic bond. The positive
species (Na+) is a cation, and the negative species (Cl -) is an anion.

For ionic compounds, the coordination number of the smaller ion can be calculated in a
systematic way by considering the greatest number of larger ions (of opposite charge) that
can be in contact with, or coordinate with, the smaller one. This number (CN) depends
directly on the relative sizes of the oppositely charged ions.

Covalent Bonding
A second bonding type, covalent bonding, is found in materials whose atoms have small
differences in electronegativity. For these materials, stable electron configurations are assumed by
the sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms.
Two covalently bonded atoms will each contribute at least one electron to the bond, and
the shared electrons may be considered to belong to both atoms. Covalent bonding is
schematically illustrated in Figure below for a molecule of hydrogen (H2).
 The hydrogen atom has a single 1s electron. Each of the atoms can acquire a helium
electron configuration (two 1s valence electrons) when they share their single electron
(right side of Figure.
Furthermore, there is an overlapping of electron orbitals in the region between the two
bonding atoms.

❖ While the ionic bond is nondirectional, the covalent bond is highly directional. The name
covalent derives from the cooperative sharing of valence electrons between two adjacent
atoms. Valence electrons are those outer orbital electrons that take part in bonding.
➢ Many nonmetallic elemental molecules (e.g., Cl2, F2), as well as molecules containing
dissimilar atoms, such as CH4, H2O, HNO3, and HF, are covalently bonded.
➢ Covalent bonds may be very strong, as in diamond, which is very hard and has a very high
melting temperature.

Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding, the final primary bonding type, is found in metals and their alloys. A relatively
simple model has been proposed that very nearly approximates the bonding scheme. With this
model, these valence electrons are not bound to any particular atom in the solid and are more or
less free to drift throughout the entire metal.
They may be thought of as belonging to the metal as a whole, or forming a “sea of electrons” or
an “electron cloud.” The remaining nonvalenced electrons and atomic nuclei form what are called
ion cores, which possess a net positive charge equal in magnitude to the total valence electron
charge per atom.
The ionic bond involves electron transfer and is nondirectional. The covalent bond involves
electron sharing and is directional. The third type of primary bond, the metallic bond,
involves electron sharing and is nondirectional. In this case, the valence electrons are
 said to be delocalized electrons; that is, they have an equal probability of being associated
with any of a large number of adjacent atoms.

Metallic bonding is found in the periodic table for Group IA and IIA elements and, in fact, for all
elemental metals.
❖ Metals are good conductors of both electricity and heat as a consequence of their free
electrons.

SECONDARY BONDING OR VAN DER WAALS BONDING

Secondary bonds, or van der Waals (physical) bonds, are weak in comparison to the primary or
chemical bonds. Secondary bonding exists between virtually all atoms or molecules, but its
presence may be obscured if any of the three primary bonding types is present. Secondary bonding
is evidenced for the inert gases, which have stable electron structures.
In addition, secondary (or intermolecular) bonds are possible between atoms or groups of
atoms, which themselves are joined together by primary (or intramolecular) ionic or
covalent bonds.
Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular dipoles. In essence, an electric
dipole exists whenever there is some separation of positive and negative portions of an
atom or molecule.
Hydrogen bonding, a special type of secondary bonding, is found to exist between some
molecules that have hydrogen as one of the constituents.
Summary
• The two atomic models are Bohr and wave mechanical. Whereas the Bohr model assumes
electrons to be particles orbiting the nucleus in discrete paths, in wave mechanics we
consider them to be wavelike and treat electron position in terms of a probability
distribution.
• The energies of electrons are quantized—that is, only specific values of energy are allowed.
• The four electron quantum numbers are n, l, ml, and ms. They specify, respectively,
electron orbital size, orbital shape, number of electron orbitals, and spin moment.
• According to the Pauli exclusion principle, each electron state can accommodate no more
than two electrons, which must have opposite spins.
• Elements in each of the columns (or groups) of the periodic table have distinctive electron
configurations. For example: Group 0 elements (the inert gases) have filled electron shells.
Group IA elements (the alkali metals) have one electron greater than a filled electron shell.
• For ionic bonds, electrically charged ions are formed by the transference of valence
electrons from one atom type to another.
• There is a sharing of valence electrons between adjacent atoms when bonding is covalent.
• Electron orbitals for some covalent bonds may overlap or hybridize. Hybridization of s and
p orbitals to form sp3 and sp2 orbitals in carbon was discussed.
• With metallic bonding, the valence electrons form a “sea of electrons” that is uniformly
dispersed around the metal ion cores and acts as a form of glue for them.
• Relatively weak van der Waals bonds result from attractive forces between electric dipoles,
which may be induced or permanent.
• For hydrogen bonding, highly polar molecules form when hydrogen covalently bonds to a
nonmetallic element such as fluorine.
• In addition to van der Waals bonding and the three primary bonding types, covalent– ionic,
covalent–metallic, and metallic–ionic mixed bonds exist.
• Correlations between bonding type and material class were noted:
Polymers—covalent
Metals— metallic
Ceramics—ionic/mixed ionic–covalent
 Molecular solids—van der Waals
Semi-metals—mixed covalent–metallic
Intermetallic—mixed metallic–ionic

CHAPTER 3 IMPERFECTION IN SOLIDS

Imperfection
Thus far it has been tacitly assumed that perfect order exists throughout crystalline materials on an
atomic scale. However, such an idealized solid does not exist; all contain large numbers of various
defects or imperfections.
➢ Our first consideration is that no material can be prepared without some degree of
chemical impurity. The impurity atoms or ions in the resulting to alter the structural
regularity of the ideally pure material.
A crystalline defect refers to a lattice irregularity having one or more of its
dimensions on the order of an atomic diameter.

Classification of crystalline imperfections is frequently made according to the geometry or

dimensionality of the defect.
Several different imperfections are discussed in this chapter, including point defects (those
associated with one or two atomic positions); linear (or one-dimensional) defects; and interfacial
defects, or boundaries, which are two-dimensional. Impurities in solids are also discussed, because
impurity atoms may exist as point defects. Finally, techniques for the microscopic examination of
defects and the structure of materials are briefly described.
Point Defects
Structural defects exist in real materials independently of chemical impurities. Imperfections
associated with the crystalline point lattice are called point defects.
❖ Two common types of point defects associated with elemental solids is vacancy and
interstitial defects.
The vacancy is simply an unoccupied atom site in the crystal structure. The
simplest of the point defects is a vacancy, or vacant lattice site, one normally
occupied but from which an atom is missing (Figure below).

All crystalline solids contain vacancies, and, in fact, it is not possible to create such a material that
is free of these defects.
The interstitial or interstitially, is an atom occupying an interstitial site not normally occupied
by an atom in the perfect crystal structure or an extra atom inserted into the perfect crystal structure
such that two atoms occupy positions close to a singly occupied atomic site in the perfect structure.
A self-interstitial is an atom from the crystal that is crowded into an interstitial
site a small void space that under ordinary circumstances is not occupied. This
kind of defect is also represented in Figure above.
In metals, a self-interstitial introduces relatively large distortions in the
surrounding lattice because the atom is substantially larger than the interstitial
position in which it is situated.

Imperfection Solid Solutions

A solid solution forms when, as the solute atoms are added to the host material, the crystal structure
is maintained and no new structures are formed. Perhaps it is useful to draw an analogy with a
liquid solution.
If two liquids that are soluble in each other (such as water and alcohol) are combined, a
liquid solution is produced as the molecules intermix, and its composition is homogeneous
throughout.

A solid solution is also compositionally homogeneous; the impurity atoms are randomly and
uniformly dispersed within the solid. Impurity point defects are found in solid solutions, of which
there are two types: substitutional and interstitial. For the substitutional type, solute or impurity
atoms replace or substitute for the host atoms.
❖ Several features of the solute and solvent atoms determine the degree to which the former
dissolves in the latter. These are expressed as four Hume–Rothery rules, as follows:

1. Atomic size factor. Appreciable quantities of a solute may be accommodated in

this type of solid solution only when the difference in atomic radii between the two
atom types is less than about ±15%. Otherwise, the solute atoms create substantial
lattice distortions and a new phase forms.
2. Crystal structure. For appreciable solid solubility, the crystal structures for
metals of both atom types must be the same.
3. Electronegativity factor. The more electropositive one element and the more
electronegative the other, the greater the likelihood that they will form an
intermetallic compound instead of a substitutional solid solution.
4. Valences. Other factors being equal, a metal has more of a tendency to dissolve
another metal of higher valency than to dissolve one of a lower valency

Example of a substitutional solid solution is found for copper and nickel. These two elements are
completely soluble in one another at all proportions. With regard to the aforementioned rules that
govern degree of solubility, the atomic radii for copper and nickel are 0.128 and 0.125 nm,
respectively.
Dislocation-Liner defects
We have seen that point (zero-dimensional) defects are structural imperfections resulting from
thermal agitation.
Linear defects, which are one-dimensional, are associated primarily with mechanical
deformation. Linear defects are also known as dislocations. A dislocation is a linear or
one-dimensional defect around which some of the atoms are misaligned.

Dislocations or linear defects are crystalline defects of which there are three pure specific types:
edge, screw and mixed.
❖ An edge dislocation is be the line or lattice distortion along the end of an extra half-plane
of atoms or an edge dislocation, so named because the defect, or dislocation line, runs along
the edge of the extra row of atoms.

Within the region around the dislocation line there is some localized lattice distortion. The atoms
above the dislocation line are squeezed together, and those below are pulled apart; this is reflected
in the slight curvature for the vertical planes of atoms as they bend around this extra half-plane
For the edge dislocation, the Burgers vector is perpendicular to the dislocation line.

The magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion associated with a dislocation are expressed
in terms of a Burgers vector, denoted by b.

A screw dislocation is as a helical planar ramp; being formed by a shear stress that is applied to
produce the distortion or screw dislocation, which derives its name from the spiral stacking of
crystal planes around the dislocation line.
The upper front region of the crystal is shifted one atomic distance to the right relative to the
bottom portion. The atomic distortion associated with a screw dislocation is also linear and along
a dislocation line
For the screw dislocation, the Burgers vector is parallel to the dislocation line. Most
dislocations found in crystalline materials are probably neither pure edge nor pure screw
but exhibit components of both types; these are termed mixed dislocations.

The Burgers vector for the mixed dislocation is neither perpendicular nor parallel to the dislocation
line, but instead retains a fixed orientation in space consistent with the previous definitions for the
pure edge and pure screw regions. The local atomic structure around a mixed dislocation is difficult
to visualize, but the Burgers vector provides a convenient and simple description.

INTERFACIAL DEFECTS
Interfacial defects are boundaries that have two dimensions and normally separate regions of the
materials that have different crystal structures and/or crystallographic orientations. These
imperfections include: -
✓ External surfaces
 ✓ Grain boundaries
✓ Phase boundaries
✓ Twin boundaries
✓ Stacking faults.

External surface is one of the most obvious boundaries is the external surface, along which the
crystal structure terminates. Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest
neighbors and are therefore in a higher energy state than the atoms at interior positions.
grain boundary is another interfacial defect, the grain boundary the boundary separating two
small grains or crystals having different crystallographic orientations in polycrystalline materials.
When this orientation mismatch is slight, on the order of a few degrees, then the term small (or
low) angle grain boundary is used.

Phase boundaries exist in multiphase materials in which a different phase exists on each side of
the boundary; In addition, each of the constituent phases has its own distinctive physical and/or
chemical characteristics. phase boundaries play an important role in determining the mechanical
characteristics of some multiphase metal alloys.
A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is a specific mirror lattice
symmetry; that is, atoms on one side of the boundary are located in mirror-image positions to those
of the atoms on the other side.
The region of material between these boundaries is appropriately termed a twin. Twins result from
atomic displacements that are produced from applied mechanical shear forces (mechanical twins)
and also during annealing heat treatments following deformation (annealing twins).
BULK OR VOLUME DEFECTS is other defects exist in all solid materials that are much larger
than those discussed before. These include pores, cracks, foreign inclusions, and other phases.
They are normally introduced during processing and fabrication steps.
ATOMIC VIBRATIONS
Every atom in a solid material is vibrating very rapidly about its lattice position within the crystal.
In a sense, these atomic vibrations may be thought of as imperfections or defects.
At any instant of time, not all atoms vibrate at the same frequency and amplitude or with the same
energy. At a given temperature, there exists a distribution of energies for the constituent atoms
about an average energy.
Over time, the vibrational energy of any specific atom also varies in a random manner. With rising
temperature, this average energy increases, and, in fact, the temperature of a solid is really just a
measure of the average vibrational activity of atoms and molecules.
At room temperature, a typical vibrational frequency is on the order of 1013 vibrations per
second, whereas the amplitude is a few thousandths of a nanometer.
Many properties and processes in solids are manifestations of this vibrational atomic motion. For
example, melting occurs when the vibrations are vigorous enough to rupture large numbers of
atomic bonds.
DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the phenomenon of material transport by atomic motion.
 Many reactions and processes that are important in the treatment of materials rely on the
transfer of mass either within a specific solid (ordinarily on a microscopic level) or from a
liquid, a gas, or another solid phase. This is necessarily accomplished by diffusion.

DIFFUSION MECHANISMS
From an atomic perspective, diffusion is just the stepwise migration of atoms from lattice site to
lattice site. In fact, the atoms in solid materials are in constant motion, rapidly changing positions.
For an atom to make such a move, two conditions must be met:
1. there must be an empty adjacent site, and
2. the atom must have sufficient energy to break bonds with its neighbor atoms and then cause
some lattice distortion during the displacement. This energy is vibrational in nature

Fick’s First Law the diffusion condition for which the flux is independent of time is known as
steady state.
Fick’s second Law or non-steady-state diffusion, there is a net accumulation or depletion of
diffusing species, and the flux is dependent on time.

CHAPTER 4 DISLCATION AND STRENGTHENING MECHANSIMS

DISLOCATION
Dislocations are defined as the irregularities in the structure of metals. These arise from
misplacement of bonds of the atoms in a part of the plane of a crystal and are considered to be
weak centers.
Edge and screw are the two fundamental dislocation types. In an edge dislocation, localized lattice
distortion exists along the end of an extra half-plane of atoms, which also defines the dislocation.
Screw dislocation may be thought of as resulting from shear distortion; its dislocation line passes
through the center of a spiral, atomic plane ramp.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DISLOCATIONS
Several characteristics of dislocations are important with regard to the mechanical properties of
metals.
A dislocation can be characterized by the distance and direction of movement it causes to atoms
which is defined by the Burgers vector. The number and arrangement of dislocations influences
many of the properties of materials.
✓ With regard to mechanical properties of metals, several characteristics of dislocations are
important. These include strain fields that exist around dislocations, which are influential
in determining the mobility of the dislocations as well as their ability to multiply.
✓ It causes metals to be plastically deformed, some fraction of the deformation energy
(approximately 5%) is retained internally; the remainder is dissipated as heat. The major
portion of this stored energy is as strain energy associated with dislocations.
✓ The strain fields surrounding dislocations in close proximity to one another may interact
such that forces are imposed on each dislocation by the combined interactions of all its
neighboring dislocations. For example, consider two edge dislocations that have the same
sign and the identical slip plane.

SLIP SYSTEMS
The process by which plastic deformation is produced by dislocation motion is termed slip.
Dislocations do not move with the same degree of ease on all crystallographic planes of atoms and
in all crystallographic directions.
Typically, there is a preferred plane, and in that plane, there are specific directions along which
dislocation motion occurs. This plane is called the slip plane; it follows that the direction of
movement is called the slip direction. This combination of the slip plane and the slip direction is
termed the slip system.
SLIP IN SINGLE CRYSTALS a further explanation of slip is simplified by treating the
process in single crystals, then making the appropriate extension to polycrystalline
materials.
 Deformation and slip in polycrystalline materials are somewhat more complex. Because
of the random crystallographic orientations of the numerous grains, the direction of slip
varies from one grain to another.
For each, dislocation motion occurs along the slip system that has the most favorable
orientation, as defined earlier. This is exemplified by a photomicrograph of a
polycrystalline copper specimen that has been plastically deformed.

Polycrystalline metals are stronger than their single-crystal equivalents, which means that greater
stresses are required to initiate slip and the attendant yielding. This is, to a large degree, also a
result of geometric constraints that are imposed on the grains during deformation.
Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals
Important to the understanding of strengthening mechanisms is the relation between dislocation
motion and mechanical behavior of metals.
❖ Macroscopic plastic deformation corresponds to the motion of large numbers of
dislocations, the ability of a metal to deform plastically depends on the ability of
dislocations to move. Because hardness and strength (both yield and tensile) are related to
the ease with which plastic deformation can be made to occur.

There are three basic strengthening mechanisms for single-phase metals.

1. grain size reduction
2. solid-solution alloying
3. strain hardening

STRENGTHENING BY GRAIN SIZE REDUCTION

The size of the grains, or average grain diameter, in a polycrystalline metal influences the
mechanical properties.
During plastic deformation, slip or dislocation motion must take place across this common
boundary. The grain boundary acts as a barrier to dislocation motion for two reasons:
1. Because the two grains are of different orientations, a dislocation passing grain A into grain
B must change its direction of motion; this becomes more difficult as the crystallographic
misorientation increases.
 2. The atomic disorder within a grain boundary region results in a discontinuity of slip planes
from one grain into the other.

The motion of a dislocation as it encounters a grain boundary, illustrating how the boundary acts
as a barrier to continued slip. Slip planes are discontinuous and change directions across the
boundary.
SOLID-SOLUTION STRENGTHENING
Another technique to strengthen and harden metals is alloying with impurity atoms that go into
either substitutional or interstitial solid solution. Accordingly, this is called solid-solution
strengthening.
High-purity metals are almost always softer and weaker than alloys composed of the same
base metal. Increasing the concentration of the impurity results in an attendant increase in
tensile and yield strengths.

Alloys are stronger than pure metals because impurity atoms that go into solid solution typically
impose lattice strains on the surrounding host atoms.

STRAIN HARDENING
Strain hardening is the phenomenon by which a ductile metal becomes harder and stronger as it
is plastically deformed. Sometimes it is also called work hardening, or, because the temperature at
which deformation takes place is “cold” relative to the absolute melting temperature of the metal,
cold working. Most metals strain harden at room temperature.
The dislocation density in a metal increase with deformation or cold work because of
dislocation multiplication or the formation of new dislocations. Consequently, the average
distance of separation between dislocations decreases.
The dislocations are positioned closer together. On the average, dislocation–dislocation
strain interactions are repulsive.

The net result is that the motion of a dislocation is hindered by the presence of other dislocations.
As the dislocation density increases, this resistance to dislocation motion by other dislocations
becomes more pronounced. Thus, the imposed stress necessary to deform a metal increase with
increasing cold work.
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
Some fraction of the energy expended in deformation is stored in the metal as strain energy, which
is associated with tensile, compressive, and shear zones around the newly created dislocations.
Furthermore, other properties, such as electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance, may be
modified as a consequence of plastic deformation.
These properties and structures may revert back to the precooled-worked states by appropriate heat
treatment (sometimes termed an annealing treatment). Such restoration results from two different
processes that occur at elevated temperatures: recovery and recrystallization, which may be
followed by grain growth.
RECOVERY
During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of dislocation
motion (in the absence of an externally applied stress), as a result of enhanced atomic diffusion at
the elevated temperature.
There is some reduction in the number of dislocations, and dislocation configurations are produced
having low strain energies. In addition, physical properties such as electrical and thermal
conductivities recover to their precooled-worked states.
RECRYSTALLIZATION
Even after recovery is complete, the grains are still in a relatively high strain energy state.
Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-free and equiaxed grains (i.e., having
approximately equal dimensions in all directions) that have low dislocation densities and are
characteristic of the precooled worked condition.
The driving force to produce this new grain structure is the difference in internal energy between
the strained and unstrained material.
The new grains form as very small nuclei and grow until they completely consume the
parent material, processes that involve short-range diffusion.
Also, during recrystallization, the mechanical properties that were changed as a result of
cold working are restored to their precooled-worked values, that is, the metal becomes
softer and weaker, yet more ductile.

The extent of recrystallization depends on both time and temperature. The degree (or fraction) of
recrystallization increases with time,
plastic deformation operations are often carried out at temperatures above the recrystallization
temperature in a process termed hot working. The material remains relatively soft and ductile
during deformation because it does not strain harden, and thus large deformations are possible.
GRAIN GROWTH
After recrystallization is complete, the strain-free grains will continue to grow if the metal
specimen is left at the elevated temperature, this phenomenon is called grain growth.
Grain growth does not need to be preceded by recovery and recrystallization; it may occur
in all polycrystalline materials, metals and ceramics alike.
As grains increase in size, the total boundary area decreases, yielding an attendant
reduction in the total energy; this is the driving force for grain growth.

