11/28/23, 3:48 PM Computer Fundamentals - Quick Guide

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Computer Fundamentals - Quick Guide

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Computer - Overview
Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for
everyone to know about computers. A computer is an electronic data
processing device, which accepts and stores data input, processes the data
input, and generates the output in a required format.

The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to Computers and its

fundamentals.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the
following five functions −

Step 1 − Takes data as input.

Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as

required.

Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.

Step 4 − Generates the output.

Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

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Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.

High Speed

Computer is a very fast device.

It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and
even the picosecond.
It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared
to man who will spend many months to perform the same task.

Accuracy

In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

The calculations are 100% error free.
Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the
input is correct.

Storage Capability

Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.

It can store large amount of data.
It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence

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Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness,

and lack of concentration.
It can work continuously without any error and boredom.

It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility

A computer is a very versatile machine.

A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.

This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various
fields.
At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and
the very next moment it may be playing a card game.

Reliability

A computer is a reliable machine.

Modern electronic components have long lives.
Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation

Computer is an automatic machine.

Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once

the computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the
computer memory, then the program and instruction can control the
program execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to

reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the process.
As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the
problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.

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Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it

substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.

No I.Q.

A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency

It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on

humans.

Environment

The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and

suitable.

No Feeling

Computers have no feelings or emotions.

It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and

knowledge unlike humans.

Computer - Applications
In this chapter, we will discuss the application of computers in various fields.

Business

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A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or

versatility which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for −

Payroll calculations

Budgeting
Sales analysis
Financial forecasting
Managing employee database
Maintenance of stocks, etc.

AD

Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

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Banks provide the following facilities −

Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance,

making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares,
and trustee records.
ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even
easier for customers to deal with banks.

AD

Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of
computers. Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms
are widely using computers for their concerns.

Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with

information showing −

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Procedure to continue with policies

Starting date of the policies

Next due installment of a policy

Maturity date
Interests due

Survival benefits
Bonus

AD

Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE

(Computer Based Education).
CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.

Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of

computer students.

There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can

use a computer to educate the students.

It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and

analysis is carried out on this basis.

Marketing

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In marketing, uses of the computer are following −

Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art

and graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads
with the goal of selling more products.
Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through
the use of computerized catalogues that provide access to product
information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the
customers.

Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and
dispensaries. They are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients
and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases.
ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized
machines.

Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and

identify the cause of illness.

Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are
prepared by computer.
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Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's

signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.

Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug

labels, expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.

Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing

surgery.

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.

One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides
creation and modification of images. Some of the fields are −

Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for

design of ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.
Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design,
implementation, and improvement of integrated systems of people,
materials, and equipment.

Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns,

designing buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using
both 2D and 3D drawings.

Military

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Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons,

etc. Military also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas
where a computer has been used are −

Missile Control

Military Communication
Military Operation and Planning
Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech
that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom
it is meant. Some main areas in this category are −

E-mail

Chatting
Usenet

FTP

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Telnet

Video-conferencing

Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields
in this category are −

Budgets
Sales tax department
Income tax department
Computation of male/female ratio
Computerization of voters lists
Computerization of PAN card

Weather forecasting

Computer - Generations
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer
is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish
between varying hardware technologies. Nowadays, generation includes both
hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer system.

There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has
been discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. In
the following table, approximate dates against each generation has been
mentioned, which are normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers.

S.No Generation & Description

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First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3 The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit
based.

Fourth Generation
4 The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor
based.

Fifth Generation
5 The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor
based.

Computer - Types
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

S.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having

1
Computer) moderately powerful microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system,

2 Workstation similar to personal computer however has a
more powerful microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of

3 Mini Computer
supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of

supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.
4 Main Frame
Software technology is different from
minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can

5 Supercomputer execute hundreds of millions of instructions per
second.

PC (Personal Computer)
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A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for

an individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that
enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and
for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home,
the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing
the Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these

systems are normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power,
now-a-days high-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same
computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun
Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM),

desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of
applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and
relatively high quality graphics capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen,

large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface.
Most workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a

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special type of workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk

drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like
PC, workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically
linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used
as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250
users simultaneously.

