CHAPTER 2.

1: Managing and
Treatment of Produced Water
CHAPTER 2: UPSTREAM POLLUTION PREVENTION AND WASTE
MANAGEMENT
 1 2 3
Explain the impacts of the Discuss the benefits of Justify the choice of
generated wastes from the pollution prevention and appropriate pollution control
major sectors of oil and gas waste management measures based on the type
industry to the environment techniques in oil and gas of waste as well as adhering
and human health. (Chapter industry according to the to the Environmental Quality
1) three P’s of sustainability Act (2012) and its related
(People, Planet, Profit). regulations.

Course Outcomes
 To understand the environmental
impact of produced water, drilling
muds and drilling cuttings, and flaring.

To identify the ways to minimize the

Learning outcomes generation of upstream waste.
(LO) for Chapter2

To identify on the suitable pollution

control technology for upstream
waste.

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 3
CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 4
CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 5
 Produced water

• Also known as
• Brine
• Saltwater

• Sources of this water from an oil reservoir may include flow from
• above or below the hydrocarbon zone
• within the hydrocarbon zone
• injected fluids and additives resulting from production activities
• Also known as “connate water” or “formation water”

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 6
 LO1

Source: US National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL),

2015

Produced water production volume

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 8
 LO1

Water to oilratio

• US National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) reports

• US – 5:1 and 8:1
• Worldwide – 2:1 and 3:1
• BCC research (market research company based in the US)
• North America – increase in the ratio over next 12 years to 12:1 up to 50:1
(worst condition)
• Producers need to pay between $3 and $12 per barrel to dispose of produced
water

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 8
 Why volume of produced water is important for O&G industry?
• The cost of managing produced water is a significant factor in the profitability of oil
and gas production.
• The cost of constructing treatment and disposal facilities, including equipment
acquisitions
• The cost of operating those facilities, including chemical additives and utilities
• The cost of managing any residuals or byproducts resulting from the treatment of
produced water
• Permitting, monitoring, and reporting costs
• Transportation costs.
Once these cost exceeds the value of the hydrocarbon produced from the well, the well
is usually shut down.

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 9
 11
LO1
Method of well
drilling

Location of well
Underground in homogenous
communications or heterogenous
reservoirs

Factors affecting
Volume of
production
volume of
Different types
Poor mechanical
integrity produced of well
completion
water
produced water

Water injection
Single zone and
or water
commingled
flooding for EOR

Type of water
separation
technologies
Fakhru’l-Razi A. et al., Review of technologies for oil and gas
CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK produced water treatment, 2009, Journal of Hazardous
Materials, 170, pp. 530 -551.
 LO1

Characteristics / Compounds
in Produced Water

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 11
 LO1

Characteristics of producedwater

• The major compounds of produced water

1. Dissolved and dispersed oil compounds
2. Dissolved formation minerals
3. Production chemical compounds
4. Production of solids
5. Dissolved gases

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 12
 LO1

1. Dissolved and dispersed oil compounds

• Oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon which include

• Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX)
• Naphthalene, phenantherene, dibenzothiophene (NPD)
• Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
• Phenols
• The amount depends on
• Oil composition
• pH, salinity, total dissolve solids (TDS), temperature
• Oil/water ratio
• Type and quantity of oilfield chemicals
• Type and quantity of various stability compounds (waxes, asphaltenes, fine solids)
CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 13
 LO1

2. Dissolved formation minerals

1. Anions – Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Ba2+, Sr2+, Fe2+ Affect the water chemistry:
buffering capacity, salinity
2. Cations – Cl-, SO 2-, CO 2-, HCO -
4 3 3 and scale potential
3. Heavy metals – concentration depends on the age of wells and formation
geology.
• Cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, silver and zinc
4. Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM)
• 226radium & 228radium
• Barium

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 14
 LO1

3. Production chemicalcomponents

• Chemicals that are added to treat or prevent operational problems.