SUMMARY
• On a microscopic level, plastic deformation corresponds to the motion of dislocations in
response to an externally applied shear stress.
• For edge dislocations, dislocation line motion and direction of the applied shear stress are
parallel; for screw dislocations, these directions are perpendicular. For an edge dislocation,
tensile, compressive, and shear strains exist in the vicinity of the dislocation line. Shear
lattice strains only are found for pure screw dislocations.
• The motion of dislocations in response to an externally applied shear stress is termed slip.
• Slip occurs on specific crystallographic planes, and within these planes only in certain
directions. A slip system represents a slip plane–slip direction combination.
• Operable slip systems depend on the crystal structure of the material. The slip plane is that
plane that has the densest atomic packing, and the slip direction is the direction within this
plane that is most closely packed with atoms
• Resolved shear stress is the shear stress resulting from an applied tensile stress that is
resolved onto a plane that is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the stress direction.
• Critical resolved shear stress is the minimum resolved shear stress required to initiate
dislocation motion (or slip).
• For a single crystal that is pulled in tension, small steps form on the surface that are parallel
and loop around the circumference of the specimen.
• For polycrystalline metals, slip occurs within each grain along those slip systems that are
most favorably oriented with the applied stress. Furthermore, during deformation, grains
change shape and extend in those directions in which there is gross plastic deformation.
• The ease with which a metal is capable of plastic deformation is a function of dislocation
mobility that is, restricting dislocation motion leads to increased hardness and strength.
• Grain boundaries are barriers to dislocation motion for two reasons: When crossing a grain
boundary, a dislocation’s direction of motion must change. There is a discontinuity of slip
planes within the vicinity of a grain boundary.
• A metal that has small grains is stronger than one with large grains because the former has
more grain boundary area and, thus, more barriers to dislocation motion.
• The strength and hardness of a metal increase with increase of concentration of impurity
atoms that go into solid solution (both substitutional and interstitial).
• Solid-solution strengthening results from lattice strain interactions between impurity atoms
and dislocations; these interactions produce a decrease in dislocation mobility.
• Strain hardening is the enhancement in strength (and decrease of ductility) of a metal as it
is deformed plastically.
• Yield strength, tensile strength, and hardness of a metal increase with increasing percent
cold work.
• During plastic deformation, dislocation density increases and repulsive dislocation strain
field interactions increase; this leads to lower dislocation mobilities and increases in
strength and hardness.
• During recovery: There is some relief of internal strain energy by dislocation motion.
Dislocation density decreases, and dislocations assume low-energy configurations. Some
material properties revert back to their precooled-worked values.
• During recrystallization: A new set of strain-free and equiaxed grains form that have
relatively low dislocation densities. The metal becomes softer, weaker, and more ductile.
• Two factors that influence the recrystallization temperature are percent cold work and
impurity content. Recrystallization temperature decreases with increasing percent cold
work. It rises with increasing concentrations of impurities.
• Plastic deformation of a metal above its recrystallization temperature is hot working;
deformation below its recrystallization temperature is termed cold working.
 • Grain growth is the increase in average grain size of polycrystalline materials, which
proceeds by grain boundary motion.

CHAPTER 5 FAILURE
INTRODUCTION
The failure of engineering materials is almost always an undesirable event for several reasons;
these include putting human lives in jeopardy, causing economic losses, and interfering with the
availability of products and services. Even though the causes of failure and the behavior of
materials may be known, prevention of failures is difficult to guarantee.
Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in response to an imposed
stress that is static (i.e., constant or slowly changing with time) and at temperatures that are low
relative to the melting temperature of the material. Fracture can also occur from fatigue (when
cyclic stresses are imposed) and creep (time-dependent deformation.
For metals, two fracture modes are possible: ductile and brittle. Classification is based on the
ability of a material to experience plastic deformation.
Ductile metals typically exhibit substantial plastic deformation with high energy absorption before
fracture.
Ductile and brittle are relative terms; whether a particular fracture is one mode or the other depends
on the situation. Ductile fracture surfaces have distinctive features on both macroscopic and
microscopic levels.
Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation and by rapid crack propagation.
The direction of crack motion is very nearly perpendicular to the direction of the applied tensile
stress and yields a relatively flat fracture surface.
Ductile-to-Brittle Transition
One of the primary functions of the Charpy and the Izod tests is to determine whether a material
experiences a ductile-to-brittle transition with decreasing temperature and, if so, the range of
temperatures over which it occurs.
The ductile-to-brittle transition is related to the temperature dependence of the measured impact
energy absorption.
Fatigue
Is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses (e.g.,
bridges, aircraft, machine components). Under these circumstances, it is possible for failure to
occur at a stress level considerably lower than the tensile or yield strength for a static load.
The term fatigue is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a lengthy period
of repeated stress or strain cycling.
Fatigue is important inasmuch as it is the single largest cause of failure in metals, estimated
to be involved in approximately 90% of all metallic failures; polymers and ceramics
(except for glasses) are also susceptible to this type of failure.

Fatigue failure is brittle-like in nature even in normally ductile metals in that there is very little,
if any, gross plastic deformation associated with failure. The process occurs by the initiation and
propagation of cracks, and typically the fracture surface is perpendicular to the direction of an
applied tensile stress.
For some ferrous (iron-base) and titanium alloys; there is a limiting stress level, called the
fatigue limit (also sometimes called the endurance limit), below which fatigue failure will
not occur. This fatigue limit represents the largest value of fluctuating stress that will not
cause failure for essentially an infinite number of cycles.
Another important parameter that characterizes a material’s fatigue behavior is fatigue life
Nf. It is the number of cycles to cause failure at a specified stress level.

CRACK INITIATION AND PROPAGATION

The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three distinct steps:
1. crack initiation, in which a small crack forms at some point of high stress concentration
2. crack propagation, during which this crack advances incrementally with each stress cycle
and
3. final failure, which occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack has reached a critical size.

Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost always initiate (or nucleate) on the surface of a
component at some point of stress concentration.
❖ Crack nucleation sites include surface scratches, sharp fillets, keyways, threads, dents,
and the like. In addition, cyclic loading can produce microscopic surface discontinuities
resulting from dislocation slip steps that may also act as stress raisers and therefore as
crack initiation sites.
 ❖ During the propagation of fatigue cracks and on a microscopic scale, there is very
localized plastic deformation at crack tips, even though the maximum applied stress to
which the object is exposed in each stress cycle lies below the yield strength of the metal.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE

The fatigue behavior of engineering materials is highly sensitive to a number of variables,
including mean stress level, geometric design, surface effects, and metallurgical variables, as well
as the environment.
Mean Stress
The dependence of fatigue life on stress amplitude is represented on the S–N plot. Such data are
taken for a constant mean stress 𝜎m, often for the reversed cycle situation (𝜎m = 0). Mean stress,
however, also affects fatigue life; this influence may be represented by a series of S–N curves,
each measured at a different 𝜎m, As may be noted, increasing the mean stress level leads to a
decrease in fatigue life.
Surface Effects
For many common loading situations, the maximum stress within a component or structure occurs
at its surface.
Consequently, most cracks leading to fatigue failure originate at surface positions, specifically at
stress amplification sites. Therefore, it has been observed that fatigue life is especially sensitive to
the condition and configuration of the component surface.
Numerous factors influence fatigue resistance, the proper management of which will lead
to an improvement in fatigue life. These include design criteria as well as various surface
treatments.

Design Factors
The design of a component can have a significant influence on its fatigue characteristics. Any
notch or geometrical discontinuity can act as a stress raiser and fatigue crack initiation site; these
design features include grooves, holes, keyways, threads, and so on. The sharper the discontinuity
(i.e., the smaller the radius of curvature), the more severe the stress concentration.
Surface Treatments
During machining operations, small scratches and grooves are invariably introduced into the
workpiece surface by cutting-tool action. These surface markings can limit the fatigue life. It has
been observed that improving the surface finish by polishing enhances fatigue life significantly.
Case hardening
Is a technique by which both surface hardness and fatigue life are enhanced for steel alloys. This
is accomplished by a carburizing or nitriding process by which a component is exposed to a
carbonaceous or nitrogenous atmosphere at elevated temperature.
CREEP
Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to static mechanical
stresses (e.g., turbine rotors in jet engines and steam generators that experience centrifugal stresses;
high-pressure steam lines). Deformation under such circumstances is termed creep.
GENERALIZED CREEP BEHAVIOR
A typical creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant load or stress while maintaining
the temperature constant; deformation or strain is measured and plotted as a function of elapsed
time.
Most tests are the constant-load type, which yield information of an engineering nature; constant-
stress tests are employed to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of creep.
Upon application of the load, there is an instantaneous deformation, as indicated in the figure, that
is totally elastic. The resulting creep curve consists of three regions, each of which has its own
distinctive strain–time feature.
Primary or transient creep occurs first, typified by a continuously decreasing creep rate that is,
the slope of the curve decreases with time. This suggests that the material is experiencing an
increase in creep resistance or strain hardening deformation becomes more difficult as the material
is strained.
For secondary creep, sometimes termed steady-state creep, the rate is constant that is, the plot
becomes linear. This is often the stage of creep that is of the longest duration.
Finally, for tertiary creep, there is an acceleration of the rate and ultimate failure. This failure is
frequently termed rupture and results from microstructural and/or metallurgical changes.
STRESS AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
Both temperature and the level of the applied stress influence the creep characteristics. At a
temperature substantially below 0.4Tm, and after the initial deformation, the strain is virtually
independent of time. With either increasing stress or temperature, the following will be noted:
1. the instantaneous strain at the time of stress application increases,
2. the steady-state creep rate increases, and
3. the rupture lifetime decreases.

SUMMARY
❖ The three usual causes of failure are
✓ Improper materials selection and processing
✓ Inadequate component design
✓ Component misuse
❖ Fracture in response to tensile loading and at relatively low temperatures may occur by
ductile and brittle modes.
❖ Ductile fracture is normally preferred because Preventive measures may be taken inasmuch
as evidence of plastic deformation indicates that fracture is imminent. More energy is
required to induce ductile fracture than for brittle fracture.
❖ Cracks in ductile materials are said to be stable (i.e., resist extension without an increase
in applied stress).
❖ For brittle materials, cracks are unstable that is, crack propagation, once started, continues
spontaneously without an increase in stress level.
❖ For ductile metals, two tensile fracture profiles are possible: Necking down to a point
fracture when ductility is high only moderate necking with a cup-and-cone fracture profile
when the material is less ductile
❖ For brittle fracture, the fracture surface is relatively flat and perpendicular to the direction
of the applied tensile load.
❖ Trans granular (through-grain) and intergranular (between-grain) crack propagation paths
are possible for polycrystalline brittle materials.
❖ Three factors that may cause a metal to experience a ductile-to-brittle transition are
exposure to stresses at relatively low temperatures, high strain rates, and the presence of a
sharp notch.
 ❖ Qualitatively, the fracture behavior of materials may be determined using the Charpy and
the Izod impact testing techniques.
❖ On the basis of the temperature dependence of measured impact energy (or the appearance
of the fracture surface), it is possible to ascertain whether a material experiences a ductile-
to-brittle transition and, if it does, the temperature range over which such a transition
occurs.
❖ Fatigue is a common type of catastrophic failure in which the applied stress level fluctuates
with time; it occurs when the maximum stress level may be considerably lower than the
static tensile or yield strength.
❖ Fluctuating stresses are categorized into three general stress-versus-time cycle modes:
reversed, repeated, and random.
❖ Reversed and repeated modes are characterized in terms of mean stress, range of stress,
and stress amplitude.
❖ Measures that may be taken to extend fatigue life include the following:
✓ Reducing the mean stress level
✓ Eliminating sharp surface discontinuities Improving the surface finish by polishing
✓ Imposing surface residual compressive stresses by shot peening Case hardening by
using a carburizing or nitriding process

CHAPTER 6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

INTRODUCTION
Many materials are subjected to forces or loads when in service; examples include the aluminum
alloy from which an airplane wing is constructed and the steel in an automobile axle. The
mechanical behavior of a material reflects its response or deformation in relation to an applied load
or force.
Key mechanical design properties are stiffness, strength, hardness, ductility, and toughness.
Materials are frequently chosen for structural applications because they have desirable
combinations of mechanical characteristics.
CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND STRAIN
For loading in tension and compression: Engineering stress 𝜎 is defined as the instantaneous load
divided by the original specimen cross-sectional area.
Engineering strain 𝜀 is expressed as the change in length (in the direction of load application)
divided by the original length.
STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR
A material that is stressed first undergoes elastic, or nonpermanent, deformation. When most
materials are deformed elastically, stress and strain are proportional that is, a plot of stress versus
strain is linear.
For tensile and compressive loading, the slope of the linear elastic region of the stress–
strain curve is the modulus of elasticity (E), per Hooke’s law.
𝜎 = E𝜀

This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of proportionality E (GPa or psi) 6 is the modulus
of elasticity, or young’s modulus.
For a material that exhibits nonlinear elastic behavior, tangent and secant moduli are used. Elastic
deformation that is dependent on time is termed anelastic.
Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called elastic deformation; a plot
of stress (ordinate) versus strain (abscissa) results in a linear relationship, as shown in
below.

A) B)
A) Schematic stress–strain diagram showing linear elastic deformation for loading and unloading
cycles B) Schematic stress–strain diagram showing nonlinear elastic behavior and how secant and
tangent moduli are determined.
 Elastic deformation is nonpermanent, which means that when the applied load is released,
the piece returns to its original shape.

To this point, it has been assumed that elastic deformation is time independent that is, that an
applied stress produces an instantaneous elastic strain that remains constant over the period of time
the stress is maintained.
However, there will also exist a time dependent elastic strain component that is, elastic
deformation will continue after the stress application, and upon load release, some finite time is
required for complete recovery. This time-dependent elastic behavior is known as anelasticity,
and it is due to time-dependent microscopic and atomistic processes that are attendant to the
deformation.
TENSILE PROPERTIES
The phenomenon of yielding occurs at the onset of plastic or permanent deformation.
• Yield strength is indicative of the stress at which plastic deformation begins. For most materials,
yield strength is determined from a stress–strain plot using the 0.002 strain offset technique.
• Tensile strength is taken as the stress level at the maximum point on the engineering stress–
strain curve; it represents the maximum tensile stress that can be sustained by a specimen.
• Ductility is a measure of the degree to which a material plastically deforms by the time fracture
occurs.

• Quantitatively, ductility is measured in terms of percents elongation and reduction in area.

• Yield and tensile strengths and ductility are sensitive to any prior deformation, the presence of
impurities, and/or any heat treatment. Modulus of elasticity is relatively insensitive to these
conditions.
• With increasing temperature, values of elastic modulus and tensile and yield strengths
decrease, whereas the ductility increases.
• Modulus of resilience is the strain energy per unit volume of material required to stress a
material to the point of yielding or the area under the elastic portion of the engineering stress–
strain curve.
• A measure of toughness is the energy absorbed during the fracture of a material, as measured
by the area under the entire engineering stress–strain curve.
True stress (𝜎T) is defined as the instantaneous applied load divided by the instantaneous
cross-sectional area.
True strain (𝜀T) is equal to the natural logarithm of the ratio of instantaneous and original
specimen lengths.

Hardness
Is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation.
The two most common hardness testing techniques are the Rockwell and Brinell tests.
The two micro indentation hardness testing techniques are the Knoop and Vickers tests.
Small indenters and relatively light loads are employed for these two techniques.
For some metals, a plot of hardness versus tensile strength is linear that is, these two parameters
are proportional to one another.

CHAPTER 7 PHASE DIAGRAMS

INTRODUCTION
The understanding of phase diagrams for alloy systems is extremely important because there is a
strong correlation between microstructure and mechanical properties, and the development of
microstructure of an alloy is related to the characteristics of its phase diagram.
A phase is some portion of a body of material throughout which the physical and chemical
characteristics are homogeneous.
Three microstructural characteristics that are important for multiphase alloys are
✓ the number of phases present
✓ the relative proportions of the phases
✓ the manner in which the phases are arrange
Three factors affect the microstructure of an alloy:
✓ What alloying elements are present
✓ The concentrations of these alloying elements
✓ The heat treatment of the alloy

A system at equilibrium is in its most stable state that is, its phase characteristics do not change
over time.
For many alloy systems and at some specific temperature, there is a maximum concentration of
solute atoms that may dissolve in the solvent to form a solid solution; this is called a solubility
limit.
Metastable systems are nonequilibrium ones that persist indefinitely and experience
imperceptible changes with time.
For one-component phase diagrams, the logarithm of the pressure is plotted versus the
temperature; solid-, liquid-, and vapor-phase regions are found.
For binary systems, temperature and composition are variables, whereas external pressure is held
constant. Areas, or phase regions, are defined on these temperature- versus-composition plots
within which either one or two phases exist.
Isomorphous diagrams are those for which there is complete solubility in the solid phase; the
copper–nickel system displays this behavior.
For an alloy of specified composition at a known temperature and that is at equilibrium, the
following may be determined:
✓ What phase(s) is (are) present—from the location of the temperature–composition point on
the phase diagram.
✓ Phase composition(s)—a horizontal tie line is used for the two-phase situation.
✓ Phase mass fraction(s)—the lever rule [which uses tie-line segment lengths is used in two-
phase regions.

In a eutectic reaction, as found in some alloy systems, a liquid phase transforms isothermally into
two different solid phases upon cooling (i.e., L → 𝛼 + 𝛽).
The solubility limit at some temperature corresponds to the maximum concentration of one
component that will go into solution in a specific phase. For a binary eutectic system,
solubility limits are to be found along solidus and solvus phase boundaries.

The solidification of an alloy (liquid) of eutectic composition yields a microstructure consisting of

layers of the two solid phases that alternate.
A primary (or pre-eutectic) phase and the layered eutectic structure are the solidification
products for all compositions (other than the eutectic) that lie along the eutectic isotherm.

Other equilibrium diagrams are more complex, in that they may have phases/ solid
solutions/compounds that do not lie at the concentration (i.e., horizontal) extremes on the diagram.
These include intermediate solid solutions and intermetallic compounds.
In addition to the eutectic, other invariant reactions involving three phases may occur at specific
points on a phase diagram: For a eutectoid reaction, upon cooling, one solid phase transforms into
two other solid phases (e.g., 𝛼 → 𝛽 + 𝛾).
For a peritectic reaction, upon cooling, a liquid and one solid phase transform into another
solid phase (e.g., L + 𝛼 → 𝛽).

A transformation in which there is no change in composition for the phases involved is congruent.
❖ The Gibbs phase rule is a simple equation that relates the number of phases present in a
system at equilibrium with the number of degrees of freedom, the number of components,
and the number of non-compositional variables.
❖ Important phases found on the iron–iron carbide phase diagram are 𝛼-ferrite (BCC), 𝛾-
austenite (FCC), and the intermetallic compound iron carbide [or cementite (Fe3C)].
On the basis of composition, ferrous alloys fall into three classifications: Irons (2.14 wt% C)
The development of microstructure for many iron–carbon alloys and steels depend on a
eutectoid reaction in which the austenite phase of composition 0.76 wt% C transforms
isothermally (at 727°C) into 𝛼-ferrite (0.022 wt% C) and cementite (i.e., 𝛾 → 𝛼 + Fe3C).
• The microstructural product of an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition is pearlite,
a microconstituent consisting of alternating layers of ferrite and cementite.
• The microstructures of alloys having carbon contents less than the eutectoid (i.e.,
hypoeutectoid alloys) are composed of a proeutectoid ferrite phase in addition to pearlite.