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of
supporting hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe
executes many programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous
execution of programs.

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Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations
(number crunching).

For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated)

graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic
design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

Computer - Components
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform
the following five basic operations for converting raw input data into
information useful to their users.

S.No. Operation Description

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The process of entering data and instructions into

1 Take Input
the computer system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are

2 Store Data
available for processing as and when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on

Processing
3 data in order to convert them into useful
Data
information.

The process of producing useful information or

Output
4 results for the user, such as a printed report or
Information
visual display.

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of

5
workflow the above operations are performed.

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the
computer. This unit creates a link between the user and the computer. The
input devices translate the information into a form understandable by the
computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

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CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of
data processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and
instructions (program). It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has the following three components −

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory Unit
Control Unit

Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the
information from the computer. This unit is a link between the computer and
the users. Output devices translate the computer's output into a form
understandable by the users.

Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit)

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

Memory or Storage Unit

Control Unit

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

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Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit
supplies information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also
known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage
or Random Access Memory (RAM).

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary
memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the
memory unit are −

It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
It stores intermediate results of processing.

It stores the final results of processing before these results are

released to an output device.

All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not
carry out any actual data processing operations.

Functions of this unit are −

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It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions

among other units of a computer.

It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and
directs the operation of the computer.

It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or

results from storage.
It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

Arithmetic Section
Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like

addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are
done by making repetitive use of the above operations.

Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,

selecting, matching, and merging of data.

Computer - Input Devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a
computer −

Keyboard
Mouse

Joy Stick
Light pen

Track Ball
Scanner
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Graphic Tablet

Microphone

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

Optical Character Reader(OCR)
Bar Code Reader
Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to
input data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of
traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards
with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys
1 These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which
generally give the same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally,
2
it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.

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Function Keys
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are
3
arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has
a unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

Control keys
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
4 directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5 Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter,
Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control
device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which
senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the
CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel
is present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position
of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the
computer.

Advantages

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Easy to use

Not very expensive

Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position
on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and
upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be
moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in

Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell
and an optical system placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen
button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location
and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

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Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by
moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a
mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a
square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is
used when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred
to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a
digital form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited
before they are printed.
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Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital
form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a
series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by
the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed
at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics

and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for
fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital
form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a

multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

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MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of
cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque
number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains
particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR).

The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a
machine readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the
form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling

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goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be

embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric
value, which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is
connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark
made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be
selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having

multiple choice questions.

Computer - Output Devices

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

Monitors

Graphic Plotter
Printer

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Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main
output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels
that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends
upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The
smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more
than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in
the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The

screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the
screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable
of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

Large in Size

High power consumption

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Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced
volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can
hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel
displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and
graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert

electrical energy into light. For example, plasma panel and LED
(Light-Emitting Diodes).
Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects
to convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics
patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

Impact Printers

Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

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Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is
then pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

Very low consumable costs

Very noisy
Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

Character printers
Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These
printers are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price.
Each character printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head consists of
a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a
character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

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Advantages

Inexpensive
Widely Used
Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

Slow Speed
Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals
of Daisy (flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers
are generally used for word-processing in offices that require a few letters to
be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

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More reliable than DMP

Better quality
Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

Slower than DMP

Noisy
More expensive than DMP

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

Drum Printer
Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The
surface of the drum is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal
to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will
have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different
character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96
characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast
in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

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Very high speed

Disadvantages

Very expensive

Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain

Printer. A standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

Character fonts can easily be changed.

Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

Noisy

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These
printers print a complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page
Printers.