• Production treating chemicals – scale and corrosion inhibitors, biocides, emulsion
breakers, antifoam and water treatment chemicals.
• Linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS)
• Alkyldimethlybenzenylammonium compounds
• 2-alkyl-1-ethylamine-2-imidazolines

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 15
 LO1

4. Production solids

• Formation solids
• Corrosion and scale products
• Bacteria
• Waxes
• Asphaltenes
• Inorganic crystalline substances such SiO2, Fe2O3, Fe3O4 and BaSO4 are found in
the suspended solids

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 16
 LO1

5. Dissolved gases

• CO2
• O2
• H2S

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 17
 LO1
Types of
hydrocarbon
produced

Factors affecting
Factors
Geographic
characteristics of
Lifetime of
the reservoir
affecting
characteristics
location of
the field
PW
of PW

Geological
formation

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 18
 LO1

Environmental Impacts
Discharge to surface
Spills and leaks Air emissions Underground injection
water
• Presence of salt can • Damage to fresh • Evaporation pits and • Need to check
water aquatic ponds causes plumes compatibility
• Kill plants
animals and of vapor that deposit • Incompatible can
• Damage soil plants on the ground down- cause precipitates
• Problem may occur if • Toxic compounds, wind of the site that block pores –
spill in freshwater oil and grease • Salty deposits cause requires
body can damage to harm to plants and additional
• Toxic compounds, aquatic life soil injection pressure
oil and grease can • Endocrine and • Potential microbial
damage to aquatic reproductive problems that lead to
life effects the formation of H2S
• Non-endocrine • Injection wells need to
effects be constructed
properly

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 19
 LO2

1 2 3
Employing Reuse and recycling If neither of these
technologies to tiers is practical,
minimize produced disposal is the final
water production option

3 Tiered Produced Water ManagementHierarchy

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 20
 LO3

PW Management Options for O&GIndustry

Injection

Discharge
Injection of produced
water into the same Reuse in oil and gas operation
formation from which Treatment of produced
the oil is produced or water to meet onshore Consume in beneficial use
handle to another or offshore discharge Treat the produced
formation. regulations. water to meet the
quality required to use Produced water
it for usual oil and gas treatment to meet to
fields operations quality required for
beneficial uses such as
irrigation , rangeland
restoration, cattle and
animal consumption,
and drinking water.

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 21
 LO2

Produced Water Production

Minimisation

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 22
 LO2
Reducing the By minimizing the
Environment
volume of water water, cost saving
point of view
produced allows can be done

Reduced cost of Less usage of

More oil to be
equipment chemicals for water
produced
maintenance separation

Less volume of
Decreases the cost of Reduced produced produced water and
lifting a heavier fluid water handling and associated pollutants
to the surface treatment discharge to the
environment

Advantageous of Minimising ProducedWater

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 23
 LO2

Technologies to minimize and reuse producedwater

1. Use a closed-loop drilling fluid system

2. Drill horizontal wells
3. Optimize production rate to minimize the influx of water
4. Mechanically block water from entering the well
5. Treat the producing formation with polymers that decrease the permeability of
water, while maintaining the permeability of hydrocarbons
6. Use down-hole oil/water separation (DOWS) – using hydrocyclone to separate
water and oil inside the well space
7. Seafloor separation technologies
8. Conduct hydrotest of pipelines, equipment and tanks with produced water
construction

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 24
 LO2

Water minimization technologieslimitations

• The effectiveness in mechanically blocking the water from entering the well
depends on the type of reservoir and well construction. Examples of mechanical
blocking
• Straddle packers
• Bridge plugs
• Tubing patches
• Cement
• Chemical treatment – polymers are used to shut off water-bearing channel or
fractures within the formation.
• DOWS is restricted to type of wells.
• Seafloor technologies – very expensive.
CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 25
Reuse/Recycling
and Disposal

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 27
 LO3

Reuse & Recycling

Treatment of produced waters for injection and reinjection

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 28
Purpose of 1. Maintain the 2. Maintain an
pressure of the immiscible flood
water reservoir at a level front pushing the
injection at which the gas oil towards the
cannot break out production wells.
of solution

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 29
 LO3

1. Temperature and pressure

Generation of of reservoir
Scaling insoluble organic 2. Injection water is
chemically incompatible
salt with the formation water.