Above schematic representation of the formation of pearlite from austenite; direction of carbon
diffusion indicated by arrows.
❖ Pearlite and proeutectoid cementite constitute the microconstituents for hypereutectoid
alloys those with carbon contents in excess of the eutectoid composition.
ENGINEERING MATERIAL II
CHAPTER 1 STEEL
Introduction
Steels are iron–carbon alloys containing appreciable concentrations of other alloying elements;
there are thousands of alloys that have different compositions and/or heat treatments. The
mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which is normally less than 1.0 wt%.
Some of the more common steels are classified according to carbon concentration into low,
medium-, and high-carbon types. Subclasses also exist within each group according to the
concentration of other alloying elements.
Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than carbon and a little
manganese. For alloy steels, more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific
concentrations.
Classification of steels
Low-Carbon Steels
Of the different steels, those produced in the greatest quantities fall within the low carbon
classification. These generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C and are unresponsive to heat
treatments intended to form martensite; strengthening is accomplished by cold work.
Microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents. As a consequence, these alloys are
relatively soft and weak but have outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are
machinable, weldable, and, of all steels, are the least expensive to produce.
Properties of Low-Carbon Steels
They typically have a yield strength of 275 MPa (40,000 psi), tensile strengths between 415 and
550 MPa (60,000 and 80,000 psi), and a ductility of 25%EL
Applications
Typical applications include automobile body components, structural shapes (e.g., I-beams,
channel and angle iron), and sheets that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans.
high-strength, low-alloy steel (HSLA) steels
Another group of low-carbon alloys are the high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels. They contain
other alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum in combined
concentrations as high as 10 wt%, and they possess higher strengths than the plain low-carbon
steels. Most may be strengthened by heat treatment, giving tensile strengths in excess of 480 MPa.
in addition, they are ductile, formable, and machinable. In normal atmospheres, the HSLA steels
are more resistant to corrosion than the plain carbon steels, which they have replaced in many
applications where structural strength is critical (e.g., bridges, towers, support columns in high-
rise buildings, pressure vessels).
Typical Mechanical Properties
YS = 400-700 MPa, TS = 500 – 800 MPa, % Elongation = 18–25%
Table 1.1 Mechanical Characteristics of Hot-Rolled Material and Typical Applications for Various
Plain Low Carbon and High Strength, Low-Alloy Steels
Medium-Carbon Steels
The medium-carbon steels have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and 0.60 wt%. These
alloys may be heat-treated by austenitizing, quenching, and then tempering to improve their
mechanical properties. They are most often utilized in the tempered condition, having
microstructures of tempered martensite. The plain medium-carbon steels have low hardenabilities
and can be successfully heat-treated only in very thin sections and with very rapid quenching rates.
Additions of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum improve the capacity of these alloys to be heat-
treated giving rise to a variety of strength–ductility combinations. These heat-treated alloys are
stronger than the low-carbon steels, but at a sacrifice of ductility and toughness.
Applications of Medium-Carbon Steels
Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and other machine parts and
high-strength structural components calling for a combination of high strength, wear resistance,
and toughness.
High-Carbon Steels
The high-carbon steels, normally having carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%, are the
hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels. They are almost always used in a
hardened and tempered condition and, as such, are especially wear resistant and capable of holding
a sharp cutting edge. The tool and die steels are high-carbon alloys, usually containing chromium,
vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum. These alloying elements combine with carbon to form very
hard and wear-resistant carbide compounds (e.g., Cr23C6, V4C3, and WC).
Applications: These steels are used as cutting tools and dies for forming and shaping materials,
as well as in knives, razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength wire.
The AISI/SAE designation for steels
A four-digit number system:
The first two digits: indicate the alloy content; 1 and 0: plain carbon steels, the first two digits are;
other two-digit combinations (e.g., 13, 41, 43): alloy steels, The last two digits: indicate the carbon
concentration. The digits times 100 = the weight percent carbon. For example: a 1060 steel is a
plain carbon steel containing 0.60 wt% C.
A unified numbering system (UNS)
Used for indexing both ferrous and nonferrous alloys. Consists of a single-letter prefix followed
by a five-digit number. The letter indicates the family of metals to which an alloy belongs. For
carbon steel begins with a G, followed by the AISI/SAE number; the fifth digit is a zero.
Stainless Steels
The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments,
especially the ambient atmosphere. Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a
concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is required. Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by
nickel and molybdenum additions.
Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the predominant phase constituent of
the microstructure as martensitic, ferritic, or austenitic. A wide range of mechanical properties
combined with excellent resistance to corrosion make stainless steels very versatile in their
applicability.
a. Martensitic stainless steels

Martensitic stainless steels are capable of being heat-treated in such a way that martensite is
the prime microconstituent. Additions of alloying elements in significant concentrations
produce dramatic alterations in the iron–iron carbide phase diagram.
b. Austenitic stainless steels

For austenitic stainless steels, the austenite (or 𝛾) phase field is extended to room temperature.
Austenitic and ferritic stainless steels are hardened and strengthened by coldwork because they
are not heat-treatable. The austenitic stainless steels are the most corrosion resistant because
of the high chromium contents and also the nickel additions; they are produced in the largest
quantities. Both martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic; the austenitic stainless
are not. Equipment employing these steels includes gas turbines, high-temperature steam
boilers, heat-treating furnaces, aircraft, missiles, and nuclear power–generating units. Some
 316L austenitic steels are used in biomedical applications such as temporary orthopedic
devices.
c. Ferritic stainless steels
➢ composed of the ferrite (BCC) phase.
➢ Can be hardened and strengthened by cold work because, but are not heat treatable.
➢ Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic;
Applications
These include plates, screws, pins, and wires to stabilize fractured bones and facilitate the healing
process.
Maraging Steels
These classes of steels are in Ultra-high strength group
➢ Martensite + Aging = Maraging
➢ C- 0.03 %; Ni-18%; Co-3.8%; Mo-3.8%; a fraction of Ti and Al
➢ Ys = 1800 MPa and FT 120MN-3/2
➢ Weldability is Good due to softness of Martensite
Effects of allying elements on steel
Manganese (Mn)
Manganese steel, also called Hadfield steel or mangalloy, is a steel alloy containing 12-14%
manganese. Its high impact strength and resistance to abrasion in its hardened state, the steel is
often described as the ultimate work hardening steel. Sometimes manganese combines with sulfur
to prevent brittleness. When Mn >1%, it increases hardenability and when Mn is 11% to 14%,
increases hardness with good ductility, high strain hardening capacity and excellent wear
resistance.
Effect of Sulfur
Sulfur should be less than 0.05% on steel. When sulfur combines with Iron to form Iron Sulfide
(FeS) and concentrates at Grain Boundaries. If steel is forged or rolled at elevated temperature, the
steel will become brittle. This phenomenon is known as ‘HOT SHORTNESS’. Free Machining
steels will contain 0.08%-0.35%S. in general sulfur,
➢ Imparts brittleness
➢ Improves machineability
➢ Okay if combined with Mn
Examples of S alloys: 11xx – sulfurized (free-cutting)
Chromium (Cr)
Chromium (Cr) is of the most common alloying elements in stainless steel grades and is contained
in most commercially used stainless steel grades. Chromium is one of the key elements used to
increase the resistance to corrosion. This fact explains the usually synonymous uses of the term. It
is usually, < 2% with increasing hardenability and strength and offers corrosion resistance by
forming stable oxide surface.
Typically used in combination with Ni and Mo
➢ 30XX – Nickel (0.70%), chromium (0.70%)
➢ 5xxx – chromium alloys
➢ 6xxx – chromium-vanadium alloys
➢ 41xxx – chromium-molybdenum alloys
Molybdenum (Mo)
Molybdenum, like chromium, has an effect on the corrosion resistance of steel. Molybdenum can
also increase the hardenability, toughness, and tensile strength of steel. It increases the
hardenability by lowering the required quench rate during the heat-treating process to make a
strong and hard steel. It is usually, < 0.3% and Mo-carbides help increase creep resistance at
elevated temperatures. Typical application is hot working tools.
Nickel (Ni)
Nickel (Ni) provides strength, stability and toughness for steels. Examples of Ni alloys includes
the following main compositions:
➢ 30xx – Nickel (0.70%), chromium (0.70%)
➢ 31xx – Nickel (1.25%), chromium (0.60%)
➢ 32xx – Nickel (1.75%), chromium (1.00%)
➢ 33XX – Nickel (3.50%), chromium (1.50%).
Tungsten (W)
Tungsten (W) helps to form stable carbides. It increases hot hardness to be used in tool steels.
Effect of Phosphorous
Phosphorous on steel should be below 0.04%. It dissolves in Ferrite and from 0.07% to 0.12%
improves cutting properties. It also increases strength and hardness slightly. Larger quantities,
reduces ductility of the material. Phosphors combines with Iron and forms Iron Phosphide and
during cold working, the steels get cracked. This phenomenon is known as “COLD SHORTNESS”
Purpose of Alloying
➢ Increases Hardenability
➢ Improve Strength at ordinary temperatures
➢ Improve mechanical properties at either high or low temperatures
➢ Improve toughness at any minimum hardness or strength
➢ Increases Wear Resistance
➢ Increase Corrosion Resistance
➢ Improve Magnetic Properties
Extracting iron from iron ore using a Blast Furnace
Iron is extracted from its ore using carbon in a competition reaction
Raw Materials
➢ Coke – carbon - C
➢ Limestone – calcium carbonate - Ca CO3
➢ Iron ore – iron (III) oxide -Fe2O3

Raw materials

Hot waste gases

Hot air
Slag
Molten iron
Figure 1.1 The Blast Furnace – diagram
Reactions in the Blast Furnace
➢ Carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide (C + O2 → CO2)
➢ Carbon dioxide + carbon → carbon monoxide (CO2 + C → 2CO)
➢ Iron (III) oxide + carbon monoxide → iron + carbon dioxide
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
Formation of slag
➢ Thermal decomposition of limestone
➢ Calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
➢ Calcium oxide + silicon dioxide → calcium silicate
 ➢ Calcium silicate is slag
Waste Products
Slag is used for road building. Hot waste gases are used to heat the air blasted in at the bottom of
the furnace. Iron from the blast furnace: is very brittle and has a limited number of uses. To
make it more useful some of the carbon has to be removed. This is done when it is made into steel.
Heat Treatment of Steels
Heat Treating – defined as the controlled heating and cooling of metals for the primary purpose of
altering their properties (strength, ductility, hardness, toughness, machinability, etc) It can be done
for both Strengthening Purposes (converting structure to martensite) and for Softening and
Conditioning Purposes (annealing, tempering, etc.)

➢ Ferrite – BCC iron w/ carbon in solid

solution (soft, ductile, magnetic)
➢ Austenite – FCC iron with carbon in
solid solution (soft, moderate strength,
non-magnetic)
➢ Cementite – Compound of carbon and
iron FE3C (Hard and brittle)
➢ Pearlite – alternate layers of ferrite and
cementite.
➢ Martensite – iron – carbon w/ body
centered tetragonal – result of heat
treat and quench

How heat treatment applied?

For steel the concentration of carbon has to be from 0.06% to 1.0% and must have a carbon content
of at least .6% (ideally) to heat treat and;
➢ Must heat to austenitic temperature range.
➢ Must rapidly quench to prevent formation of equilibrium products.
➢ Basically, crystal structure changes from BCC to FCC at high Temp.
The FCC can hold more carbon in solution and on rapid cooling the crystal structure wants to
return to its BC C structure. It cannot due to trapped carbon atoms. The net result is a distorted
crystal structure called body centered tetragonal called martensite.
Hardening process
Direct Hardening – Austenitizing and quench:
Austenitizing – again taking a steel with .6% carbon or greater and heating to the austenite region.
Rapid quench to trap the carbon in the crystal structure – called martensite (BCT)
Quench requirements determined from isothermal transformation diagram (IT diagram).
Get “Through” Hardness!!!

Austenitizing:

Heat to austenite range. Want to be close

to transformation temperature to get fine
grain structure.

Figure 1.2 Hardening temperature range shown on the iron-carbon diagram

Quenching:
Depending on how fast steel must be quenched (from IT diagram), the heat treater will determine
type of quenching required:
➢ Water (most severe)
➢ Oil
➢ Molten Salt
➢ Gas/ Air
➢ Many phases in between!!! Ex: add water/polymer to water reduces quench time!
Adding 10% sodium hydroxide or salt will have twice the cooling rate!
Direct Hardening - Selective Hardening:
This has the same requirements as austenitizing:
➢ Must have sufficient carbon levels (>0.4%)
➢ Heat to austenite region and quench
Why do? When only desire a select region to be hardened: Knives, gears, etc and when object too
big to heat in furnace! Large casting w/ wear surface
Types: Flame hardening, induction hardening, laser beam hardening
Flame Hardening:

Figure 1.4 flame hardening profiles

Figure 1.3 typical flame-hardening systems

Diffusion Hardening (aka Case Hardening):
For this type of hardening carbon content too low to through harden with previous processes.
Desire hardness only in selected area and more controlled versus flame hardening and induction
hardening. Can get VERY hard local areas (i.e. HRC of 60 or greater). Interstitial diffusion when
tiny solute atoms diffuse into spaces of host atoms. Substitutional diffusion when diffusion atoms
too big to occupy interstitial sites – then must occupy vacancies
Requirements:
➢ High temp (> 900 F)
➢ Host metal must have low concentration of the diffusing species
➢ Must be atomic suitability between diffusing species and host metal

The most common types of diffusion hardening are: Carburizing, Nitriding, Carbonitriding and
Cyaniding
Carburizing is a process used to case harden steel with a carbon content between 0.1 and 0.3 wt%
C. Steel is introduced to a carbon rich environment and elevated temperatures for a certain amount
of time, and then quenched so that the carbon is locked in the structure.
Carburization is a diffusion-controlled process, so the longer the steel is held in the carbon-rich
environment the greater the carbon penetration will be and the higher the carbon content. The
carburized section will have a carbon content high enough that it can be hardened again through
flame or induction hardening. The carbon can come from a solid, liquid or gaseous source.
Solid source -> pack carburizing. Packing low carbon steel parts with a carbonaceous material and
heating for some time diffuses carbon into the outer layers.
Liquid Source -> involves placing parts in a bath of a molten carbon-containing material, often a
metal cyanide
Gaseous Source -> involves placing the parts in a furnace maintained with a methane-rich interior

Figure 1.5 pack carburizing

Nitriding
➢ Nitrogen diffused into surface being treated.
➢ Nitrogen reacts with steel to form very hard iron and alloy nitrogen compounds.
➢ Process does not require quenching – big advantage.
➢ The case can include a white layer which can be brittle – disadvantage
➢ More expensive than carburizing

Cyaniding is mainly used on low carbon steels. The part is heated to 870-950°C in a bath of
sodium cyanide (NaCN) and then is quenched and rinsed, in water or oil, to remove any residual
cyanide. The process produces a thin, hard shell (0.5-0.75mm) that is harder than the one produced
by carburizing, and can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes compared to several hours. It is typically
used on small parts. The major drawback of cyaniding is that cyanide salts are poisonous
Softening and Conditioning
The Common types
➢ Recrystallization ➢ Stress relief anneal
➢ Annealing ➢ Normalizing
➢ Process anneals ➢ Tempering

Recrystallization: it is done often with cold working processes. Limit to how much steel can be
cold worked before it becomes too brittle. This process heats steel up so grains return to their
original size prior to subsequent cold working processes. Also done to refine coarse grains.
Annealing– primary purpose is to soften the steel and prepare it for additional processing such as
cold forming or machining. If already cold worked it allows recrystallization.
What does Annealing do?-Applying annealing leads to reduce hardness, remove residual stress
(stress relief), improve toughness, restore ductility and refine grain size.
Process Steps:
➢ Heat material into the asutenite region (i.e. above 1600F) – rule of thumb: hold steel for
one hour for each one inch of thickness
➢ Slowly furnace cool the steel – DO NOT QUENCH
➢ Key slow cooling allows the C to precipitate out so resulting structure is coarse pearlite
with excess ferrite. After annealing steel is quite soft and ductile

Annealing versus Austenitizing:

End result: One softens and the other hardens!
Both involve heating steel to austenite region.
Only difference is cooling time:
If fast (quenched) C is looked into the structure = martensite (BCT) = HARD
If slow C precipates out leading to coarse pearlite (with excess cementite of ferrite) = SOFT
Temper: It is always done following heat treat as part of the austenitizing process! Because of
lack of adequate toughness and ductility after heat treat, high carbon martensite is not a useful
material despite its great strength (too brittle). Tempering imparts a desired amount of toughness
and ductility (at the expense of strength)
Typical HT steps:
➢ Austenize: Heat into stable single-phase region and HOLD for uniform chemistry single
phase austenite.
➢ Quench: Rapid cool – crystal changes from Austenite FCC to Martensite BCT which is
hard but brittle.
➢ Temper: A controlled reheat (BELOW AUSTENITE REGION). The material moves
toward the formation of a stable two-phase structure – tougher but weaker.

CHAPTER 2 CAST IRON

Introduction
Cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14 wt%; in practice, however,
most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C and, in addition, other alloying elements. A
reexamination of the iron–iron carbide phase diagram reveals that alloys within this composition
range become completely liquid at temperatures between approximately 1150°C and 1300°C
which is considerably lower than for steels. Thus, they are easily melted and amenable to casting.
Furthermore, some cast irons are very brittle, and casting is the most convenient fabrication
technique.

Figure 2.1 true equilibrium iron–carbon phase diagram with graphite instead of cementite
Cementite (Fe3C) is a metastable compound, and under some circumstances it can be made to
dissociate or decompose to form α-ferrite and graphite, according to the reaction.
It exhibits lower melting point and more fluid than steel (better castability). Low-cost material
usually produced by sand casting. A wide range of properties, depending on composition &
cooling rate
The tendency to form graphite is regulated by the composition and rate of cooling. Graphite
formation is promoted by the presence of silicon in concentrations greater than about 1 wt%. For
most cast irons, the carbon exists as graphite, and both microstructure and mechanical behavior
depend on composition and heat treatment. The most common cast iron types are gray, nodular,
white, malleable, and compacted graphite.
Production of Cast Iron
It is made by remelting raw iron scrap iron and steel. In the process the phosphorus and sulfur is
allowed to remove. The result contains more than 2% carbon and 1% silicon. During the process
slow cooling favours, the formation of graphite & low hardness while Rapid cooling promotes
carbides with high hardness. Thick sections cool slowly, while thin sections cool quickly
Raw materials
➢ Pig iron, scrap steel, limestone and carbon (coke)
➢ Cupola
➢ Electric arc furnace
➢ Electric induction furnace
➢ Usually sand cast, but can be gravity die cast in reusable graphite moulds
➢ Not formed, finished by machining

Types of cast iron

Gray cast Iron
The carbon and silicon contents of gray cast irons vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0 and 3.0
wt%, respectively. For most of these cast irons, the graphite exists in the form of flakes (similar to
corn flakes), which are normally surrounded by an α-ferrite or pearlite matrix; as shown in Figure
2.2. Because of these graphite flakes, a fractured surface takes on a gray appearance-hence its
name. Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle in tension as a consequence of its
microstructure; the tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and pointed and may serve as points of
stress concentration when an external tensile stress is applied.
Figure 2.2 Gray iron: the dark graphite flakes are embedded in an α-ferrite matrix.
Gray irons have some desirable characteristics and are used extensively. They are very effective
in damping vibrational energy. Base structures for machines and heavy equipment that are exposed
to vibrations are frequently constructed of this material. In addition, gray irons exhibit a high
resistance to wear. Furthermore, in the molten state they have a high fluidity at casting temperature,
which permits casting pieces that have intricate shapes. Gray cast irons are among the least
expensive of all metallic materials. Gray may be generated by adjusting the composition and/or
using an appropriate treatment.
Properties of gray cast iron
Tensile strength – 25 MPa, Elongation - 0.5 %, Hardness – 180 Hv
Table 2.1 designations, minimum mechanical properties, compositions, and typical applications
for various gray, nodular, malleable, and cast irons
Ductile (or Nodular) Iron
Adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to the gray iron before casting
produces a distinctly different microstructure and set of mechanical properties. Graphite
still forms, but as nodules or spherelike particles instead of flakes. The resulting alloy is
called ductile or nodular iron, and a typical microstructure is shown in Figure 2.3 below.

Figure 2.3 Nodular (ductile) iron: the dark graphite nodules are surrounded by an α-ferrite matrix.
The matrix phase surrounding these particles is either pearlite or ferrite, depending on heat
treatment (Figure 2.4); it is normally pearlite for an as-cast piece. However, a heat treatment for
several hours at about 700°C yields a ferrite matrix. Castings are stronger and much more ductile
than gray iron, as a comparison of their mechanical properties. Ductile iron has mechanical
characteristics approaching those of steel. For example, ferritic ductile irons have tensile strengths
between 380 and 480 MPa and ductilities (as percent elongation) from 10% to 20%.

Figure 2.4 from the iron–carbon phase diagram, composition ranges for commercial cast irons.
The figure 2.4 above also shows microstructures that result from the heat treatments. Gf, flake
graphite; Gr, graphite rosettes; Gn, graphite nodules; P, pearlite; α, ferrite
Properties of nodular cast iron
Yield strength - 53 – 108 Mpa, Tensile strength – 70 – 115 Mpa, Elongation - 5-18 Mpa and
Hardness – 170 – 310 Hv
Applications of ductile or nodular iron
Typical applications for this material include valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, and other
automotive and machine components.
White Cast Iron
For low-silicon cast irons (containing less than 1.0 wt% Si) and rapid cooling rates, most of the
carbon exists as cementite instead of graphite, as indicated in Figure 2.4. A fracture surface of this
alloy has a white appearance, and thus it is termed white cast iron. The microstructure of white
iron is presented in figure 2.5 below. Thick sections may have only a surface layer of white iron
that was “chilled” during the casting process; gray iron forms at interior regions, which cool more
slowly. As a consequence of large amounts of the cementite phase, white iron is extremely hard
but also very brittle, to the point of being virtually unmachinable.

Figure 2.5. white iron: the light cementite regions are surrounded by pearlite, which has the ferrite–
cementite layered structure.
Properties of white cast iron
Tensile strength – 25 Mpa, Elongation – 0, Hardness – 450 Hv,
Applications of white cast iron
Its use is limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and wear-resistant surface, without a
high degree of ductility e.g., as rollers in rolling mills. Generally, white iron is used as an
intermediary in the production of yet another cast iron, malleable iron.
Malleable cast iron
Heating white iron at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C for a prolonged time period and in
a neutral atmosphere causes a decomposition of the cementite, forming graphite, which exists in
the form of clusters or rosettes surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix, depending on cooling
rate, as indicated in Figure 2.4. A photomicrograph of a ferritic malleable iron is presented in
Figure 2.6. below. The microstructure is similar to that of nodular iron, which accounts for
relatively high strength and appreciable ductility or malleability.
Figure 2.6 Malleable iron: dark graphite rosettes (temper carbon) in an α-ferrite matrix
Properties of malleable Iron
Yield strength - 33 MPa, Tensile strength - 52 MPa, Elongation - 12 MPa and Hardness – 130 Hv
Applications of malleable cast iron
Applications include connecting rods, transmission gears, and differential cases for the automotive
industry, and also flanges, pipe fittings, and valve parts for railroad, marine, and other heavy-duty
services. Gray and ductile cast irons are produced in approximately the same amounts; however,
white and malleable cast irons are produced in smaller quantities

CHAPTER 3 LIGHT METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS

Aluminum and Its Alloys
Aluminum is widely used in the manufacture of housings for electronic components, lighting
fixtures, marine hardware, antennas and in many other applications. While the raw aluminum
material may not be as appealing to the eye, the durability of the corrosion protection is superior
and it offers several different options when it comes to surface finishing including:
➢ Anodizing ➢ Painting
➢ Powder Coating ➢ Teflon coating
➢ Electroplating ➢ E-coating

Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by, relatively low density (2.7 g/cm3 as compared to
7.9 g/cm3 for steel), high electrical and thermal conductivities, resistant to corrosion in some
common environments, including the ambient atmosphere. Many of these alloys are easily formed
due to high ductility;
The chief limitation of aluminum alloys: low melting temperature [660°C], restricts the maximum
temperature at which it can be used. The mechanical strength of aluminum may be enhanced by
cold work and by alloying; however, both processes tend to diminish resistance to corrosion. The
principal alloying elements include copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and zinc.
Applications of aluminum alloys: aircraft structural parts, beverage cans, bus bodies, and
automotive parts (engine blocks, pistons, and manifolds).
Aluminum Production
Bauxite is extracted by open-pit mining. The richer ores are used as mined. The lower grade ores
may be beneficiated by crushing and washing to remove clay and silica waste. The production of
the metal comprises two basic steps: namely refining and reduction
Refining. Production of alumina from bauxite by the Bayer process in which bauxite is digested
at high temperature and pressure in a strong solution of caustic soda. The resulting hydrate is
crystallized and calcined to the oxide in a kiln or fluid bed calciner.