These printers are of two types −

Laser Printers
Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

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Faster than impact printers

They are not noisy

High quality
Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the
dots needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

Very high speed

Very high quality output

Good graphics quality

Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

Expensive

Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single

printing

Inkjet Printers

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Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new

technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper.
Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many
styles of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some
models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

High quality printing

More reliable

Disadvantages

Expensive as the cost per page is high

Slow as compared to laser printer

Computer - Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and
instructions. Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where
data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size
minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory
unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these
locations varies from 0 to 65535.

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Memory is primarily of three types −

Cache Memory
Primary Memory/Main Memory
Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed
up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is
used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently
used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the
disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

Cache memory is faster than main memory.

It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of
time.
It stores data for temporary use.

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Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the
computer is currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when
power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device.
These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

These are semiconductor memories.

It is known as the main memory.

Usually volatile memory.

Data is lost in case power is switched off.

It is the working memory of the computer.

Faster than secondary memories.

A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

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Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is
slower than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information
permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are
accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are
first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For
example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories.

It is known as the backup memory.
It is a non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

It is used for storage of data in a computer.

Computer may run without the secondary memory.

Slower than primary memories.

Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing
data, program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores
data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off,
data is erased.

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Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage
location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes
the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it
is very expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer
or if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System
(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its
physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types −

Static RAM (SRAM)

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as
power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down
due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no
capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not be refreshed on a regular basis.

There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM
for the same amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs
higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of Static RAM

Long life

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No need to refresh
Faster

Used as cache memory

Large size

Expensive

High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the
data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites
the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system
memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells,
which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

Short data lifetime

Needs to be refreshed continuously
Slower as compared to SRAM
Used as RAM
Smaller in size

Less expensive
Less power consumption

Computer - Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only
read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The
information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A
ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and
microwave oven.

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Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-
programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as
masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The
user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open
during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up
to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The
charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no
leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a
quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the
charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only

Memory)

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EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and

reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming
take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be
selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a
time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of
reprogramming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −

Non-volatile in nature
Cannot be accidentally changed
Cheaper than RAMs
Easy to test
More reliable than RAMs
Static and do not require refreshing
Contents are always known and can be verified

Computer - Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a
computer together. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives,
video card, sound card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via
cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

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Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features −

Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of

components.

Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of

memories.
Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the
motherboard to function properly.
Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work
properly together.

Popular Manufacturers
Following are the popular manufacturers of the motherboard.

Intel
ASUS
AOpen
ABIT
Biostar
Gigabyte

MSI

Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via
small screws through pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to
connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for CPU,
whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards
provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via
ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for
power supply.

There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video
cards, sound cards, and other expansion cards can be connected to the

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motherboard.

On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect the

monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables.
Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow compatible devices to be
connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion. For example, pen drive, digital
cameras, etc.

Computer - Memory Units

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
This storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

The following table explains the main memory storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit)

1 A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active
state of a component in an electric circuit.

Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte
3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which
can represent a data item or a character.

Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits
processed as a unit, which varies from computer to computer but
4 is fixed for each computer.
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length.
It may be as small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A
computer stores the information in the form of computer words.

The following table lists some higher storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

Kilobyte (KB)
1
1 KB = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB

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GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB

Computer - Ports
A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be
connected to the computer. It can also be programmatic docking point
through which information flows from a program to the computer or over the
Internet.

Characteristics of Ports
A port has the following characteristics −

External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external
device is plugged in.
Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse,
keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers, etc.

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Let us now discuss a few important types of ports −

Serial Port

Used for external modems and older computer mouse

Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port

Used for scanners and printers

Also called printer port
25 pin model
IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

PS/2 Port

Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

Also called mouse port
Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for the mouse
and keyboard

IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard
disk, printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.
It was introduced in 1997.

Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.

Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.

USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.

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VGA Port

Connects monitor to a computer's video card.

It has 15 holes.
Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port connector has
pins, VGA port has holes.

Power Connector

Three-pronged plug.
Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar
or wall socket.

Firewire Port

Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.

Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.
Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.
Invented by Apple.
It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire
400 connector, and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.

Modem Port

Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.