Matter of concern
 LO3

Produced water re-injection

• Onshore, treated produced water can be used for irrigation

• Offshore, the primary re-use of produced water is to enhance oil production –
water reinjection
• Limitations - the produced water must be treated to meet certain quality levels
to
• Prevent plugging of wellbore
• Prevent plugging of reservoir pores
• Prevent system failure

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 30
 LO3

Produced water re-injection

• Factors that limits reinjection

• Dispersed oil
• Suspended solids
• Fatty acids
• Dissolved gases
• Salts
• pH
• Temperature

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 31
 LO3

Examples of potential problems

1. Formation of highly insoluble sulphate salts of strontium and

barium ions.
▪ Formation water contains significant level of strontium and barium
ions.
▪ Seawater contains high level of sulphate ion.
▪ Mixing these water creates highly insoluble sulphate salts of
strontium and barium ions.
2. Blockage of formation pores by suspended solids
3. Content of oil suspended in water

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 32
 LO3

Treatment objectives of using produced water for reinjection

1. Remove the suspended solids

▪ Degree of removal is reservoir specific
▪ Highly permeable sandstone reservoir accepts higher levels of both oil and
solids.
▪ Limestone accepts less because injection is into rock matrix.
▪ Temperature of injected water plays a role in the formation of micro
fractures
2. Reduce the level of oily hydrocarbon in the water.

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 33
 LO3

General Produced Water Treatment

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 34
 LO3

Produced water treatment

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 35
 LO3

Primary treatment

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 36
 LO3

Well head
desanding
Solid-fluid cyclone

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 37
Horizontal Three-
PhaseSeparator

Suitable used to efficiently 1

remove large volumes of
fluids which contains large
volumes of dissolved
gases.

3
2

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 38
 LO3

Working principles of a three-phaseseparator

1. Flash separation/ flash vaporization – removing dissolve gas from bulk liquid.
• sufficiently hot liquid mixture is throttled into a vessel – part of it will
vaporize, resulting in the vapor produced to be richer in the more volatile
components.
• Reduced pressure ✓
2. Coalescence – removing oil from water by merging small droplets of oil
to become bigger.
• Force of molecular attraction and surface tension

3. Gravity settling – settling of liquids wit different densities

• Retention time

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 39
 LO3
Hydrocyclone

• Application: To remove
• Fine sand
• Oil
• Working principle
• No moving parts
• Convert incoming liquid velocity into rotary motion.
• Directing inflow tangentially near the top of a cylindroconical vessel.
• This spins the entire contents of the vessel, creating centrifugal force
in the liquid.

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 40
 LO3

Secondary treatment

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 41
 Degasser/ Flotation LO3
• Dissolved air flotation - Air
bubbles are used to change
the specific gravity of the oil
droplet.
• Bubble size is an
important efficiency
factor.
• Bubble size is controlled
by throttling the inlet
valve

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 42
 LO3

Tertiary treatment

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 43
 Nut Shell Filter
• Can be used to remove both dispersed oil and
suspended solids.
• Nut shell media used are either crushed pecan
or walnut.
• Not oil wetted
• Hence no surfactant washing is required.

Robinson D., Oil and gas: Treatment of produced

water for injection and reinjection. 2013.
Filtration+Separation. Vol. 50, Issue 4, pp. 36, 38 -43.

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK
 LO3

Membrane

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 49
 Membrane type and poressize

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 50
 LO3

Membrane

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 51
 LO3

Reuse & Recycling

Treatment of produced waters convert to steam for heavy oil
recovery (Thermal enhanced oil recovery)

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 52
 LO3

Introduction

• Traditionally – once through steam

generators (OTSG) are used.
• The steam generators produce high
pressure steam for injection into
geological formations containing
heavy oil.
• The condensing steam fluidized the
heavy oil.
• The oil is recovered and the
produced water is de-oiled and
treated as feedwater to OTSG.
 Alternative LO3

• Steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)

Vertical film evaporators

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 50
 LO3

Treatment and discharge of

produced waters offshore

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 51
 North Sea
practice
▪ North sea
installations uses
waterflood to
optimize
production.
▪ Resulting in
higher water cuts.
▪ Fluid temperature
is high
Robinson D., Oil and gas: Treatment and discharge
of produced waters offshore. 2013.
Filtration+Separation. Vol. 50, Issue 2, pp. 20 - 23.