Figure 3.1 preparation of alumina

Bauxite is mined, then crushed and washed to remove water soluble impurities. The remaining
material is dissolved in NaOH and heated, where Al2O3 is selectively dissolved by the reaction.

Reduction. Reduction of alumina to virgin aluminum metal employing the Hall-Heroult

electrolytic process using carbon electrodes and cryolite flux.
Table 3.1 Compositions, Mechanical Properties, and Typical Applications for Aluminum Alloys
Magnesium and Its Alloys
Magnesium alloys are well-known for being the lightest structural alloys. They are made of
magnesium, the lightest structural metal, mixed with other metal elements to improve the physical
properties. These elements include manganese, aluminum, zinc, silicon, copper, zirconium and
rare-earth metals. Since the most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density 1.7 g/cm3,
its alloys are used where light weight is an important consideration (e.g., in aircraft components).
Properties of magnesium
Magnesium alloys are materials of interest mostly due to their high strength-to-weight ratios,
exceptional machinability and low cost. They have a low specific gravity of 1.74 g/cm3 and a
relatively low young’s modulus (42 GPa) compared to other common alloys such as aluminum or
steel alloys. Their formability increases with increasing temperature, but that requires high energy.
The most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, which is the lowest of all the
structural metals; therefore, In general, Magnesium has an HCP crystal structure, is relatively soft,
and has a low elastic modulus: 45 GPa (6.5×106 psi). At room temperature magnesium and its
alloys are difficult to deform; in fact, only small degrees of cold work may be imposed without
annealing. Magnesium, has low melting temperature [651°C]. Chemically, magnesium alloys are
relatively unstable and especially susceptible to corrosion in marine environments. Fine
magnesium powder ignites easily when heated in air;
Production of magnesium alloy
Depending upon the location and type of resource being used, a wide variety of production
methods can be used to refine magnesium metal. This is due to two factors. First, magnesium is
very abundant, making production in many locations possible. Second, its end-use applications are
price sensitive, which to encourages buyers to constantly seek the lowest possible cost source.
➢ Extraction from Dolomite and Magnesite Ore
➢ Extraction from Sea Salt
➢ Extraction Through the Pidgeon Process
Extraction of magnesium by the electrolysis of fused anhydrous Magnesium Chloride magnesium
obtained on a large scale by the electrolysis of fused anhydrous magnesium chloride, which is
obtained from sea water or from anhydrous cranallite. From sea water: sea water is collected in
large vats. A slurry of slaked lime, Ca(OH)2 is added. Magnesium hydroxide is less soluble than
calcium hydroxide and is therefore precipitated and Ca(OH)2 remains dissolved. The hydroxide of
sodium and potassium, being soluble, remain in solution.
After filtration the magnesium hydroxide precipitate converted to a solution of magnesium
chloride by dissolving it in hydrochloric acid.
Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl--------------> MgCl2 + 2H2O

The solution of MgCl2 in water is then concentrated and dried to get a salt. MgCl2.2H2O the fused
mass containing 35% MgCl2, 15% CaCl and 50% NaCl2 at about 700°c is electrolyzed to get
magnesium.
From anhydrous cranallite: cranallite is naturally occurring mineral of magnesium (Mg CL 2.KCl.
6H2O) it is dehydrated by heating to 350°c in a stream of dry hydrochloric acid gas. Electrolysis:
the electrolysis is carried out in an iron crucible which server as the cathode. The anode is a
graphite rod surrounded by a porcelain tube through which the chlorine gas escapes. The
electrolyte is either fused cranallite or fused MgCl2 to which some KCl is added to lower the
melting point.
Applications magnesium
Magnesium alloys cover a wide array of applications, from automotive, aerospace, electronics and
biomedical aspects.
Titanium and Its Alloys
Titanium and its alloys are relatively new engineering materials that possess an extraordinary
combination of properties. These alloys are metals that contain a mixture of titanium and other
chemical elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme
temperatures).
They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand
extreme temperatures. However, the high cost of both raw materials and processing limit their use
to military applications, aircraft, spacecraft, bicycles medical devices, jewelry, highly stressed
components such as connecting rods on expensive sports cars and some premium sports
equipment and consumer electronics.
The atoms of pure titanium align in the solid state in either a hexagonal close-packed crystalline
structure, called the alpha (α) phase, or a body-centred cubic structure, called the beta (β) phase.
In the pure metal, transformation from the alpha to the beta phase occurs upon heating above 883
°C, but most alloying elements either stabilize the alpha phase to higher temperatures or stabilize
the beta phase to lower temperatures.
Using the common phases present at room temperature, titanium alloys are divided into four
classes: commercially pure, alpha, alpha-beta, and beta. Each class has distinctive characteristics.
Pure titanium, although very ductile, has low strength and is therefore used when strength is not
critical and corrosion resistance is desired. Alpha-Beta alloys- These are heat treatable to varying
extents and most are weldable with the risk of some loss of ductility in the weld area. Creep
strength is not usually as good as in most alpha alloys
Alpha alloys- These are non-heat treatable and are generally very weldable. They have low to
medium strength, good notch toughness, reasonably good ductility and have excellent properties
at cryogenic temperatures. The more highly alpha or near alpha alloys offer high temperature creep
strength and oxidation resistance.
Beta alloys- Beta or near beta alloys are readily heat treatable, generally weldable, and offer high
strength up to intermediate temperature levels. In the solution treated condition, cold formability
is generally excellent.
Generally, the pure metal has a relatively low density (4.5 g/cm3), a high melting point[1668°C],
and an elastic modulus of 107GPa. Titanium alloys are extremely strong. At room temperature
tensile strengths of 1400 MPa. the alloys are highly ductile and easily forged and machined.
Production of titanium alloys
 Figure 3.2 titanium production process Figure 3.3 titanium Hydride-dehydride process
Application of titanium alloys
Applications include Chemical processing, Chlorate manufacturing, Desalination, Marine
applications

CHAPTER 4 COPPER ALLOYS

Introduction
Copper and copper-based alloys possessing a desirable combination of physical properties have
been used in quite a variety of applications since antiquity. Unalloyed copper is so soft and ductile
that it is difficult to machine; also, it has an almost unlimited capacity to be cold worked.
Furthermore, it is highly resistant to corrosion in diverse environments including the ambient
atmosphere, seawater, and some industrial chemicals. The mechanical and corrosion-resistance
properties of copper may be improved by alloying. Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or
strengthened by heat-treating procedures; consequently, cold working and/or solid-solution
alloying must be used to improve these mechanical properties.
Properties of Copper
Copper is a soft, tough, ductile and malleable material. These properties make copper extremely
suitable for tube forming, wire drawing, spinning and deep drawing. The other key properties
exhibited by copper and its alloys include:
Excellent thermal conductivity. Copper has a 60% higher thermal conductivity rating than
aluminum. Excellent electrical conductivity. The conductivity of copper is 97% that of silver.
Good corrosion resistance. Copper does not react with water, but it does slowly react with
atmospheric oxygen to form a layer of brown-black copper oxide.
Good machinability. Machining of copper is possible, although alloys are preferred for good
machinability in creating intricate parts. Retention of mechanical and electrical properties at
cryogenic temperatures
Types of Copper Alloys
Brass
Brass is the generic term for a range of copper-zinc alloys. Brass can be alloyed with zinc in
different proportions, which results in a material of varying mechanical, corrosion and thermal
properties.
Increased amounts of zinc provide the material with improved strength and ductility. Brasses with
a copper content greater than 63% are the most ductile of any copper alloy and are shaped by
complex cold forming operations. Brass has higher malleability than bronze or zinc.
The relatively low melting point of brass and its fluidity make it a relatively easy material to cast.
Some of the common brasses are: yellow, naval, and cartridge brass, muntz metal, and gilding
metal
Application of brass
Decorative applications brass's aesthetic value makes it a popular choice for decorative
applications. Its coloring can range from light gold and silver all the way to almost red.
Mechanical applications From shell casings for an M-16 assault rifle to everyday use bearings and
gears, brass is widely used for mechanical applications.
Musical Instruments If you've ever participated in a concert band, or perhaps even a symphony,
you are likely very aware of the brass all around you. Trumpets, french horns, trombones,
baritones, and tubas are some of the most popular brass instruments.
Bronze
The bronzes are a family of copper-based alloys traditionally alloyed with tin, but can refer to
alloys of copper and other elements (e.g., aluminum, silicon, and nickel). Bronzes are somewhat
stronger than the brasses, yet they still have a high degree of corrosion resistance. Generally, they
are used when, in addition to corrosion resistance, good tensile properties are required. For
Copper-nickel Alloy
Cupronickels are copper-nickel alloys that contain typically from 60 to 90 percent of copper and
nickel as the main alloying element. The two main alloys are 90/10 and 70/30. Other strengthening
elements, such as manganese and iron, may be also contained. Cupronickels have excellent
resistance to corrosion caused by sea water. Despite its high copper content, cupronickel is silver
in color. The addition of nickel to copper also improves strength and corrosion resistance, but good
ductility is retained.

CHAPTER 5 ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MATERIALS

Introduction
Plastics, ceramics, and composites are nonmetallic materials that are commonly used in different
application. In general Plastics, elastomers, ceramics, and composites have become important
materials that can be manufactured so that a wide range of properties may be obtained.
Plastics
Plastics are materials that have some structural rigidity under load and are used in general-purpose
applications. Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly (vinyl chloride), polystyrene, and the
fluorocarbons, epoxies, phenolics, and polyesters may all be classified as plastics. They have a
wide variety of combinations of properties. Some plastics are very rigid and brittle. Others are
flexible, exhibiting both elastic and plastic deformations when stressed and sometimes
experiencing considerable deformation before fracture.
Several plastics exhibit especially outstanding properties. For applications in which optical
transparency is critical, polystyrene and poly (methyl methacrylate) are especially well suited;
however, it is imperative that the material be highly amorphous or, if semicrystalline, have very
small crystallites. The fluorocarbons have a low coefficient of friction and are extremely resistant
to attack by a host of chemicals, even at relatively high temperatures. They are used as coatings
on nonstick cookware, in bearings and bushings, and for high-temperature electronic components
this are engineered materials.
Molecular Structure of Plastics
Those are hydrocarbons having CnH2n+2 chemical formula with covalent bonding structure. When
no additional atoms can be added to the chain, the molecule is said to be saturated. Double or triple
covalent bonds may also be present. Common hydrocarbons include, Ethylene and acetylene. it is
made by polymerization. Small molecules (monomers or mers) link to form larger molecules with
the same constituent atoms.
Forming Molecules by Polymerization
➢ Molecules can be linked by addition or condensation methods
➢ Monomers are the basic building blocks
 ➢ Monomers can be linked together to produce polymers
➢ Increasing the chain length increases toughness, creep resistance, melting temperature,
melt viscosity, and difficulty in processing
➢ Copolymers are similar to alloys in metals when two monomers are combined
➢ Condensation polymerization occurs when a polymer is formed plus byproducts (such as
water)

Thermosetting and Thermoplastics

Thermosets and thermoplastics are classified based on their response to heat
➢ Internal bonding is covalent [thermoset]
➢ Intermolecular bonds are van der Waal forces
Linear polymers are typically flexible and tough that can be soften with increasing temperature
and slide over each other in molding processes.
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics soften when heated (and eventually liquefy) and harden when cooled— processes
that are totally reversible and may be repeated. On a molecular level, as the temperature is raised,
secondary bonding forces are diminished (by increased molecular motion) so that the relative
movement of adjacent chains is facilitated when a stress is applied. Irreversible degradation results
when a molten thermoplastic polymer is raised to too high a temperature. In addition,
thermoplastics are relatively soft. Most linear polymers and those having some branched structures
with flexible chains are thermoplastic. And they:
➢ Contain molecules of different lengths
➢ Do not have a definite melting temperature
➢ Above the melting temperature, the material can be poured and cast
➢ Application of a force deforms the material both elastically and plastically
o Plastic deformation occurs by adjacent fibers and chains slipping past one another
➢ If cooled below the melting temperature, thermoplastics crystallize
o Polymer of thermoplastics is stiffer, harder, less ductile, and more resistant to
solvents and heat
➢ Common thermoplastics: Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS) and
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Thermosets
➢ Highly cross-linked structure
➢ Typically produced by condensation polymerization
o Elevated temperatures produce an irreversible reaction
o Once set, subsequent heating will not soften the material
➢ Significantly stronger and more rigid than thermoplastics
➢ Able to resist higher temperatures
➢ Greater dimensional stability
➢ Lower ductility
➢ Poorer impact properties
➢ Heating changes their structure permanently
Properties and Applications of Plastics
Light weight Corrosion resistance
Electrical resistance Low thermal conductivity
Variety of optical properties Formability
Surface finish Low cost
Low energy content
Plastics vs. Metals
Unless they are in the form of composites, plastics do not have strength properties close to the
engineering metals. Coefficient of thermal expansion is higher for plastics. UV and radiation can
alter plastics’ properties. Plastics are difficult to repair
Applications of Plastics
Almost any color material is possible with plastics, in packaging and containers, household
appliances, clock cases, exteriors of electronic products, cushioning materials rigid foams are used
in sheet metals for compressive strength and gears, lenses, safety helmets and unbreakable
windows.
Common Types or Families of Plastics
Thermoplastics ABS, Nylon, Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene, Polyvinyl Chloride
Thermosets: Epoxies, Polyesters and Silicones
Additive Agents in Plastics
Additional materials may be added to plastics for the purposes of impart or improve properties,
reduce cost, improve moldability and adding color. Additive agents in plastics are classified as
retardants.
Fillers: improve strength, stiffness, and toughness. It also reduces shrinkage and weight.
Common fillers: wood flour, cloth fibers, macerated cloth, glass fibers, mica, calcium carbonate
Coloring agents: Dyes are soluble and pigments are insoluble
Plasticizers: Added in small amounts to reduce viscosity
Lubricants: Improve moldability, facilitates part removal
Stabilizers and antioxidants: Retard the effects of heat, light, and oxidation
Antimicrobial: Long-term protection from bacteria and fungus
Fibers: Increase strength and stiffness
Table 5.1 additive agents in plastics and their purpose

Artificial Elastomers
➢ Natural rubbers are expensive, so many artificial or synthetic rubbers have been developed
➢ Can be classified as thermoplastics or thermosets
➢ Thermosets are formed using vulcanization
➢ Thermoplastics are formed using injection molding, extrusion, blow molding, etc.
Ceramics
Ceramic materials are utilized in totally different kinds of applications and, in this regard, tend to
complement each other, and also the polymers. Most ceramic materials fall into an application–
classification scheme that includes the following groups: glasses, structural clay products,
whitewares, refractories, abrasives, cements, and the newly developed advanced ceramics.
 figure 5.1 Classification of ceramic materials on the basis of application.
Typical properties
High temperature usage, Hard and brittle, High melting point, Low thermal expansion and good
creep resistance
Nature and Structure of Ceramics
Compounds of metallic and nonmetallic elements which has high melting temperatures, High
rigidity and High compressive strength. Non-crystalline structures are possible and Amorphous
condition is observed in glasses. Both crystalline and non-crystalline ceramics are brittle Clay and
whiteware are commonly used ceramics
Special Ceramics
These are Refractory materials. Ceramics that have been designed to provide mechanical or
chemical properties at high temperatures
Ceramics for Mechanical Applications
Ceramics have strong ionic or covalent bonds. Most ceramics have small cracks, pores, and
impurities and act as mechanical stress concentration points.
Glasses
The glasses are a familiar group of ceramics; containers, windows, lenses, and fiberglass represent
typical applications. As already mentioned, they are noncrystalline silicates containing other
oxides, notably CaO, Na2O, K2O, and Al2O3, which influence the glass properties. A typical
soda–lime glass consists of approximately 70 wt% SiO2, the balance being mainly Na2O (soda)
and CaO (lime). Possibly the two prime assets of these materials are their optical transparency and
the relative ease with which they may be fabricated.
Glass–Ceramics
Most inorganic glasses can be made to transform from a noncrystalline state to one that is
crystalline by the proper high-temperature heat treatment. This process is called devitrification,
and the product is a fine-grained polycrystalline material which is often called a glass–ceramic. A
nucleating agent must be added to induce the crystallization process. Desirable characteristics of
glass–ceramics include a low coefficient of thermal expansion, such that the glass–ceramic ware
will not experience thermal shock; in addition, relatively high mechanical strengths and thermal
conductivities are achieved. Some glass–ceramics may be made optically transparent; others are
opaque. Possibly the most attractive attribute of this class of materials is the ease with which they
may be fabricated; conventional glass-forming techniques may be used conveniently in the mass
production of nearly pore-free ware.
Glass–ceramics are manufactured commercially under the trade names of Pyroceram, Corning
ware, Cercor, and Vision. The most common uses for these materials are as ovenware and
tableware, primarily because of their strength, excellent resistance to thermal shock, and their high
thermal conductivity. They also serve as electrical insulators and as substrates for printed circuit
boards, and are utilized for architectural cladding, and for heat exchangers and regenerators.
Clay Products
One of the most widely used ceramic raw materials is clay. This inexpensive ingredient, found
naturally in great abundance, often is used as mined without any upgrading of quality. Another
reason for its popularity lies in the ease with which clay products may be formed; when mixed in
the proper proportions, clay and water form a plastic mass that is very amenable to shaping. The
formed piece is dried to remove some of the moisture, after which it is fired at an elevated
temperature to improve its mechanical strength.
Refractories
Another important class of ceramics that are utilized in large tonnages is the refractory ceramics.
The salient properties of these materials include the capacity to withstand high temperatures
without melting or decomposing, and the capacity to remain unreactive and inert when exposed to
severe environments. In addition, the ability to provide thermal insulation is often an important
consideration. Refractory materials are marketed in a variety of forms, but bricks are the most
common.
Typical applications include furnace linings for metal refining, glass manufacturing, metallurgical
heat treatment, and power generation. Of course, the performance of a refractory ceramic, to a
large degree, depends on its composition. On this basis, there are several classifications, namely,
fireclay, silica, basic, and special refractories.
Abrasives
Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind, or cut away other material, which necessarily is softer.
Therefore, the prime requisite for this group of materials is hardness or wear resistance; in addition,
Diamonds, both natural and synthetic, are utilized as abrasives; however, they are relatively
expensive. The more common ceramic abrasives include silicon carbide, tungsten carbide (WC),
aluminum oxide (or corundum), and silica sand.
Abrasives are used in several forms bonded to grinding wheels, as coated abrasives, and as loose
grains. In the first case, the abrasive particles are bonded to a wheel by means of a glassy ceramic
or an organic resin. The surface structure should contain some porosity; a continual flow of air
currents or liquid coolants within the pores that surround the refractory grains will prevent
excessive heating. Wood, metals, ceramics, and plastics are all frequently ground and polished
using this form of abrasive.
Cements
Several familiar ceramic materials are classified as inorganic cements: cement, plaster of paris,
and lime, which, as a group, are produced in extremely large quantities.
The characteristic feature of these materials is that when mixed with water, they form a paste that
subsequently sets and hardens. This trait is especially useful in that solid and rigid structures having
just about any shape may be expeditiously formed. Also, some of these materials act as a bonding
phase that chemically binds particulate aggregates into a single cohesive structure. Under these
circumstances, the role of the cement is similar to that of the glassy bonding phase that forms when
clay products and some refractory bricks are fired. One important difference, however, is that the
cementitious bond develops at room temperature. Of this group of materials, portland cement is
consumed in the largest tonnages.
It is produced by grinding and intimately mixing clay and lime-bearing minerals in the proper
proportions, and then heating the mixture to about 1400ºC in a rotary kiln; this process, sometimes
called calcination, produces physical and chemical changes in the raw materials.
Advanced ceramics
o Alumina
o Silicon carbide
 o Sialon
o Zirconia
➢ Advanced ceramics may be used as cutting tools
STRENGTH OF MATERIAL I
CHAPTER 1 MECHANICS OF MATERIAL- CONCEPT OF STRESS
Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behavior of solid
bodies subjected to various types of loading. The most fundamental concepts in mechanics of
materials are stress and strain. These concepts can be illustrated in their most elementary form by
considering a prismatic bar subjected to axial forces (P). A prismatic bar is a straight structural
member having the same cross section throughout its length, and an axial force is a load directed
along the axis of the member, resulting in either tension or compression in the bar. Stress can be
determined from the force in the member. Area can be varied based up on the cross section of the
bar. For instance, for prismatic bar 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 , for rectangular bar 𝐴 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∗ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 and so on.