Ethernet Port

Connects to a network and high speed Internet.

Connects the network cable to a computer.

This port resides on an Ethernet Card.

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Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending

upon the network bandwidth.

Game Port

Connect a joystick to a PC

Now replaced by USB

Digital Video Interface, DVI port

Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end video

graphic cards.
Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets

Sockets connect the microphone and speakers to the sound card of

the computer.

Computer - Hardware
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer,
i.e. the components that can be seen and touched.

Examples of Hardware are the following −

Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.

Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.

Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.

Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.

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Relationship between Hardware and Software

Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of

them must work together to make a computer produce a useful
output.
Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be
utilized and is useless.
To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should
be loaded into the hardware.
Hardware is a one-time expense.

Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.

Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run
different jobs.
A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.

If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software

is its 'soul'. Both are complementary to each other.

Computer - Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined
function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular
problem.

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There are two types of software −

System Software

Application Software

System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control,
and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System
software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These
software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages,
which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software
serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers,

Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

Close to the system

Fast in speed

Difficult to design
Difficult to understand

Less interactive
Smaller in size

Difficult to manipulate
Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a
particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer
lab can come under the category of Application software.
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Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's

notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a
collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together
to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following −

Payroll Software
Student Record Software

Inventory Management Software

Income Tax Software
Railways Reservation Software
Microsoft Office Suite Software
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Excel

Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

Close to the user

Easy to design
More interactive

Slow in speed
Generally written in high-level language

Easy to understand
Easy to manipulate and use

Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Computer - Number System

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When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in

numbers as computers can understand only numbers. A computer can
understand the positional number system where there are only a few
symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending
on the position they occupy in the number.

The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −

The digit
The position of the digit in the number
The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the
total number of digits available in the number system)

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number
system. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9.
In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal
point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.

Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the
decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the
tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position. Its
value can be written as

(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)

(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the

following number systems which are frequently used in computers.

S.No. Number System and Description

Binary Number System

1
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

Octal Number System

2
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

3 Hexa Decimal Number System

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Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −

Uses two digits, 0 and 1

Also called as base 2 number system

Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base

(2). Example 20

Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2).

Example 2x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example

Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Binary
Step Decimal Number
Number

Step ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1

101012
1 x 20))10

Step
101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
2

Step
101012 2110
3

Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −

Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

Also called as base 8 number system

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Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base

(8). Example 80
Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8).
Example 8x where x represents the last position - 1

Example

Octal Number: 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Octal
Step Decimal Number
Number

Step ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x

125708
1 80))10

Step
125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10
2

Step
125708 549610
3

Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −

Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C =

12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15

Also called as base 16 number system

Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the
base (16). Example, 160

Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the

base (16). Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1

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Example

Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Binary
Step Decimal Number
Number

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x

Step 1 19FDE16
160))10

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) +

Step 2 19FDE16
(14 x 160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Computer - Number Conversion

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert
numbers from one base to another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the
following −

Decimal to Other Base System

Other Base System to Decimal

Other Base System to Non-Decimal

Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal to Other Base System

Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the
new base.
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Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least
significant digit) of the new base number.

Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.

Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of
the new base number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the
quotient becomes zero in Step 3.

The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of
the new base number.

Example

Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the

reverse order so that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit
(LSD) and the last remainder becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).

Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.

Other Base System to Decimal System

Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this
depends on the position of the digit and the base of the number system).

Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.

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Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent
value in decimal.

Example

Binary Number: 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Binary
Step Decimal Number
Number

Step ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1

111012
1 x 20))10

Step
111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
2

Step
111012 2910
3

Binary Number : 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example

Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step 1 - Convert to Decimal

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10

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Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110

Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5/2 2 1

Step 4 2/2 1 0

Step 5 1/2 0 1

Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the
right).

Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example

Binary Number : 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101

Step 2 101012 28 58

Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258

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Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits
may be treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a
single binary number.

Example

Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012

Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Hexadecimal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the
right).

Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal

symbol.

Example

Binary Number : 101012

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101

Step 2 101012 110 510

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Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the
hexadecimal digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a
single binary number.