Stress has units of force per unit area, A and is denoted by

the Greek letter 𝜎 (sigma). When the bar is stretched by the
forces P, the stresses are tensile stresses; if the forces are
reversed in direction, causing the bar to be compressed, we
obtain compressive stresses. In as much as the stresses act
in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, they are
called normal stresses. The shearing stresses caused by the
application of equal and opposite transverse forces. The
bearing stresses created by bolts and pins in the members
they connect.
𝑃
Axial stress, 𝜎 = 𝐴

Shearing stress: A very different type of stress is obtained when transverse

forces P and P' are applied to a member AB. The internal forces would exist
in the plane of the section, and that their resultant is equal to P. These
elementary internal forces are called shearing forces, 𝜏. Shearing stresses
are commonly found in bolts, pins, and rivets used to connect various
𝑃
structural members and machine components. Thus, single shear, 𝜏 = 𝐴.
𝑃=𝐹/2 𝐹
In double shear P can be equal to half of force applied to each transvers. Thus, 𝜏 = = 2𝐴
𝐴
 Single shearing

Double shearing

Bearing stress: Bolts, pins, and rivets create stresses in the members
they connect along the bearing surface, or surface of contact. Since
this area is equal to td, where t is the plate thickness and d the
𝑃 𝑃
diameter of the bolt, we have 𝜎𝑏 = 𝐴 = 𝑡𝑑

Factor of Safety: The maximum load that a structural member or a machine component will be
allowed to carry under normal conditions of utilization is considerably smaller than the ultimate
load. This smaller load is referred to as the allowable load and, sometimes, as the working load or
design load. Thus, only a fraction of the ultimate load capacity of the member is utilized when the
allowable load is applied. The remaining portion of the load-carrying capacity of the member is
kept in reserve to assure its safe performance. The ratio of the ultimate load to the allowable load
is used to define the factor of safety.
𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Factor to be considered for selection of an Appropriate Factor of Safety for design analysis
➢ Variations that may occur in the properties of the member under consideration.
➢ The number of loadings that may be expected during the life of the structure or machine.
➢ The type of loadings that are planned for in the design, or that may occur in the future.
➢ The type of failure that may occur.
➢ Uncertainty due to methods of analysis.
➢ Deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor maintenance or because of
unpreventable natural causes.
➢ The importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole structure.

CHAPTER 2 STRESS AND STRAIN - AXIAL LOADING

First, the normal strain € in a member will be defined as. the deformation of the member per unit
length, 𝜖 = 𝛿/𝐿. From the stress-strain diagram, we can determine important properties of the
material, such as its modulus of elasticity, and whether the material is ductile or brittle. From the
stress-strain diagram, we can also determine whether the strains in the specimen will disappear
after the load has been removed in which Case the material is said to behave elastically-or whether
a permanent set or plastic deformation will result. Fig below shows Stress-strain diagram for a
typical structural steel in tension.

With an increase in stress beyond the

proportional limit, the strain begins to
increase more rapidly for each increment in
stress. Consequently, the stress-strain curve
has a smaller and smaller slope, until, at point
B, the curve becomes horizontal. Beginning
at this point, considerable elongation of the
test specimen occurs with no noticeable increase in the tensile force (from B to C). This
phenomenon is known as yielding of the material, and point B is called the yield point. The
corresponding stress is known as the yield stress (yield strength) of the steel. In the region from B
to C, the material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it deforms without an increase in
the applied load. The elongation of a mild-steel specimen in the perfectly plastic region is typically
10 to 15 times the elongation that occurs in the linear region (between the onset of loading and the
proportional limit). The presence of very large strains in the plastic region (and beyond) is the
reason for not plotting this diagram to scale. After undergoing the large strains that occur during
yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to strain harden. During strain hardening, the material
undergoes changes in its crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistance of the material to
further deformation. Elongation of the test specimen in this region requires an increase in the
tensile load, and therefore, the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D. The load
eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point D) is called the
ultimate stress (ultimate strength). Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a
reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs at a point such as E.
Metals such as structural steel that undergo large permanent strains before failure are classified as
ductile. Structural steel is an alloy of iron containing about 0.2% carbon, and therefore it is
classified as a low-carbon steel. With increasing carbon content, steel becomes less ductile but
stronger (higher yield stress and higher ultimate stress). The physical properties of steel are also
affected by heat treatment, the presence of other metals, and manufacturing processes such as
rolling. Other materials that behave in a ductile manner (under certain conditions) include
aluminum, copper, magnesium, lead, molybdenum, nickel, brass, bronze, monel metal, nylon, and
teflon. The ductility of a material in tension can be characterized by its elongation and by the
reduction in area at the cross section where fracture occurs.
𝐿1 − 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑠
𝐿1 − 𝐿0
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100 𝐿0 − 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐿0
𝐴0 , 𝐴1 − 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴1 − 𝐴0
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100
𝐴0
Materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of strain are classified as brittle. Examples
are concrete, stone, cast iron, glass, ceramics, and a variety of metallic alloys.
Ordinary glass is a nearly ideal brittle material, because it exhibits almost no ductility. The stress
strain curve for glass in tension is essentially a straight line, with failure occurring before any
yielding takes place.
Plastics has tremendously varied mechanical properties, with some plastics being brittle and others
ductile. When designing with plastics it is important to realize that their properties are greatly
affected by both temperature changes and the passage of time.
True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the changing area with
time) of material, 𝜎 = 𝑃/𝐴. Engineering stress is the applied load divided by the original cross-
sectional area of material, 𝜎 = 𝑃/𝐴𝑜 .
Engineering strain is the amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test. Also
known as nominal strain, 𝜖 = 𝛿/𝐿𝑜 . True strain equals the natural log of the quotient of current
𝐿
length over the original length, 𝜖 = ln (𝐿 𝑖 ).
𝑜
Hooke’s Law states that the stress a is directly proportional to the strain 𝜖, and we can write
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖. The coefficient E is called the modulus of elasticity of the material involved, or also
Young's modulus. For each of the materials considered so far, the relation between normal stress
and normal strain, 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖, is independent of the direction of loading, this is because the
mechanical properties of each material, including. its modulus of elasticity E, are independent of
the direction considered. Such materials are said to be isotropic. Materials whose properties
depend upon the direction considered are said to be anisotropic. An important class of anisotropic
materials consists of fiber-reinforced composite materials.
Hooke’s law in shear: 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾, where 𝜏 is shear stress, 𝛾 is shear strain and G is the shear
modulus of elasticity (also called the modulus of rigidity).
If the strains caused in a test specimen by the application of a given load disappear when the load
is removed, the material is said to behave elastically. The largest value of the stress for which the
material behaves elastically is called the elastic limit of the material.
Poisson’s Ratio: When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied
by lateral contraction (that is, contraction normal to the direction of the applied load).

This change in shape is pictured in Fig. where part (a) shows the
bar before loading and part (b) shows it after loading. The lateral
strain 𝜖 ′ at any point in a bar is proportional to the axial strain e
at that same point if the material is linearly elastic. The ratio of
these strains is a property of the material known as Poisson’s
ratio. This dimensionless ratio, usually denoted by the Greek letter v (nu), can be expressed by the
equation
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖′
𝑣=− =−
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖
The minus sign is inserted in the equation to compensate for the fact that the lateral and axial
strains normally have opposite signs. For instance, the axial strain in a bar in tension is positive
and the lateral strain is negative (because the width of the bar decreases). For compression we have
the opposite situation, with the bar becoming shorter (negative axial strain) and wider (positive
lateral strain). Therefore, for ordinary materials Poisson’s ratio will have a positive value. The
actual measured values of Poisson’s ratio for most metals and many other materials are in the range
0.25 to 0.35.
The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear are related by the following equation
𝐸
𝐺=
2(1 + 𝑣)
Deformations of Members Under Axial Loading, 𝜹
𝜎 𝑃
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 ⋯ 𝜖 = 𝐸 = 𝐴𝐸 but also 𝜖 = 𝛿/𝐿 then equating both equation gives,
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
The above Equation (Deformations of Members Under Axial Loading) may be used only if the
rod is homogeneous (constant E), has a uniform cross section of area A, and is loaded at its ends.
If the rod is loaded at other points, or if it consists of several portions of various cross sections and
possibly of different materials, we must divide it into component parts that satisfy individually tlie
required conditions for the application. Denoting, respectively, by Pi, Li, Ai, and Ei the internal
force, length, cross-sectional area, and modulus of elasticity corresponding to part i, we express
the deformation of the entire rod as
𝑃𝑖 𝐿𝑖
𝛿=∑
𝐴𝑖 𝐸𝑖
𝑖

If the temperature of the rod is raised by ∆𝑇, we observe that the rod elongates by an amount 𝛿𝑇
which is proportional to both the temperature change ∆𝑇 and the length L of the rod
𝛿𝑇 = 𝛼(∆𝑇)𝐿 where 𝛼 coefficient of thermal expansion
𝛿𝑇
And strain can be expressed as 𝜖 = = 𝛼(∆𝑇), and then called thermal strain.
𝐿
The discontinuities in geometry cause high stresses in very small regions of the bar, and these high
stresses are known as stress concentrations. Stress concentration appears in holes, grooves,
notches, keyways, shoulders, threads, or other abrupt changes in geometry that create a disruption
in the otherwise uniform stress pattern. It also appears at points of loading.
When an indeterminate structure undergoes plastic deformations, the stresses do not, in general,
return to zero after the load has been removed. The stresses remaining in the various parts of the
structure are called residual stresses and may be determined by adding the maximum stresses
reached during the loading.
CHAPTER 3 TORSION
Torsion refers to the twisting of a straight bar when it is loaded by moments (or torques) that tend
to produce rotation about the longitudinal axis of the bar. For instance, when you turn a
screwdriver, your hand applies a torque T to the handle and twists the shank of the screwdriver.
Other examples of bars in torsion are drive shafts in automobiles, axles, propeller shafts, steering
rods, and drill bits. In the special case of pure torsion, the rate of twist is
equal to the total angle of twist 𝜑 divided by the length L, that is, 𝜃 = 𝜑/𝐿.
Therefore, for pure torsion only, we obtain
𝑟𝜑
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐿
Shear strain in hollow circular tube can be given as a minimum and
maximum shear strain,
𝑟1 𝑟1 𝜑
𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑟2 𝐿
Maximum shear stress in solid circular cross section with d diameter applied to T torque is given
by
16𝑇
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜋𝑑 3
Within the elastic range, the angle of twist 𝜑 is proportional to the torque T applied to the shaft
and expressed by
𝑇𝐿 1 4
𝜑= , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐽 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟, 𝐽= 𝜋𝑟
𝐽𝐺 2
The above Formula for the angle of twist can be used only if the shaft is homogeneous (constant
G), has a uniform cross section, and is loaded only at its ends. If the shaft is subjected to torques
at locations other than its ends, or if it consists of several portions with various cross sections and
possibly of different materials, it can be expressed as,
𝑇𝑖 𝐿𝑖
𝜑=∑
𝐽𝑖 𝐺𝑖
𝑖
𝑇
Torsion formula for thin-walled tubes: 𝜏 = , where t is thickness of the tube and 𝐴𝑚 is the
2𝑡𝐴𝑚

area enclosed by the median line—it is not the cross-sectional area of the tube.
CHAPTER 4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS
A beam with a pin support at one end and a roller support at the other is called a simply supported
beam (pin support beam). A beam in which is fixed at one end and free at the other, is called a
cantilever beam (fixed support beam). Beam with an overhang is simply supported at one end
points and somewhere in between ends with a roller support but it also projects beyond the supports
between end points.
Several types of loads that act on beams are illustrated. When a load is applied over a very small
area it may be idealized as a concentrated load, which is a single force. When a load is spread
along the axis of a beam, it is represented as a distributed load.

A simply supported beam AB supports two loads, a force P and a

couple Mo, acting as shown in Fig. a.
Find the shear force V and bending moment M in the beam at
cross sections located as follows: (a) a small distance to the left
of the midpoint of the beam, and (b) a small distance to the right
of the midpoint of the beam.
Solution: Taking moments about ends B and A gives two
equations of equilibrium, from which we find, respectively,

(a) Shear force and bending moment to the left of the midpoint.
We cut the beam at a cross section just to the left of the midpoint
and draw a free-body diagram of either half of the beam, fig b.
Summing forces in the vertical direction (upward is positive) gives
Taking moments about an axis through the cross section where the beam is cut (see Fig. b) gives

(b) Shear force and bending moment to the right of the midpoint. In this case we cut the beam at
a cross section just to the right of the midpoint and again draw a free-body diagram of the part of
the beam to the left of the cut section (Fig. c).

The flexure formula for the determination of the maximum value 𝜎𝑚 of the normal stress in a
|𝑀|𝑐
given section of the beam, 𝜎𝑚 = , where I is the moment of inertia of the cross section
𝐼
with respect to a centroidal axis perpendicular to the plane of the bending couple M and c is the
maximum distance from the neutral surface.
CHAPTER 5 TRANSFORMATIONS OF STRESS AND STRAIN
The transformation equations for plane stress show that the normal stresses and the shear stresses
vary continuously as the axes are rotated through the angle 𝜃. Both the normal and shear stresses
reach maximum and minimum values at 90° intervals. Not surprisingly, these maximum and
minimum values are usually needed for design purposes. For instance, fatigue failures of structures
such as machines and aircraft are often associated with the maximum stresses.
The maximum and minimum normal stresses, called the principal stresses, can be found from the
transformation equation for the normal stress by derivation with respect to 𝜃. The principal stresses
can be expressed as,

The plus sign gives the algebraically larger principal stress and the minus sign gives the
algebraically smaller principal stress.
The shear stresses are zero on the principal planes, but the maximum value of the shearing stress
for a rotation in the plane of stress is
 or

The transformation equations for plane stress can be represented in graphical form by a plot known
as Mohr’s circle.
In the case of a cylindrical vessel of inside radius r and thickness t we can obtain the following
expressions for the hoop stress 𝜎1 and the longitudinal stress 𝜎2 .

We can also found that the maximum shearing stress occurs out of .the plane of stress and is .

In the case of a spherical vessel of inside radius r and thickness t (spherical pressure vessels), we
can found that the two principal stresses are equal:

Again, the maximum shearing stress Occurs out of the plane of stress; it is

Recalling that the values of the normal stresses of some cross section of the shaft at some point
are, respectively, 𝜎𝑚 = 𝑀𝑐/𝐼 and zero, while the shearing stress is Tm = Tc/J, we can determine
the value of the maximum shearing stress:

Recalling that, for a circular or annular cross section, 2/ = J, we write

CHAPTER 6 DEFLECTION OF BEAM

When a prismatic beam subjected to pure bending is bent into an arc of circle and
that, within the elastic range, the curvature of the neutral surface can be expressed
as, where M is the bending moment, E the modulus of elasticity, and I the moment
of inertia of the cross section about its neutral axis.
In the case of the elastic curve of a beam, the equation can be expressed as:

where y is deflection in beam

Example

CHAPTER 7 COLUMNS
Load-carrying structures may fail in a variety of ways, depending
upon the type of structure, the conditions of support, the kinds of
loads, and the materials used. For instance, an axle in a vehicle
may fracture suddenly from repeated cycles of loading, or a beam
may deflect excessively, so that the structure is unable to perform
its intended functions. Another type of failure is buckling, the
buckling of columns, which are long, slender structural members
loaded axially in compression (Fig. a). If a compression member
is relatively slender, it may deflect laterally and fail by bending (Fig. b) rather than failing by direct
compression of the material. When lateral bending occurs, we say that the column has buckled.
Under an increasing axial load, the lateral deflections will increase too, and eventually the column
will collapse completely. The phenomenon of buckling is not limited to columns. Buckling can
occur in many kinds of structures and can take many forms. When you step on the top of an empty
aluminum can, the thin cylindrical walls buckle under your weight and the can collapses. When a
large bridge collapsed a few years ago, investigators found that failure was caused by the buckling
of a thin steel plate that wrinkled under compressive stresses. Buckling is one of the major causes
of failures in structures, and therefore the possibility of buckling should always be considered in
design.
If the axial force P is relatively small, the action of the
restoring moment will predominate over the action of the
axial force and the structure will return to its initial straight
position. Under these conditions, the structure is said to be
stable. However, if the axial force P is large, the lateral
displacement of point B will increase and the bars will rotate
through larger and larger angles until the structure collapses.
Under these conditions, the structure is unstable and fails by
lateral buckling.
The transition between the stable and unstable conditions
occurs at a special value of the axial force known as the critical load. The moment MB is
equal to the rotational stiffness 𝛽𝑅 times the angle of rotation 2𝜃 of the spring; thus, 𝑀𝐵 = 2𝛽𝑅 𝜃.
At the critical value of the load the structure is in equilibrium regardless of the magnitude of the
angle 𝜃. Then, the critical load is given by,
4𝛽𝑅 4𝐾
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = = where K is Torsional spring constant
𝐿 𝐿
At this value of the load, the restoring effect of the moment in the spring just matches the buckling
effect of the axial load. Therefore, the critical load represents the boundary between the stable and
unstable conditions. If the axial load is less than Pcr, the effect of the moment in the spring
predominates and the structure returns to the vertical position after a slight disturbance; if the axial
load is larger than Pcr, the effect of the axial force predominates and the structure buckles:
 If P < Pcr, the structure is stable
If P > Pcr, the structure is unstable
Stability of the structure is increased either by increasing its stiffness or by decreasing its length.
The differential equation of the deflection curve column with pinned ends is given by
𝐸𝐼𝑣 ′′ + 𝑃𝑣 = 0
Where v is maximum deflection during buckling and the values of P that satisfy the buckling
equation can be derived as,
𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃= 𝑛 (𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒) = 1, 2, 3, ….
𝐿2

Figure shows Buckled shapes

for an ideal column with
pinned ends:
(a) initially straight column,
(b) buckled shape for n=1, and
(c) buckled shape for n =2

Thus, Euler’s Column Theory, the critical load for a column of effective length, Le is
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿𝑒 2
Support condition Effective length
Both ends hinged Le = L
Both ends fixed Le = L/2
One end fixed other end free Le = 2L
One end fixed other end hinged Le = L/√2

Buckling of a pinned-end column in the first mode is called the fundamental case of column
buckling. The type of buckling described in above section is called Euler buckling, and the critical
load for an ideal elastic column is often called the Euler load.
After finding the critical load for a column, we can calculate the corresponding critical stress by
dividing the load by the cross-sectional area. For the fundamental case of buckling (Fig. b), the
critical stress is,
𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = =
𝐴 𝐴𝐿2
𝐼
But, radius of gyration can be expressed as, 𝑟 = √𝐴 then the above equation can be reduced as,

𝜋2𝐸
𝜎𝑐𝑟 =
(𝐿/𝑟)2
in which L/r is a nondimensional ratio called the slenderness ratio.
Generally, if the analysis is based on stresses remaining below the yield strength of the material,
we noted that the column would fail by yielding when 𝜎𝑐𝑟 > 𝜎𝑦 .
There are two methods used for the design of columns under an eccentric load. The first method
is the allowable-stress method, a conservative method in which it is assumed that the allowable
stress is the same as if the column were centrically loaded.
The allowable-stress method requires that the following inequality be satisfied:
𝑃 𝑀𝑐
+ ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝐴 𝐼
The second method was the interaction method, a method used in most modern specifications.
In this method the allowable stress for a centrically loaded column is used for the portion of the
total stress due to the axial load and the allowable stress in bending for the stress due to bending.
Thus, the inequality to be satisfied is
𝑃/𝐴 𝑀𝑐/𝐼
+ ≤1
(𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 )𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 (𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 )𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
STRENGTH OF MATERIAL II
CHAPTER 1 WORK & ENERGY METHODS
INTRODUCTION
In the previous course, the relations existing between forces and deformations under various
loading conditions were considered. The analysis was based on two fundamental concepts, the
concept of stress and the concept of strain. And now third important concept to be introduced is
the concept of strain energy.
Strain energy of a member is defined as the increase in energy associated with the deformation of
the member. The view that the strain energy is equal to the work done by a slowly increasing load
applied to the member will be discussed. The strain-energy density of a material will be defined
as the strain energy per unit volume and we shall see that it is equal to the area under the stress-
strain curve of the material. From the stress-strain diagram of a material we shall also define the
modulus of toughness and modulus of resilience of the material.
The elastic strain energy associated with normal stresses will be discussed, first in members under
axial loading and then in members in bending. Later we shall consider the elastic strain energy
associated with shearing stresses such as in torsional loadings of shafts and in transverse
loadings of beams. Strain energy for a general state of stress will be considered where we shall
derive the maximum-distortion-energy criterion for yielding.
STRAIN ENERGY
Consider a rod BC of length L and uniform cross-sectional area A, which is attached at B to a fixed
support, and subjected at C to a slowly increasing axial load P (Fig. a). By plotting the magnitude
P of the load against the deformation x of the rod, we obtain a certain load-deformation diagram
(Fig. b) which is characteristic of the rod BC.
 a b

Let us now consider the work dU done by the load P as the rod elongates by a small amount dx.
This elementary work is equal to the product of the magnitude P of the load and of the small
elongation dx. We write
dU = P dx …(1)
and note that the expression obtained is equal to the element of area of
width dx located under the load-deformation diagram (Fig. 2.3). The total
work U done by the load as the rod undergoes a deformation x1 is thus

Fig.2.3

and is equal to the area under the load-deformation diagram between x = 0 and x = x1. The work
done by the load P as it is slowly applied to the rod must result in the increase of some energy
associated with the deformation of the rod. This energy is referred to as the strain energy of the
rod. We have, by definition,
x1
Strain energy = U = 
0
P dx …(2)

We recall that work and energy should be expressed in units obtained by multiplying units of
length by units of force. Thus, if SI metric units are used, work and energy are expressed in N.m;
this unit is called a joule (J).
In the case of a linear and elastic deformation, the portion of the load-
deformation diagram involved may be represented by a straight line of
equation P = kx (Fig. 2.4). Substituting for P in Eq. (2), we have

or Fig. 2.4
1
U= P1 x1 …(3)
2
where P1 is the value of the load corresponding to the deformation x1.
The concept of strain energy is particularly useful in the
determination of the effects of impact loadings on structures
or machine components. Consider, for example, a body of
mass m moving with a velocity V0 which strikes the end B of
a rod AB (Fig. 2.5a). Neglecting the inertia of the elements of
the rod, and assuming no dissipation of energy during the
impact, we find that the maximum strain energy Um acquired
by the rod (Fig. 2.5b) is equal to the original kinetic energy of the moving body.
1
T= mV02
2

We may then determine the value Pm of the static load which would have produced the same strain
energy in the rod, and obtain the value σm of the largest stress occurring in the rod by dividing Pm
by the cross-sectional area of the rod.
ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY FOR NORMAL STRESSES
Since the rod considered in the preceding section was subjected to uniformly distributed stresses
σx, the strain-energy density was constant throughout the rod and could be defined as the ratio
U V of the strain energy U and the volume V of the rod. In a structural element or machine part
with a non-uniform stress distribution, the strain-energy density u may be defined by considering
the strain energy of a small element of material of volume  V and writing
 or
dU
u= …(4)
dV
The expression obtained for it in Sec. 2.2 in terms of σx and εx remains valid, i.e., we still have
x
u =   x d x …(5)
0

but the stress σx, the strain εx, and the strain-energy density u will generally vary from point to
point.
For values of σx within the proportional limit, we may set σx = Eεx in Eq. (5) and write
1 1 1  x2
u= E x2 =  x  x = …(6)
2 2 2 E
The value of the strain energy U of a body subjected to uniaxial normal stresses may be obtained
by substituting for it from Eq. (6) into Eq. (4) and integrating both members. We have
 x2
U = dV …(7)
2E
The expression obtained is valid only for elastic deformations and is
referred to as the elastic strain energy of the body.
Strain Energy under Axial Loading: We know that when a rod is
subjected to a centric axial loading, the normal stresses σx may be
assumed uniformly distributed in any given transverse section. Denoting
by A the area of the section located at a distance x from the end B of the
rod (Fig. 2.9), and by P the internal force in that section, we write σx = P/A. Substituting
Fig.for σx into
2.9
Eq. (12), we have

or setting dV = A dx ,

…(8)

Fig. 2.10
In the case of a rod of uniform cross section subjected at its ends to equal and opposite forces of
magnitude P (Fig. 2.10), Eq. (8) yields

…(9)

EXAMPLES
1) A rod consists of two portions BC and CD of the same
material and same length, but of different cross sections (Fig.
2.11). Determine the strain energy of the rod when it is
subjected to a centric axial load P, expressing the result in
terms of P, L, E, the cross-sectional area A of portion CD, and Fig.
the ratio n of the two diameters. 2.11
Solution
We use Eq. (9) to compute the strain energy of each of the two portions, and add the expressions
obtained:

or
…(10
)
We check that, for n = 1, we have

which is the expression given in Eq. (9) for a rod of length L and uniform cross section of area A.
5
We also note that, for n > 1, we have Un < U for example, when n = 2, we have U2 =   U 1 . Since
8
the maximum stress occurs in portion CD of the rod and is equal to σmax. = P/A, it follows that, for
a given allowable stress, increasing the diameter of portion BC of the rod results in a decrease of
the overall energy-absorbing capacity of the rod. Unnecessary changes in cross-sectional area
should therefore be avoided in the design of members which may be subjected to loadings, such
as impact loadings, where the energy-absorbing capacity of the member is critical.
2) A load P is supported at B by two rods of the same material and of the same uniform cross
section of area A (Fig. 2.12). Determine the strain energy of the system.
Solution
Denoting by FBC and FBD, respectively, the forces in members BC and BD, and recalling, we
express the strain energy of the system as
2
FBC (BC ) FBD2 (BD )
U= +
2 AE 2 AE
But we note from Fig. 2.12 that
BC = 0.6l BD = 0.8l

and from the free-body diagram of pin B and the corresponding force triangle (Fig. 2.13) that

Substituting we have

Fig. 2.12
Fig. 2.13

Strain Energy in Bending: Consider a beam AB subjected to a given loading (Fig. 2.14), and let
M be the bending moment at a distance x from end A . Neglecting for the time being the effect of
shear, and taking into account only the normal stresses σx = My I , we substitute this expression
into Eq. (7) and write
 Fig. 2.14
Setting dv = dA dx, where dA represents an element of the cross- sectional area, and recalling that
M2/2EI2 is a function of x alone, we have

Recalling that the integral within the parentheses represents the moment of inertia I of the cross
section about its neutral axis, we write

…(11
)
Determine the strain energy of the prismatic cantilever beam AB (Fig. 2.15), taking into
account only the effect of the normal stresses.

Fig.2.15

Solution
The bending moment at a distance x from end A is M = -Px . Substituting this expression into Eq.
(17), we write

ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY FOR SHEARING STRESSES

When a material is subjected to plane shearing stresses the strain-energy
density at a given point may be expressed as

…(12)

Fig. 2.16
where  xy is the shearing strain corresponding to  xy (Fig. 2.16a). We note that

the strain-energy density u is equal to the area under the shearing stress-strain
diagram (Fig. 2. 16b).
For values of  xy within the proportional limit, we have  xy = G  xy , where G is

the modulus of rigidity of the material. Substituting for  xy into Eq. (18) and

performing the integration, we write

…(13)
The value of the strain energy U of a body subjected to plane shearing stresses may be obtained
by recalling from Sec. 2.4 that

…(14
)
Substituting for it from Eq. (19) into Eq. (9) and integrating both members, we have

…(15)

This expression defines the elastic strain associated with the shear deformations of the body. As
the similar expression obtained in Sec. 2.4 for uniaxial normal stresses, it is valid only for elastic
deformations.

Strain Energy in Torsion: Consider a shaft BC of length L subjected to one or several twisting
couples. Denoting by J the polar moment of inertia of the cross section located at a distance x from
B (Fig. 2.17), and by T the internal torque in that section, we recall that the shearing stresses in the
section are  xy = T J . Substituting for  xy into Eq. (15), we

have

Fig. 2.17
 Setting dv = dA dx, where dA represents an element of the cross- sectional area, and observing
that T2/2GJ2 is a function of x alone, we write

Recalling that the integral within the parentheses represents the polar moment of inertia J of the
cross section, we have
…(16)

In the case of a shaft of uniform cross section subjected at its ends to

equal and opposite couples of magnitude T yields

…(17)
8

A circular shaft consists of two portions BC and CD of the same

material and same length, but of different cross sections (Fig.
2.19). Determine the strain energy of the shaft when it is subjected
to a twisting couple T at end D, expressing the result in terms of
T, L, G, the polar moment of inertia J of the smaller cross section,
and the ratio a of the two diameters.

Fig. 2.19

Solution
We use Eq. (22) to compute the strain energy of each of the two portions of shaft, and add the
expressions obtained. Noting that the polar moment of inertia of portion BC is equal to n4J, we
write

or
…(18)
We check that, for n = 1, we have

…(19)

which is the expression given in Eq. (19) for a shaft of length L and uniform cross section. We
 17 
also note that, for n > 1, we have Un < U1 ; for example, when n = 2, we have U2 =   U 1 .
 32 
Since the maximum shearing stress occurs in the portion CD of the shaft and is proportional to the
torque T, we note as we did earlier in the case of the axial loading of a rod that, for a given
allowable stress, increasing the diameter of portion BC of the shaft results in a decrease of the
overall energy-absorbing capacity of the shaft.
5) Determine the strain energy of the rectangular cantilever beam AB (Fig. 2.20), taking into
account the effect of both normal and shear stresses.
Solution

We first recall from Example 3 that the strain energy due to the
normal stresses σx is

Fig. 2.20

To determine the strain energy Uτ due to the shearing stresses we apply the equation below for a
beam with a rectangular cross section of width b and depth h,

Substituting for  xy into Eq. (15), we write

or, setting dV = b dy dx, and after reductions,

Performing the integrations, and recalling that c = h/2, we have

The total strain energy of the beam is thus

or, noting that I/A = h2/12 and factoring the expression for Uσ,

…(20)

We know that G  E 3 , we conclude that the parenthesis in the expression obtained is less than

1 + 0.9(h L) and, thus, that the relative error is less than 0.9(h L) when the effect of shear is
2 2

neglected. For a beam with a ratio h L less than 1 10 , the percentage error is less than 0.9%. It is
therefore customary in engineering practice to neglect the effect of shear in computing the strain
energy of slender beams.

CHAPTER 2 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

2.1. INTRODUCTION
A statically determinate structure can be analyzed for external reactions using the equilibrium
equations and conditions that are discussed in statics. A structural system is termed statically
indeterminate when there are more unknown external reactions than there are equilibrium
equations and conditions of statics. The structure is statically indeterminate because of additional
reaction constraints. These constraints are actually additional boundary conditions, which are used
to formulate equations that combine with the equations of statics. The additional boundary
conditions will be called deformation conditions. In any analysis the total number of unknown
reactions is equal to the number of equations of statics plus the deformation conditions. The
purpose of this chapter is to illustrate basic methods for interpreting the
deformation conditions.
Example
1. As shown in Fig. 2.1a, a rigid horizontal bar is supported by a hinge at A and by two steel cables
BD and CE, which are of equal length, L = 0.8 m, and cross-sectional area, A = 140 mm2
. Calculate the stress in each cable due to a force of 40 kN, applied as shown in the figure.
Assume that the yielding stress is 250 MPa and that E = 200 GPa.
Solution
The free-body diagram of the bar given in Fig. 2.1b shows four unknown forces. Note that the
rotated position of the bar after loading is indicated by the dashed lines in the figure.
Statics: Applying equations of equilibrium to Fig. 3.1b, we have

It is observed that the system is statically indeterminate to the first degree.

Deformations: The elongations of members BD and EC are given by

Geometry: The condition of geometric compatibility is determined by referring

to Fig. 2.b. From similar triangles
The stresses in the members are

Since the stresses are below the yielding strength of the material, the solution is acceptable. If
either of these stresses were above the yield point, the results would not be valid and a redesign
would be required.
2.2 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES BY CASTIGLINO’S THEOREM

The reactions at the supports of a statically indeterminate elastic structure may be determined by
Castigliano’s theorem. In the case of a structure indeterminate to the first degree, for example, we
designate one of the reactions as redundant and eliminate or modify accordingly the corresponding
support. The redundant reaction is then treated as an unknown load which, together with the other
loads, must produce deformations which are compatible with the original supports. We first
calculate the strain energy U of the structure due to the combined action of the given loads and the
redundant reaction. Observing that the partial derivative of U with respect to the redundant reaction
represents the deflection (or slope) at the support which has been eliminated or modified, we then
set this derivative equal to zero and solve the equation obtained for the redundant reaction. The
remaining reactions may be obtained from the equations of statics. Note: This is in the case of a
rigid support allowing no deflection. For other types of support, the partial derivative of U should
be set equal to the allowed deflection.
Example 1. Determine the reactions at the supports for the prismatic beam and loading shown
(Fig. 2.4).

The beam is statically indeterminate to the first degree. We consider the reaction at A as redundant
and release the beam from that support. The reaction RA is now considered as an unknown load
(Fig. 3.5) and will be determined from the condition that the deflection yA at A Fig. 2.4 Fig. 2.5
must be zero. By Castigliano’s theorem yA = U /RA, where U is the strain energy of the beam
under the distributed load and the redundant reaction. We know that
2. A load P is supported at B by three rods of the same material and the same cross-sectional area
A (Fig. 2.6). Determine the force in each rod. The structure is statically indeterminate to the first
degree. We consider the reaction at H as redundant and release rod BH from its support at H. The
reaction RH is now considered as an unknown load (Fig. 2.7) and will be determined from the
condition that the deflection yH of point H must be zero. By Castigliano’s theorem yH = U/ RH ,
where U is the strain energy of the three-rod system under the load P and the redundant reaction
RH. We know that
Substituting from (6), (7), and (8) into (5), and noting that the lengths BC, BD, and BH are
respectively equal to 0.6l , 0.8l , and 0.5l , we write
Force in Members. Considering in sequence the equilibrium of joints E, C, B, and D, we determine
the force in each member caused by the load Q.
CHAPTER 3 UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING
3.1. Introduction
We know that the simple bending theory applies when bending takes place about an axis which is
perpendicular to a plane of symmetry. If such an axis is drawn through the centroid of a section,
and another mutually perpendicular to it also through the centroid, then these axes are principal
axes. Thus, a plane of symmetry is automatically a principal axis. Second moments of area of a
cross-section about its principal axes are found to be maximum and minimum values, while the
product second moment of area,  xy d A , is found to be zero. All plane sections, whether they have

an axis of symmetry or not, have two perpendicular axes about which the product second moment
of area is zero. Principal axes are thus defined as the axes about which the product second moment
of area is zero. Simple bending can then be taken as bending which takes place about a principal
axis, moments being applied in a plane parallel to one such axis.
In general, however, moments are applied about a convenient axis in the cross-section; the plane
containing the applied moment may not then be parallel to a principal axis. Such cases are termed
“unsymmetrical” or “asymmetrical” bending. The simplest type of unsymmetrical bending
problem is that of “skew” loading of sections containing at least one axis of symmetry, as in
Figue.3 1. This axis and the axis perpendicular to it are then principal axes and the term skew
loading implies load applied at some angle to these principal axes. The method of solution in this
case is to resolve the applied moment MA about some axis A into its components about the
principal axes. Bending is then assumed to take place simultaneously about the two principal axes,
the total stress being given by

With unsymmetrical sections (e.g.

angle-sections, Z-sections, etc.) the
principal axes are not easily recognized
and the second moments of area about
the principal axes are not easily found
except by the use of special techniques
to be introduced. In such cases an easier
solution is obtained. Before proceeding with the various methods of solution of unsymmetrical
Figure.3.1
bending problems, however, it is advisable to consider in some detail the concept of principal and
product second moments of area.
3.2. Second moment of area

The second moment of inertia about x-axis & Y-axis is given by

Where 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 ;
𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼𝑦𝑦
The product second moment of area of a section is defined as:

which reduces to Ixy = Ahk for a rectangle of area A and centroid distance h and k from
the X and Y axes.

3.3. Principal axis and principal second moments of area

The principal second moments of area are the maximum and minimum values for a section and
they occur about the principal axes. Product second moments of area about principal axes are
zero.
With a knowledge of lxx, lyy and lxy for a given section, the principal values may be determined
using either Mohr’s or Land’s circle construction.

Consider the area and the the coordinate axes x and y (Figure.3.2) assuming that the moments and
product of inertia of the area are known.

We propose to determine the moments and product of inertia 𝐼𝑥 ′ , 𝐼𝑦 ′ , and 𝐼𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ of A with respect
to new axes 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ which are obtained by rotating the original axes about the origin through an
angle 𝜃.
We first note the following relations between the coordinates 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ and x, y of an element
of area dA: 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

We have relations…
 Then

3.4. skew loading and bending about principal axes

For skew loading and other forms of bending about principal axes

Thus …(1)
where Mxx and Myy are the components of the applied moment about the X and Y axes.

𝑀𝑦𝑦 𝑀𝑥𝑥
P= , and Q =
𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐼𝑥𝑥

Alternatively, with σ = Px + Qy

Assume, along the N.A stress (σ)=0, then

𝑦 𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑃
From equation (1) 𝑥
= − 𝐼 .𝑀 =
𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥
-𝑄
Then the inclination of the N.A. to the X axis is given by
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑥
𝑷
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = −
𝑸

EXAMPLES
1. A rectangular-section beam 80 mm x 50 mm is arranged as a
cantilever 1.3 m long and loaded at its free end with a load of 5 kN
inclined at an angle of 30° to the vertical as shown in Figure.
Determine the position and magnitude of the greatest tensile stress
in the section. What will be the vertical deflection at the end ? E =
210 GN/m2.

Solution

In the case of symmetrical sections such as this, subjected to skew loading, a solution is obtained
by resolving the load into its components parallel to the two major axes and applying the bending
theory simultaneously to both axes, i.e.

Now the most highly stressed areas of the cantilever will be those at the built-in end where
The stresses on the short edges AB and DC resulting from bending about XX are then

tensile on AB and compressive on DC.

The stresses on the long edges AD and BC resulting from bending about YY are

tensile on BC and compressive on AD.

The maximum tensile stress will therefore occur at point B where the two tensile stresses
add, i.e.
maximum tensile stress = 105.5 + 97.5 = 203 MN/m2
The deflection at the free end of the cantilever is then given by

Therefore, deflection vertically (i.e. along the YY axis) is

2. A cantilever of length 1.2 m and of the cross section shown in Figure. carries a vertical load of
10 kN at its outer end, the line of action being parallel with the longer leg and arranged to pass
through the shear centre of the section (i.e. there is no twisting of the section). Working from first
principles, find the stress set up in the section at points A, B and C, given that the centroid is
located as shown. Determine also the angle of inclination of the N.A.
Solution
The product second moment of area of the section is given by

We know that

Since the load is vertical there will be no moment about the Y axis and eqn. below gives

But the angle of

inclination of
the N.A. is given by eqn.
If the N.A. is drawn as shown in Fig. 3 at an angle of 47°41’ to the XX axis through (the centroid
of the section, then this is the axis about which bending takes place. The points of maximum stress
are then obtained by inspection as the points which are the maximum perpendicular distance from
the N.A.
Thus, B is the point of maximum tensile stress and C the point of maximum compressive stress.
We know that the stress at any point is given by

 stress at A = - 4897 x 106(57 x 10-3) + 4460 x 106(31 x l0-3)

= -141 MN/m2 (compressive)
stress at B = - 4897 x 106(-19 x 10-3) + 4460 x 106(44 x 10)
= 289 MN/m2 (tensile)
stress at C = - 4897 x 106(- 6 x 10-3) + 4460 x 106(- 83 x 10-3)
= - 341 MN/m2 (compressive)
3. (a) A horizontal cantilever 2 m long is constructed
from the Z-section shown in Fig. 4. A load of 10 kN
is applied to the end of the cantilever at an angle of
60° to the horizontal as shown. Assuming that no
twisting moment is applied to the section, determine
the stresses at points A and B. (Ixx = 48.3 x 10-6 m4,
Iyy = 4.4 x 10-6 m4.), E = 200 GN/m2.

Solution

(a) For this section Ixy for the web is zero since its
centroid lies on both axes and hence h and k are both zero. The contributions to Ixy of the other two

portions will be negative since in both cases either h or k is negative.

This has been added to Fig. and indicates that the points A and B are on either side of the N.A. and
equidistant from it. Stresses at A and B are therefore of equal magnitude but opposite sign.
Now

CHAPTER 4
TORSION OF NON-CIRCULAR AND THIN-WALLED SECTIONS
4.1. Rectangular sections
For rectangular shafts, however, with longer side d and shorter side b, it can be shown by
experiment that the maximum shearing stress occurs at the centre of the longer side and is given
by

…(1)

The angle of twist per unit length is given by

…(2)
k1 and k2 being two constants, their values depending on the ratio d/b and being given in Table 1.
Table 1: Table of k1 and k2 values for rectangular sections in torsion

Narrow rectangular sections

From Table 1 it is evident that as the ratio d/b increases, i.e. the rectangular section becomes longer
and thinner, the values of constants k1 and k2 approach 0.333. Thus, for narrow rectangular sections
in which d/b > 10 both k1 and k2 are assumed to be 1/3 and eqns. (1) and (2) reduce to

...(3)

…(4)

4.2. Thin-walled open sections

There are many cases, particularly in civil engineering applications, where rolled steel or extruded
alloy sections are used where some element of torsion is involved. In most cases the sections
consist of a combination of rectangles, and the relationships given in eqns. (1) and (2) can be
adapted with reasonable accuracy provided that:

(a) the sections are “open”, i.e. angles, channels, T-sections, etc., as shown in Fig. 1;
(b) the sections are thin compared with the other dimensions.
 Fig. 1. Typical thin-walled open
sections.
For such sections eqns. (1) and (2) may be re-written in the form

…(6)

…(5)

and for d/b ratios in excess of 10, k1 = k2 = 1/3 , so that

4.3. Thin-walled split tube

The thin-walled split tube shown in Fig. 2 is considered to be a special case of the thin-walled open
type of section considered in previous section. It is therefore treated as an equivalent rectangle
with a longer side d equal to the circumference (less the gap), and a width b equal to the thickness.

where k1 and k2 for thin-walled tubes are usually equal to 1/3.