Example

Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510

Step 2 1516 00012 01012

Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number : 101012

Computer - Data and Information

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in
a formalized manner, which should be suitable for communication,
interpretation, or processing by human or electronic machine.

Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z),
digits (0-9) or special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)

What is Information?
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful
values for the receiver. Information is the processed data on which decisions
and actions are based.

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For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the
following characteristics −

Timely − Information should be available when required.

Accuracy − Information should be accurate.

Completeness − Information should be complete.

Data Processing Cycle

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or
machine to increase their usefulness and add values for a particular purpose.
Data processing consists of the following basic steps - input, processing, and
output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.

Input − In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient

form for processing. The form will depend on the processing machine.
For example, when electronic computers are used, the input data can
be recorded on any one of the several types of input medium, such as
magnetic disks, tapes, and so on.
Processing − In this step, the input data is changed to produce data
in a more useful form. For example, pay-checks can be calculated
from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month can be
calculated from the sales orders.

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Output − At this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step

is collected. The particular form of the output data depends on the
use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for
employees.

Computer - Networking
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are
connected to each other to share information and resources.

Characteristics of a Computer Network

Share resources from one computer to another.

Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from
the other computer(s) connected over the network.
Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within
the network and let other computers of the network use the machines
available over the network.

Following is the list of hardware's required to set up a computer network.

Network Cables

Distributors
Routers

Internal Network Cards

External Network Cards

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Network Cables
Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used
cable is Category 5 cable RJ-45.

Distributors
A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need
to connect many computers to produce a network, this serial connection will
not work.

The solution is to use a central body to which other computers, printers,

scanners, etc. can be connected and then this body will manage or distribute
network traffic.

Router

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A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers
and other devices that are a part of the network. It is equipped with holes
called ports. Computers and other devices are connected to a router using
network cables. Now-a-days router comes in wireless modes using which
computers can be connected without any physical cable.

Network Card
Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a
computer cannot be connected over a network. It is also known as the
network adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC). Most branded computers
have network card pre-installed. Network cards are of two types: Internal
and External Network Cards.

Internal Network Cards

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be inserted.

Internal network cards are of two types in which the first type uses
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection, while the second type
uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA). Network cables are required to
provide network access.

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External Network Cards

External network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based. Wireless
network card needs to be inserted into the motherboard, however no
network cable is required to connect to the network.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB card is easy to use and connects via USB port. Computers automatically
detect USB card and can install the drivers required to support the USB
network card automatically.

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Computer - Operating System

The Operating System is a program with the following features −

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between

the software and the computer hardware.
It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall
resources and operations of the computer.
It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of
all other programs that reside in the computer, including application
programs and other system software.

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Objectives of Operating System

The objectives of the operating system are −

To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient

manner.

To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.

To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users,
making it easier for the users to access and use other resources.
To manage the resources of a computer system.
To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource
requests, and mediating conflicting requests from different programs
and users.
To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and
programs.

Characteristics of Operating System

Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of
Operating Systems −

Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e.

what part of it is in use by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and
allocates the memory when a process or program requests it.

Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a

process and deallocates the processor when it is no longer required.

Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also

called I/O controller that decides which process gets the device,
when, and for how much time.
File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and
decides who gets the resources.
Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by
means of passwords and other similar techniques.
Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various
jobs and/or users.

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Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the

request for a service and from the system.

Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via

the console of the computer in the form of instructions. The Operating
System acknowledges the same, does the corresponding action, and
informs the operation by a display screen.
Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error
messages, and other debugging and error-detecting methods.
Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination
and assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other
software to the various users of the computer systems.

Computer - Internet and Intranet

In this chapter, we will see what is Internet and Intranet, as well as discuss
the similarities and differences between the two.

Internet
It is a worldwide/global system of interconnected computer networks. It uses
the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer in Internet is
identified by a unique IP address. IP Address is a unique set of numbers
(such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computer’s location.