It should be noted here that the presence of even a very small cut or gap in a thin-walled tube
produces a torsional stiffness (torque per unit angle of twist) very much smaller than that for a
complete tube of the same dimensions.
 Fig. 2. Thin tube with
longitudinal split.

9.4. Other solid (non-tubular) shafts

Table 2 indicates the relevant formulae for maximum shear stress and angle of twist of other
standard non-circular sections which may be encountered in practice.
Approximate angles of twist for other solid cross-sections may be obtained by the substitution of
an elliptical cross-section of the same area A and the same polar second moment of area J. The
relevant equation for the elliptical section in Table 2 may then be applied.
Alternatively, a very powerful procedure which applies for all solid sections, however irregular in
shape, utilizes a so-called “inscribed circle” procedure described in detail by Roark. The procedure
is equally applicable to thick-walled standard T, I and channel sections and is outlined briefly
below:
Inscribed circle procedure
Roark shows that the maximum shear stress which is set up when any solid section is subjected to
torque occurs at, or very near to, one of the points where the largest circle which can be constructed
within the cross-section touches the section boundary - see Fig. 3
 Table 2: Relevant formulae for maximum shear stress and angle of twist

Normally it occurs at the point where the curvature of the boundary is algebraically the least,
convex curvatures being taken as positive and concave or re-entrant curvatures negative.
The maximum shear stress is then obtained from either:

where, for positive curvatures (i.e. straight or convex boundaries),

with D = diameter of the largest inscribed circle,
r = radius of curvature of boundary at selected position (positive),
A = cross-sectional area of section,

Fig. 3. Inscribed circle

stress evaluation
procedure.
or, for negative curvatures (concave or re-entrant boundaries):

with = angle
through which a tangent to the boundary rotates in travelling around the re-entrant position
(radians) and r being taken as negative.
For standard thick-walled open sections such as T, I, Z, angle and channel sections Roark also
introduces formulae for angles of twist based upon the same inscribed circle procedure parameters.
4.5. Thin-walled closed tubes of non-circular section
Consider the thin-walled closed tube shown in Fig. 4 subjected to a torque T about the Z axis; i.e.
in a transverse plane. Both the cross-section and the wall thickness around the periphery may be
irregular as shown, but for the purposes of this simplified treatment it must be assumed that the
thickness does not vary along the length of the tube. Then, if  is the shear stress at B and ' is the
shear stress at C (where the thickness has increased to t’) then, from the equilibrium of the
complementary shears on the sides AB and CD of the element shown, it follows that

i.e. the product of the shear stress and the thickness is constant at all points on the periphery of the
tube. This constant is termed the shear flow and denoted by the symbol q (shear force per unit
length).

The quantity q is termed the shear flow because if one imagines the inner and outer boundaries of
the tube section to be those of a channel carrying a flow of water, then, provided that the total
quantity of water in the system remains constant, the quantity flowing past any given point is also
constant.

Fig.4. Thin-walled closed section subjected to axial torque.

At any point, then, the shear force Q on an element of length ds is Q =  t ds = q ds and the shear
stress is q/t.
Consider now, therefore, the element BC subjected to the shear force Q = qds =  tds. The moment
of this force about o

where p is the perpendicular distance from o to the force Q.

Therefore the moment, or torque, for the whole section

where A is the area enclosed within the median line of the wall thickness.
Now, since

where t is the thickness at the point in question.

It is evident, therefore, that the maximum shear stress in such cases occurs at the point of minimum
thickness.
Consider now an axial strip of the tube, of length L, along which the thickness and hence the shear
stress is constant. The shear strain energy per unit volume is given by
 Thus, with thickness t, width ds and hence V = tLds

1
But the energy stored equals the work done = T
2

The angle of twist of the tube is therefore given by

For tubes of constant thickness this reduces to

where s is the perimeter of the median line.

The above equations must be used with care and do not apply to cases where there are abrupt
changes in thickness or re-entrant corners.
For closed sections which have constant thickness over specified lengths but varying from one part
of the perimeter to another:
EXAMPLES
1. A rectangular steel bar 25 mm wide and 38 mm deep is subjected to a torque of 450 Nm.
Estimate the maximum shear stress set up in the material of the bar and the angle of twist, using
the experimentally derived formulae stated in §1.
What percentage error would be involved in each case if the approximate equations are used? For
steel, take G = 80 GN/m2.
Solution
The maximum shear stress is given by eqn. (1):

In this case d = 38 mm, b = 25 mm, i.e. d/b = 1.52 and k1 for d/b of 1.5 = 0.231.

The angle of twist per unit length is given by eqn. (2):

and from the tables, for d/b = 1.5, k2 is 0.196.

Approximately
 Therefore, percentage error

Again approximately,

2. Compare the torsional stiffness of the following cross-sections which can be assumed to be of
unit length. Compare also the maximum shear stresses set up in each case:
(a) a hollow tube 40 mm mean diameter and 2 mm wall thickness;
(b) the same tube with a 2 mm wide saw-cut along its length;
(c) a rectangular solid bar, side ratio 4 to 1, having the same cross-sectional area
as that enclosed by the mean diameter of the hollow tube;
(d) an equal-leg angle section having the same perimeter and thickness as the
tube;
(e) a square box section having the same perimeter and thickness as the tube.

Solution

(a) In the case of the closed hollow tube we can apply the standard torsion
equation

together with the simplified formula for the polar moment of area J of thin tubes,

(b) Tube with split From the work of §4,

i.e. splitting the tube along its length has reduced the stiffness by a factor of approximately 300,
the maximum stress increasing by approximately 30 times.

(c) Rectangular bar, Area of hollow tube = area of bar

From eqn. (1),

(d) Equal-leg angle section

Perimeter of angle = perimeter of tube
= 2p x 20 x 10-3 m
Length of side d = 20p x 10-3
Therefore, applying the following equation,
And from eqn. below:

(e) Square box section (closed)

Perimeters = tube perimeter = 2p x 20 x I 0-3 m

Therefore, area enclosed by median line

From eqn. below

From eqn. below

Fig. 1

3. A thin-walled member 1.2 m long has the cross-section shown in Fig.1. Determine the maximum
torque which can be carried by the section if the angle of twist is limited to 100. What will be the
maximum shear stress when this maximum torque is applied? For the material of the member G =
80 GN/m2.
Solution
This problem is depending upon the length, and the area enclosed by, the median line.

Using equation below:

Using equation below

The maximum stress produced is 168 MN/m2.

CHAPTER 5 STRAINS BEYOND THE ELASTIC LIMIT
5.1. Introduction
When the design of components is based upon the elastic theory, e.g. the simple bending or torsion
theory, the dimensions of the components are arranged so that the maximum stresses which are
likely to occur under service loading conditions do not exceed the allowable working stress for the
material in either tension or compression. The allowable working stress is taken to be the yield
stress of the material divided by a convenient safety factor (usually based on design codes or past
experience) to account for unexpected increase in the level of service loads. If the maximum stress
in the component is likely to exceed the allowable working stress, the component is considered
unsafe, yet it is evident that complete failure of the component is unlikely to occur even if the yield
stress is reached at the outer fibers provided that some portion of the component remains elastic
and capable of carrying load, i.e. the strength of a component will normally be much greater than
that assumed on the basis of initial yielding at any position. To take advantage of the inherent
additional strength, therefore, a different design procedure is used which is often referred to as
plastic limit design. The revised design procedures are based upon a number of basic assumptions
about the material behavior. Figure 11.1 shows a typical stress-strain curve for annealed low
carbon steel indicating the presence of both upper and lower yield points and strain-hardening
characteristics.

Figure 5.2 shows the assumed material behavior which:

(a) ignores the presence of upper and lower yields and suggests only a single yield point;
(b) takes the yield stress in tension and compression to be equal;

Thus, once the material has yielded, stress is assumed to remain constant throughout any
further deformation. It is further assumed, despite assumption (c), that transverse sections of beams
in bending remain plane throughout the loading process, i.e. strain is proportional to distance from
the neutral axis. It is now possible on the basis of the above assumptions to determine the moment
which must
be applied to produce:
(a) the maximum or limiting elastic conditions in the beam material with yielding just initiated at
the outer fibers;
(b) yielding to a specified depth;
(c) yielding across the complete section.
The latter situation is then termed a fully plastic state, or “plastic hinge”. Depending on the
support and loading conditions, one or more plastic hinges may be required before complete
collapse of the beam or structure occurs, the load required to produce this situation then being
termed the collapse load.
5.2. Plastic bending of rectangular-sectioned beams
Figure 5.3(a) shows a rectangular beam loaded until the yield stress has just been reached in
the outer fibers. The beam is still completely elastic and the bending theory applies, i.e.
Maximum elastic moment

If loading is then increased, it is assumed that instead of the stress at the outside increasing still
further, more and more of the section reaches the yield stress σy. Consider the stage shown in Fig.
5.3(b).
Fig.5.3. Plastic bending of rectangular-section beam.
CHAPTER 6 THICK CYLINDERS
6.1. INTRODUCTION
If the ratio of thickness to internal diameter of a cylindrical shell is less than about 1/20,
the cylindrical shell is known as thin cylinders. For them it may be assumed with reasonable
accuracy that the hoop and longitudinal stresses are constant over the thickness and the radial stress
is small and can be neglected. If the ratio of thickness to internal diameter is more than 1/20, then
cylindrical shell is known as thick cylinders.
6.2. Difference in treatment between thin and thick Cylinders- basic assumptions
The theoretical treatment of thin cylinders assumes that the hoop stress is constant across
the thickness of the cylinder wall (Fig. 6.1), and also that there is no pressure gradient across the
wall. Neither of these assumptions can be used for thick cylinders for which the variation of hoop
and radial stresses is shown in Fig. 6.2, their values being given by the Lamé equations:

The hoop stress in case of a thick cylinder

will not be uniform across the thickness.Actually, the
hoop stress will vary from a maximum value at the inner circumference to a minimum value at the
outer circumference.
Development of the theory for thick cylinders is concerned with sections remote from the ends
since distribution of the stresses around the joints makes analysis at the ends particularly complex.
For central sections the applied pressure system which is normally applied to thick cylinders is
symmetrical, and all points on an annular element of the cylinder wall will be displaced by the
same amount, this amount depending on the radius of the element. Consequently, there can be no
shearing stress set upon transverse planes and stresses on such planes are therefore principal
stresses. Similarly, since the radial shape of the cylinder is maintained, there are no shears on radial
or tangential planes, and again stresses on such planes are principal stresses. Thus, consideration
of any element in the wall of a thick cylinder involves, in general, consideration of a mutually
perpendicular, tri-axial, principal stress system, the three stresses being termed radial, hoop
(tangential or circumferential) and longitudinal (axial) stresses.

6.3.
Development of the Lame theory

Fig.2. Thick cylinder subjected to internal pressure.

Consider the thick cylinder shown in Fig. 6.3. The stresses acting on an element of unit length at
radius r are as shown in Fig. 6.4, the radial stress increasing from σr, to σr + dσr over the element
thickness dr (all stresses are assumed tensile),
Fig. 6.3
Fig. 6.4

For radial equilibrium of the element:

For small angles:

Therefore, neglecting second-order small quantities,

... (6.1)
Assuming now that plane sections remain plane, i.e. the longitudinal strain εL is constant
across the wall of the cylinder,
Then,

It is also assumed that the longitudinal stress σL

is constant across the cylinder walls at points remote from the ends.
...
(6.2)
Substituting in (6.1) for σH,

Multiplying through by r and rearranging,

 Therefore, integrating,
𝑩
𝝈𝒓 = 𝑨 − ... (6.3)
𝒓𝟐
𝑩
And from eqn. (6.2) 𝝈𝑯 = 𝑨 + ...
𝒓𝟐
(6.4)
The above equations yield the radial and hoop stresses at any radius r in terms of constants A and
B. For any pressure condition there will always be two known conditions of stress (usually radial
stress) which enable the constants to be determined and the required stresses evaluated
6.4. Thick cylinder- internal pressure only
Consider now the thick cylinder shown in Fig. 6.5 subjected to an internal pressure P, the
external pressure being zero. The two known conditions of stress which
enable the Lamé constants A and B to be determined are:
At r = R1 σr = - P and at r = R2 σr = 0
NB. - The internal pressure is considered as a negative radial stress since it
will produce a radial compression (i.e. thinning) of the cylinder walls and
the normal stress convention takes compression as negative.

Fig. 6.5. Cylinder cross-section.

 These equations yield the stress distributions indicated in Fig. 6.2 with maximum values of both
σr, and σH at the inside radius.
6.5. Longitudinal stress
Consider now the cross-section of a thick cylinder with closed
ends subjected to an internal pressure P1 and an external pressure
P2 (Fig. 6.6).
For horizontal equilibrium:

Where σL is the longitudinal stress set up in the cylinder Fig. 6.6. Cylinder longitudinal section.

walls,

i.e., a constant.
For combined internal and external pressures, the relationship σL = A also applies.
6.6. Maximum shear stress
We that the stresses on an element at any point in the cylinder wall are principal stresses. It follows,
therefore, that the maximum shear stress at any point will be given by eqn. as

i.e. half the difference between the greatest and least principal stresses.
Therefore, in the case of the thick cylinder, normally,

Since σH is normally tensile, whilst σr is compressive and both exceed σL

in magnitude.

The greatest value of  max thus normally occurs at the inside radius where r = R1.
6.7. Change of cylinder dimensions
(a) Change of diameter
The diametral strain on a cylinder is equal to the hoop or circumferential strain.
Therefore, change of diameter = diametral strain x original diameter
= circumferential strain x original diameter
 With the principal stress system of hoop, radial and longitudinal stresses, all assumed tensile, the
circumferential strain is given by

Thus, the change of diameter at any radius r of the cylinder is given by

(b) Change of length

Similarly, the change of length of the cylinder is given by

6.8 Graphical treatment -Lame line

The Lame equations when plotted on stress and 1/r2 axes produce straight lines, as shown
in Fig. 6.7

Fig. 6.7 Graphical representation of Lame equations - Lame line. Fig. 6.8 Lam15 line solution for cylinder with internal and external pressures.

Both lines have exactly

the same intercept A and the
same magnitude of slope B, the
only difference being the sign of
their slopes. The two are
therefore combined by plotting
hoop stress values to the left of
the σ axis (again against 1/r2)
instead of to the right to give the
single line shown in Fig. 6.8. In
most questions one value of σr,
and one value of σH, or
alternatively two values of σr, are given. In both cases the single line can then be drawn.
6.8. Compound cylinders
To obtain a more uniform hoop stress distribution, cylinders are often built up by shrinking one
tube on to the outside of another. When the outer tube contracts on cooling the inner tube is brought
into a state of compression. The outer tube will conversely be brought into a state of tension. If
this compound cylinder is now subjected to internal pressure the resultant hoop stresses will be the
algebraic sum of those resulting from internal pressure and those resulting from shrinkage as drawn
in Fig.6.10; thus, a much smaller total fluctuation of hoop stress is obtained. A similar effect is
obtained if a cylinder is wound with wire or steel tape under tension.

Fig. 6.10 Compound cylinders - combined internal pressure and shrinkage effects.

(a) Same materials

The method of solution for compound cylinders constructed from similar materials is to
break the problem down into three separate effects:
(a) Shrinkage pressure only on the inside cylinder (Fig. 6.11-a);
(b) Shrinkage pressure only on the outside cylinder (Fig. 6.11-b);
(c) Internal pressure only on the complete cylinder (Fig.6.11-c).

Fig. 6.11. Method of solution for compound cylinders.

For each of the resulting load conditions there are two known values of radial stress which enable
the Lamé constants to be determined in each case:
i.e. condition (a) shrinkage - internal cylinder:
At r = R1, σr = 0
 At r = Rc σr = - p (compressive since it tends to reduce the wall thickness)
condition (b) shrinkage - external cylinder:
At r = R2, σr = 0
At r = Rc , σr = - p
condition (c) internal pressure - compound cylinder:
At r = R2, σr = 0
At r = R1, σr = - P1
Thus for each condition the hoop and radial stresses at any radius can be evaluated and the principle
of superposition applied, i.e. the various stresses are then combined algebraically to produce the
stresses in the compound cylinder subjected to both shrinkage and internal pressure. In practice
this means that the compound cylinder is able to withstand greater internal pressures before failure
occurs or, alternatively, that a thinner compound cylinder (with the associated reduction in material
cost) may be used to withstand the same internal pressure as the single thick cylinder it replaces.
(b) Different materials
The value of the shrinkage or interference allowance for compound cylinders constructed
from cylinders of different materials is given by eqn.

Total interference or shrinkage allowance

The value of the shrinkage pressure set up owing to a known amount of interference can
then be calculated as with the standard compound cylinder treatment, each component cylinder
being considered separately subject to the shrinkage pressure.
For a full solution of problems of this type it is often necessary to make use of the equality
of diametral strains at the common junction surface, i.e. to realize that for the cylinders to maintain
contact with each other the diametral strains must be equal at the common surface.
Now diametral strain = circumferential strain
Therefore, at the common surface, ignoring
longitudinal strains and stresses,
Where Eo and νo = Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of
outer cylinder,
Ei and νi = Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of inner cylinder,
σr = - p = radial stress at common surface,
And σHo = (as before) the hoop stresses at the common surface
EXAMPLES
1. A thick cylinder of 100 mm internal radius and 150 mm external radius is subjected to an
internal pressure of 60 MN/m2 and an external pressure of 30 MN/m2. Determine the hoop
and radial stresses at the inside and outside of the cylinder together with the longitudinal
stress if the cylinder is assumed to have closed ends.
Solution
(a): analytical
The internal and external pressures both have the effect of
decreasing the thickness of the cylinder; the radial stresses at
both the inside and outside radii are thus compressive, i.e.
negative (Fig. 6.12).

Fig. 6.12

Therefore, from eqn. of radial stress with stress units of MN/m2,

…(1)
…(2)

Subtracting (2) from (1), -30 = - 55.5B

B = 0.54

Therefore, at r = 0.1 m, from eqn. hoop stress,

The longitudinal stress

is given by

Solution (b) graphical

The graphical solution is shown in Fig. 6.13, where the boundaries of the cylinder are given by

The two conditions which enable the Lamé line to be

drawn are the same as those used above for the
analytical solution,

Fig. 6.13

The hoop stresses at these radii are then given by points P and Q on the graph. For complete
accuracy these values should be calculated by proportions of the graph thus:-

by similar triangles PAS and BAC

i.e. hoop stress at radius r = 0.1 m

Similarly the hoop stress at radius r = 0.15 m is QM and given by the similar triangles QAT
and BAC,

The longitudinal stress  L = the intercept on the σ axis (which is negative)

2. An external pressure of 10
MN/m2 is applied to a
thick cylinder of internal diameter 160 mm and external diameter 320 mm. If the maximum
hoop stress permitted on the inside wall of the cylinder is limited to 30 MN/m 2, what
maximum internal pressure can be applied assuming the cylinder has closed ends? What will
be the change in outside diameter when this pressure is applied? E = 207 GN/m2,  = 0.29.
Solution
The conditions for the cylinder are:
1
When r = 0.08 m, σr = -p and = 156
r2
1
When r = 0.16 m, σr = -10 MN/m2 and = 39 when
r2
and when r = 0.08 m  H = 30 MN/m2
Since the maximum hoop stress occurs at the inside surface of the cylinder.
Using the latter two conditions in eqns. with units of MN/m2,
…(1)

…(2)
Subtracting (1) from (2),

Substituting in (1),

Therefore, at r = 0.08, from eqn. below,

i.e. the allowable internal pressure is 34 MN/m2.

We know that the change in diameter is given by

Now at the outside

surface
3. (a) In an experiment on a thick cylinder of 100 mm external diameter and 50 mm internal
diameter the hoop and longitudinal strains as measured by strain gauges applied to the outer
surface of the cylinder were 240 x l0-6 and 60 x 10-6, respectively, for an internal pressure of
90 MN/m2, the external pressure being zero.
Determine the actual hoop and longitudinal stresses present in the cylinder if E = 208 GN/m2
and  = 0.29. Compare the hoop stress value so obtained with the theoretical value given by
the Lame equations.
(b) Assuming that the above strain readings were obtained for a thick cylinder of 100 mm
external diameter but unknown internal diameter calculate this internal diameter.

Solution

a) Since σr = 0 at the outside surface of the cylinder for zero external pressure.