A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to provide a name to

the IP Address so that the user can locate a computer by a name. For
example, a DNS server will resolve a name https://www.tutorialspoint.com
to a particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer on which this
website is hosted.

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Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Intranet
Intranet is the system in which multiple PCs are connected to each other. PCs
in intranet are not available to the world outside the intranet. Usually each
organization has its own Intranet network and members/employees of that
organization can access the computers in their intranet.

Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address which is unique

among the computers in that Intranet.

Similarities between Internet and Intranet

Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.

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Intranet sites are accessible via the web browser in a similar way as
websites in the internet. However, only members of Intranet network
can access intranet hosted sites.
In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo
messenger/gtalk over the internet.

Differences between Internet and Intranet

Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is

specific to few PCs.
Internet provides a wider and better access to websites to a large
population, whereas Intranet is restricted.
Internet is not as safe as Intranet. Intranet can be safely privatized as
per the need.

How to Buy a Computer?

In this chapter, we will supply relevant information to help you buy a desktop
on component by component basis. As desktops are highly customizable, so
it is better to learn about the main parts and then visit the manufacturer or
the retailer shop or site, instead of just looking at some specific model
directly.

Popular desktop brands are Dell, Lenovo, HP and Apple. Always compare the
desktops based on their specifications and base price.

Monitor

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Size − It is the diagonal size of the LCD screen. Larger the area,
bigger the picture screen. A bigger picture is preferable for movie
watching and gaming. It will increase the productivity as well.
Resolution − This is the number of pixels on the screen. For
example, 24inch display is 1920x1200 (width by length) and 22-inch
display is 1680x1050. High resolution provides better picture quality
and a nice gaming experience.
Inputs − Now-a-days monitors can accept inputs from cable as well
apart from the computer. They can also have USB ports.
Stand − Some monitors come with adjustable stands while some
may not.
Recommended − 24 Inch LCD.

Operating System

Operating System is the main software of the computer as everything

will run on it in one form or other.
There are primarily three choices: Windows, Linux, Apple OS X.
Linux is free, however people generally do not use it for home
purpose.
Apple OS X works only on Apple desktops.
Windows 7 is very popular among desktop users.
Most of the computers come pre-equipped with Windows 7 Starter
edition.

Windows 8 is recently introduced and is available in the market.

Windows 7 and Windows 8 come in multiple versions from starter,
home basic, home premium, professional, ultimate, and enterprise
editions.
As the edition version increases, their features list and price
increases.
Recommended − Windows 7 Home Premium.

Optical Drive (CD / DVD / Blu-ray)

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Optical drive is the drive on a computer, which is responsible for using

CD, DVD, and Blu-ray discs.
Now-a-days, DVD burners are industry standards.

DVD Burner can burn CD, DVD and play them.

DVD Burner is cheaper than Blu-ray drives.

Blu-ray drives can play HD movies but are costlier component.

Recommended − DVD Burner.

Memory

RAM is considered as Computer Memory as the performance of a

computer is directly proportional to its memory and processor.
Today's software and operating system require high memory.

Today commonly used RAM is DDR3, which operates at 1066Mhz.

As per Windows 7, 1 GB is the minimum RAM required to function
properly.
Recommended − 4 GB.

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Hard Drive

Hard disk is used for storage purpose. Higher the capacity, more data
you can save in it.
Now-a-days computers are equipped with 500GB hard drive, which
can be extended to 2TB.
Most hard drives in desktop operate at the standard performance
speed of 7200RPM.
Recommended − 500GB.

CPU

Frequency (GHz) − This determines the speed of the processor.

More the speed, better the CPU.

Cores − Now-a-days CPUs come with more than one core, which is
like having more than one CPU in the computer. Programs which can
take advantage of multi-core environment will run faster on such
machines.

Brand − Intel or AMD. Both are equivalent. Intel is in lead.

Cache − Higher the L1, L2 cache, better the CPU performance.

Recommended − Intel Core i3-3225 3.30 GHz Processor.

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