The theoretical values of σH for an internal pressure of 90 MN/m2 may be obtained from
Fig. 6.14, the boundaries of the cylinder being given by r = 0.05 and r = 0.025,
 Fig. 6.13

Therefore for the internal radius R1 where σr = 90 MN/m2

Internal diameter = 49.6 mm

For a graphical solution of part (b), see Fig.6.14, where the known points which enable the Lame
line to be drawn are, as above:

It is thus possible to determine the value of 1 R12 which will produce σr = - 90 MN/m2.
 Fig.6.14

4. A compound cylinder is formed by shrinking a tube of 250 mm internal diameter and 25

mm wall thickness onto another tube of 250 mm external diameter and 25 mm wall thickness,
both tubes being made of the same material. The stress set up at the junction owing to
shrinkage is 10 MN/m2. The compound tube is then subjected to an internal pressure of 80
MN/m2. Compare the hoop stress distribution now obtained with that of a single cylinder of
300 mm external diameter and 50 mm thickness subjected to the same internal pressure.
Solution (a): analytical
A solution is obtained by considering the effects of shrinkage and internal pressure separately and
combining the results algebraically.
Shrinkage only- outer tube

Subtracting (1) - (2), 10 = 19.5B  B = 0.514

Substituting in (1), A = 44.5B  A = 22.85
 hoop stress at 0.15 m radius = A + 44.5B = 45.7 MN/m2
hoop stress at 0.125 m radius = A + 64B = 55.75 MN/m2
Shrinkage only - inner tube
At r = 0.10, σr = 0 and at r = 0.125, σr= -10 MN/m2

Subtracting (3) - (4), 10 = - 36B  B = - 0.278

Substituting in (3), A = 100B  A = - 27.8
 hoop stress at 0.125 m radius = A + 64B = - 45.6 MN/m2
hoop stress at 0.10 m radius = A + 100B = - 55.6 MN/m2
Considering internal pressure only (on complete cylinder)

The

resultant stresses for combined shrinkage and internal pressure are then:
CHAPTER 7 Rings, Disks, and cylinders subjected to rotation and thermal
gradients
7.0. INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the study of stresses developed due to rotation in circular discs and
cylinders. The machine members of the rotating type and bodies like circular discs, cylinders,
flywheels etc. invariably rotate at high speeds. Due to rotation, these members are subjected to
centrifugal forces. The stresses are setup in the material of these members due to centrifugal forces.
Also, in case of thin disc, the stress in axial direction is zero. But in case of thick disc (or long
cylinder) the stress in axial direction (i.e., longitudinal direction) will not be zero.
7.1. Expression For Stresses in A Rotating Thin Disc
In case of thin disc, only two stresses namely circumferential and radial stresses are existing.

The constants C1 and C2 are obtained from boundary conditions. In equations (1) and (2), L.H.S.
is in N/m2
, hence every term on R.H.S. should be in N/m2
. Hence C1 and C2
will be in N/m2
7.2. Expression for Stresses in rotating Solid Disc
From equations (1) and (2), it is clear that the stresses set up in a rotating disc will
become infinite at the centre of the disc where r = 0. But the stresses at the centre, can
not be infinite. For a rotating solid disc, the stresses at any radius r are :
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is the categories of point defect?
A. Screw C. Vacancy
B. Edge D. None
2. Substance in which measured properties are independent of the direction of measurement
are------
A. Anisotropy B. Isotropy C. Allotropy D. Polymorphism
3. The applied load divides by the instantaneous area are---------
A. True stress B. True strain C. Engineering stress D. Engineering strain.
4. In ----------- crystal structure atoms are located at each of the corners and on the centers of
all the faces of cubic unit cell.
A.FCC B. HCP C. BCC D. SC
5. ------------- polymer solidification process takes place as a chemical reaction by a catalyst or
hardener and the process is irreversible.
A. Elastomer B. Thermosetting plastic C. Thermoplastic D. Solution
6. The process of reduction of iron ore to pig iron is known as-------------
A. Smelting process C. shooting process
B. Puddling process D. Oxygen process
7. ---------- is designing the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties
based on the structure–property correlations.
A. Material science C. Structure
B. Material Engineering D. property
8. The types of bonding for ceramics and glass materials is …………
A. Metallic C. Ionic-Covalent
B. Ionic D. Covalent- metallic
9. Which one is the disadvantage of ceramics?
A. Porosity C. Impurity
B. Brittleness D. All
10. Which one of the following is not the function of normalizing?
A. Refine grain structure C. Improve structure of weld
 B. Improve grain size D. Improve ductility and toughness
11. When the iron or steel is cooled rapidly by quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer
surface becomes hard due to the transformation from ……. to ……., while the core remains
soft and tough as a ferritin and/or pearlite microstructure.
A. Martensitic to Austenitic C. Austenitic to Martensitic
B. Ferretic to Martensitic D. Austenitic to Ferretic
12. The structure of steel on slow cooling changes into ……… and ………. for hypo eutectoid
steel ……… for eutectoid steel and ……..and ………. for hyper eutectoid steel respectively.
A. Cementite pearlite, pearlite, pearlite cementite
B. Ferrite pearlite, pearlite, pearlite cementite
C. Ferrite cementite, pearlite, pearlite cementite
D. Cementite pearlite, cementite, pearlite ferrite
13. Which of the following is true about the Hume-Rothery’s rules for substitutional solid
solutions?
A. The crystal structures of solute and solvent must be similar.
B. The atomic radius of the solute and solvent atoms must differ by more than 15%.
C. Complete solubility occurs when the solvent and solute have the different valency.
D. The solute and solvent should have differ electronegativity.
14. The stainless steels principal alloying element is ……
A. Nickel B. Manganese C. Vanadium D. Chromium
15. Which type of steel is known as super high-speed steel?
A. Cobalt High Speed Steel C. Vanadium High Speed Steel
B. Molybdenum High Speed Steel D. 18-4-1 High Speed Steel
16. Which of the following is NOT true about cast cutting alloys?
A. They are neither forged nor machined to shape C. They are costlier than H.S.S
B. They can be heating treated D. These alloys are rich in cobalt content
17. Hard steels are mixtures of …………………………
A. ferrite and cementite C. Pearlite and cementite
B. pearlite and ferrite D. austenite and ferrite
18. Soft steels are mixtures of …………………
 A. cementite and austenite C. ferrite and pearlite
B. Ferrite and cementite D. Pearlite and cementite
19. which of the following is under the categories of planar defects?
A. Interstitials defects C. Vacancies
B. Surface defects D. Substitutional
20. Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to static
mechanical stresses and the deformations under such circumstance is known as….
A. Creep B. Fatigue C. Failure D. Deformation
21. Which one of the following NOT true about cast iron?
A. It has high tensile strength.
B. IT is made from scrap iron and steel in the blast furnace.
C. Phosphorus and sulfur is removed as impurities.
D. None of the above.
22. Which one of the fowling is correct to cast iron?
A) White cast iron contains low silicon contents and formed by rapid cooling
B) Gray cast iron is strong and none brittle.
C) Rapid cooling promotes lead to the formation of less hard carbides.
D) Gray cast iron has low damping capacity.
E) None of the above.
23. Which one is NOT correct among the following heat treatment process?
A) Nitriding does not require quenching process.
B) Cyaniding used in high carbon steels.
C) Recrystallization is done in cold working process.
D) Annealing is used for reduce hardness and relive residual stress.
E) Tempering is used to increase toughness and ductility of a material
24. Which of the following material has maximum ductility?
A) Mild steel
B) Copper
C) Nickel
D) Aluminum
25. Which one of the following is the correct technique used in metal coating mechanism?

A. Hot dipping C. Electroplating

 B. Thermal spraying D. Organic coatings E. All of the above
26. Blast furnace is used to produce;

A. pig iron B. cast iron

C. wrought iron D. steel

27. Magnesium alloy is:

A. Is used in light weight material

B. Difficult to deform at room temperature.
C. Comparatively has low melting temperature
D. All of the above
28. Which of the following is the character of Steel and ferrous alloys
A. A relatively high density,
B. comparatively low electrical conductivity
C. Expose to corrosion in some common environments
D. All of the above
29. Brasses have:
A. Alpha phase BCC crystal structure
B. Beta phase FCC crystal structure
C. Beta phase which is stable for concentrations up to approximately 35 wt% Zn
D. Alpha phase which is relatively soft and ductile

30. Titanium and Its Alloys are:

A. Pure metal has a relatively low density
B. Highly ductile and easily forged and machined.
C. High melting point
D. All of the above
E. None of the above

31. Which of the following is true to thermoplastics

A. Have a definite melting temperature
B. They can be cast and poured below melting temperature
C. Contain molecules of different lengths
 D. They can be deformed plastically and elastically.

32. Which of the following is not correct properties of ceramics

A. They can be used at high temperature range
B. Hard and none brittle
C. High melting point
D. Low thermal expansion
E. None of the above

33. Glasses are

A. Soft and moldable and easily shaped when hot
B. strong compression but brittle and weak in tension
C. Poor corrosion resistance
D. None of the above
E. All of the above

34. Which of the following is added in low carbon steels to prevent them from becoming porous?
A. Sulphur C. Phosphorus
B. Manganese D. Silicon

35. Which one of the following is correct about thermosets

A. heating changes their structure temporarily
B. have higher ductility
C. have greater dimensional stability
D. unable to resist higher temperatures

36. ceramics have

A. High melting temperatures
B. High rigidity
C. High compressive strength
D. All

37. Which one of the following thermosetting plastics

 A. Nylon C. Polyethylene
B. Silicones D. None

38. Which of the following is a case hardening process?

A. Carburizing C. Cyaniding
B. Nitriding D. all of these

39. Steel containing up to 0.15% carbon, is known as,

A. mild steel C. dead mild steel
B. medium carbon D. high carbon steel

40. Malleable cast iron is produced

A. by adding magnesium to molten cast iron

B. by quick cooling of molten cast iron
C. from white cast iron by annealing process
D. none of these
41. Smelting is the process of
A. removing the impurities like clay, sand etc. from the iron ore by washing with water
B. expelling moisture, carbon dioxide, sulphur and arsenic from the iron ore by heating in
shallow kilns
C. reducing the ore with carbon in the presence of a flux
D. all of the above
42. The percentage of carbon in cast iron varies from
A. 0.1 to 0.5
B. 0.5 to 1
C. 1 to 1.7
D. 1.7 to 4.5

43. Which of the following statement is correct?

A. The product produced by blast furnace is called cast iron.
B. The pig iron is the name given to the product produced by cupola.
C. The cast iron has high tensile strength.
D. The chilled cast iron has no graphite.
44. Addition of chromium in to steel will_________ tensile strength.
A. does not affect
B. decreases
C. increases
45. Specify the sequence correctly

A. Grain growth, recrystallisation, stress relief

B. Stress relief, grain growth, recrystallisation
C. Stress relief, recrystallisation, grain growth
D. Grain growth, stress relief, recrystallisation
46. The process used for relieving the internal stresses previously set up in the Metal and for
increasing the machinability of steel, is
A. Normalizing
B. full annealing
C. process annealing
D. spheroidising

47. The bond formed by transferring electrons from one atom to another is called
A. ionic bond
B. covalent bond
C. metallic bond
D. none of these
Answers
1. C 11. C 21.D 31.C 41.C
2. B 12.B 22.A 32.B 42.D
3. A 13.A 23.B 33.B 43.D
4. C 14.D 24.B 34.C 44.C
5. B 15.A 25.E 35.C 45.D
6. A 16.B 26.A 36.D 46.C
7. B 17.C 27.D 37.B 47.A
8. C 18.C 28.D 38.D
9. D 19.B 29.D 39.D
10. D 20.A 30.D 40.C

Strength of material I MCQ

1. According to Euler’s column theory, the critical load for a column of length L with one
end fixed and the other end hinged, is
A. 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼/𝐿2
B. 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼/4𝐿2
C. 2𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼/𝐿2
D. 4𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼/𝐿2
2. Strain energy is the
A. energy stored in a body when strained within elastic limits
B. energy stored in a body when strained up to the breaking of a specimen
C. maximum strain energy which can be stored in a body
D. proof resilience per unit volume of a material
3. When a shaft is subjected to a twisting moment, every cross-section of the shaft will be
under
A. tensile stress
B. compressive stress
C. shear stress
D. bending stress
4. The following figure shows that Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension.
Which of the following arrangement shows strain hardening, linear region, perfectly plastic
region and Necking region, respectively.
A. i, ii, iii, and iv
B. iii, i, ii, and iv
C. iv, ii, iii, and i
D. iii, ii, i, and iv
5. In the below figure, curve D represents_________
A. Mild steel
B. Cast iron
C. Concrete
D. Bone of these

6. The shear force diagram of a cantilever beam of length ‘l’ and carrying a uniformly distributed
load of w per unit length will be
A. A right-angled triangle
B. An isosceles triangle
C. An equilateral triangle
D. A rectangle
7. Which of the following is a proper sequence?
A. Proportional limit, elastic limit, yielding, failure
B. Elastic limit, proportional limit, yielding, failure
C. Yielding, proportional limit, elastic limit, failure
D. None of the above
8. For which material the Poisson's ratio is more than unity
A. Steel
B. Copper
C. Aluminium
D. None of the above
9. When a body is subjected to a direct tensile stress (σ) in one plane, then maximum normal stress
occurs at a section inclined at _________ to the normal of the section.
A. 0°
B. 30°
C. 45°
D. 90°
10. The thickness of a thin cylindrical shell with hemispherical ends is _________ that of spherical
ends.
A. Equal to
B. More than
C. Less than
D. None of these
11. A steel bar of 5 mm is heated from 25°C to 45°C and it is free to expand. The bar will induce
A. No stress
 B. Shear stress
C. Tensile stress
D. Compressive stress
12. Two shafts 'A' and 'B' transmit the same power. The speed of shaft 'A' is 250 r.p.m. and that of
shaft 'B' is 300 r.p.m.
A. The shaft 'B' has the greater diameter
B. The shaft 'A' has the greater diameter
C. Both are of same diameter
D. None of these
13. The maximum diameter of the hole that can be punched from a plate of maximum shear stress
1/4th of its maximum crushing stress of punch, is equal to (where t = Thickness of the plate)
A. t
B. 2t
C. 4t
D. 8t
14. The shape of cantilever for uniformly distributed load will be
A. Straight line
B. Parabolic
C. Elliptical
D. Cubic
15. The maximum stress produced in a bar of tapering section is at
A. Smaller end
B. Larger end
C. Middle
D. Anywhere
16. The energy stored in a body when strained within elastic limit is known as
A. Resilience
B. Proof resilience
C. Strain energy
D. Impact energy
17. When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite pushes, as a result of which the body tends to
reduce its length, then
A. The stress and strain induced is compressive
B. The stress and strain induced is tensile
C. Both A and B is correct
D. None of these
18. Modulus of rigidity is defined as the ratio of
A. Longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain
B. Volumetric stress to volumetric strain
C. Lateral stress to Lateral strain
D. Shear stress to shear strain
19. In the torsion equation T/J = τ/r = Gθ/ L, the term J/R is called
A. Shear modulus
B. Section modulus
C. Polar modulus
D. None of these
20. When both ends of a column are fixed, the effective length is
 A. Its own length
B. Twice its length
C. Half its length
D. 1/√2 × its length
21. In the tensile test, the phenomenon of slow extension of the material, i. e. stress increasing with
the time at a constant load is called
A. Creeping
B. Yielding
C. Breaking
D. Plasticity
22. Hooke's law holds good up to
A. Yield point
B. Limit of proportionality
C. Breaking point
D. Elastic limit
23. Which of the following statement is correct?
A. The stress is the pressure per unit area
B. The strain is expressed in mm
C. Hook's law holds good up to the breaking point
D. Stress is directly proportional to strain within elastic limit
24. The buckling load for a given column depends upon
A. Area of cross-section of the column
B. Length and least radius of gyration of the column
C. Modulus of elasticity for the material of the column
D. All of the above
25. The torsional rigidity of a shaft is expressed by the
A. Maximum torque it can transmit
B. Number of cycles it undergoes before failure
C. Elastic limit up to which it resists torsion, shear and bending stresses
D. Torque required to produce a twist of one radian per unit length of shaft

Answers for strength of material I

1 C 6 A 11 A 16 C 21 A
2 A 7 A 12 B 17 A 22 B
3 C 8 D 13 C 18 D 23 D
4 B 9 A 14 B 19 C 24 D
5 A 10 B 15 A 20 C 25 D
Strength of Materials II Multiple Choice Questions & Answers
1. In a tensile test, near the elastic limit zone, the
a) tensile strain increases more quickly
b) tensile strain decreases more quickly
c) tensile strain increases in proportion to the stress
d) tensile strain decreases in proportion to the stress
e) tensile strain remains constant.
2. Unsymmetrical bending is occurring due to

a) The beam across section is unsymmetrical

b) The shear center does not coincide the shear axis
c) The bending is subjected to trust in addition to bending moment
d) The bending moment diagram is unsymmetrical

3. The neutral axis of a beam cross-section must

a) Pass through the centroid of the section

b) Be equidistant from the top of bottom films
c) Be an axis of symmetry of the section
d) None of these

4. A steel rod of 2 cm diameter and 5 meters long is subjected to an axial pull of 3000 kg. If
E = 2.1 × 10^6, the elongation of the rod will be

a) 2.275 mm
b) 0.2275 mm
c) 0.02275 mm
d) 2.02275 mm

5. The maximum compressive stress at the top of a beam is 1600 kg/cm² and the
corresponding tensile stress at its bottom is 400 kg/cm². If the depth of the beam is 10 cm,
the neutral axis from the top, is

a) 2 cm
b) 4 cm
c) 6 cm
d) 8 cm

6. The maximum deflection of a cantilever due to pure bending moment M at its free end is

a) ML²/3EI
b) ML²/4EI
c) ML²/6EI
d) ML²/2EI
7. The elasticity of various materials is controlled by its
a) ultimate tensile stress
b) proof stress
c) stress at yield point
d) stress at elastic limit
e) tensile stress.
8. Rupture stress is
a) breaking stress
b) maximum load/original cross-sectional area
c) load at breaking point/A
d) load at breaking point/neck area
e) maximum stress.
9. The ratio of lateral strain to the linear strain within elastic limit is known as
a) Young’s modulus
b) bulk modulus
c) modulus of rigidity
d) modulus of elasticity
e) Poisson’s ratio.
10. The ratio of direct stress to volumetric strain in case of a body subjected to three mutually
perpendicular stresses of equal intensity, is equal to
a) Young’s modulus
b) bulk modulus
c) modulus of rigidity
d) modulus of elasticity
e) Poisson’s ratio.
11. The energy absorbed in a body, when it is strained within the elastic limits, is known as
a) strain energy
b) resilience
c) proof resilience
d) modulus of resilience
e) toughness
12. The total strain energy stored in a body is termed as
a) resilience
b) proof resilience
c) modulus of resilience
d) toughness
e) impact energy.
13. A beam is loaded as cantilever. If the load at the end is increased, the failure will occur
a) in the middle
b) at the tip below the load
c) at the support
d) anywhere
e) none of the above.
14. The ratio of the maximum deflection of a cantilever beam with an isolated load at its free
end and with a uniformly distributed load over its entire length is

a) 1
b) 24/15
c) 3/8
d) 8/3
15. A beam is loaded as cantilever. If the load at the end is increased, the failure will occur
a) in the middle
b) at the tip below the load
c) at the support
d) anywhere
e) none of the above.
16. Shear stress in a I-section beam is maximum at the ----------------
a) Outermost fiber
b) At the junction of web and flange
c) Central fiber
d) None
17. In a simple bending theory, one of the assumptions is that the material of the beam is
isotropic. This assumption means that the
a) normal stress remains constant in all directions
b) normal stress varies linearly in the material
c) elastic constants are same in all the directions
d) elastic constants vary linearly in the material
18. .A cantilever of length 3m carries a point load of 60 KN at a distance of 2m from the
fixed end.If E= 2×105 and I=108 , what is the deflection at the free end?.
a) 7 mm
b) 14 mm
c) 26 mm
d) 52 mm.
19. A cantilever of length 3 m carries two point loads of 2 KN at the free end and 4KN at a
distance of 1m from the free end . What is the deflection at the free end? Take E= 2×105
N/mm2 and I= 108 mm4 .
a) 2.56 mm
b) 3.84 mm
c) 1.84 mm
d) 5.26mm
20. A vessel is said to be thin if
a) Its wall has less thickness
b) Stresses are uniform over the entire thickness
c) Stresses vary at inner and at outer radius
d) None of the above

21. A seamless cylinder of storage capacity of 0.03mᵌ is subjected to an internal pressure of

21MPa. The ultimate strength of material of cylinder is 350N/mm².Determine the length
of the cylinder if it is twice the diameter of the cylinder.

a) 540mm
b) 270mm
c) 400mm
d) 350mm
 22. The piston rod of a hydraulic cylinder exerts an operating force of 10kN. The allowable
stress in the cylinder is 45N/mm². Calculate the thickness of the cylinder using Lame’s
equation. Diameter of the cylinder is 40mm and pressure in cylinder is 10MPa.
a) 2.05mm
b) 4.2mm
c) 5.07mm
d) None of the listed
23. In a thick-cylinder pressurized from inside, the hoop stress is maximum at
a) The center of the wall thickness
b) the outer radius
c) the inner radius
d) both the inner and the outer radii
24. When a thin cylindrical shell is subjected to an internal pressure, there will be
a) a decrease in diameter and length of the shell
b) an increase in diameter and length of the shell
c) an increase in diameter and decrease in length of the shell
d) a decrease in diameter and increase in length of the shell

25. Lame's theory is associated with

a) thick cylindrical shells

b) thin cylindrical shells
c) direct and bending stresses
d) none of these

Answers
1. A 6. D 11. A 16. B 21. A

2. D 7. D 12. A 17. C 22. C

3. A 8. D 13. D 18. B 23. C

4. B 9. E 14. D 19. C 24. B

5. D 10. B 15. D 20. B 25. A