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 52
 LO3
Gulf of Mexico
practice
▪ In deepwater GoM, the
production is relatively dry
▪ Fluid temperature is lower.

Robinson D., Oil and gas: Treatment and discharge

of produced waters offshore. 2013.
Filtration+Separation. Vol. 50, Issue 2, pp. 20 - 23.

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 53
 LO2

Have we cover
all options?

CGE686/Chapter 2.1/PNFMK 59
CHAPTER 2.2: Managing
Drilling Wastes
CHAPTER 2: UPSTREAM POLLUTION PREVENTION AND WASTE
MANAGEMENT
 To understand the environmental
impact of produced water, drilling
muds and drilling cuttings, and flaring.

To identify the ways to minimize the

Learning outcomes generation of upstream waste.
(LO) for Chapter2

To identify on the suitable pollution

control technology for upstream
waste.

CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 2
Function of Drilling Fluid/Mud:
● provide a barrier for well control;
● remove cuttings from the well bore as
they are produced
● maintain drill cuttings in suspension
when drilling circulation is stopped
● transmit hydraulic power to the drilling
bit
● maintain formation stability
● maintain pressure on the formation
● control fluid loss through filtration
● cool and lubricate the drill bit and string;
● facilitate data logging—drilling fluids
characteristics need to be controlled so
that logging instruments can accurately
provide information about the well and
formations being drilled.

Drilling fluids and health risk management, IPIECA/OGP, 2009

 Drilling Wastes

• Highest volume of • Water-based mud

waste produced in (WBM)
drilling operations • Oil-based mud (OBM)
• Synthetic-based mud
(SBM)

CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 3
Drilling Fluids and Health Risk Management : A guide for drilling personnel, managers and health professionals in the oil and gas industry by IPIECA (onlinedocument)

Composition: WBM
CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 4
Drilling Fluids and Health Risk Management : A guide for drilling personnel, managers and health professionals in the oil and gas industry by IPIECA (onlinedocument)

Composition: NADFs/NAFs/OBM/SBM
CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 5
 Additives

• OSPAR Commission – Chemicals used as additives in the drill muds

today are mostly classified as PLONOR (Pose Little or No Risk to the
Environment).
• Viscosifiers – polyacrylates and other organic polymer
• Emulsifiers – alkylacrylate sulphonate, polyethylene oxide
• pH and shale control agents
• Deflocculants

https://www.ospar.org/convention
Caenn R., Darley H.C.H and Gray G. R. Composition and Properties of drilling and completion fluids, 6th Edition, 2011, Gulf Professional Publishing, Elsevier

CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 6
 Addition of biocides
• Biocides are added to fracking fluids to kill bacteria that can
• corrode well casings
• limit efficacy of oil and gas extraction
• produce highly toxic hydrogen sulfide gas.
• Some biocides are highly toxic.
• developmental, reproductive, mutagenic, carcinogenic, or neurological
effects
• Many countries either discourage (for example, in case of carbamates and
thiocarbamates) or prohibit (for example, in case of dichlorophenols and
pentachlorophenates) their use by the offshore oil and gas industry.

CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 7
 Environmental impact of WBM
• The discharge of WBM cuttings may cause biological effects mainly physical
stress.
• However, it is limited to 1-2 km radius of water masses from the offshore
installation.
• Studies shows very minimal change in the macrofauna community.
• Hence, in general the acute toxicity of WBM is low.
• WBM cuttings and spent WBM are allowed for discharge offshore (UK and North
Sea installation)
• BUT it can’t be ruled out there will be potential problem due the large volume
and frequency of WBM cuttings discharge.
Bakke T., KlungsØyr J. and Sanni S. Environmental impacts of produced water and drilling waste discharges from Norwegian offshore petroleum
industry. 2013, Marine Environmental Research, 92, 154-169

CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 8
 Environmental impact of OBM andSBM

• OBM and SBM cannot be discharged offshore

• Oil - smothering of benthic organisms by sedimentation
• Cutting piles - anoxic conditions due to bacterial decomposition
• Toxic to marine life and workers
• Heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, chromium,
copper, and others)
• NORM (Uranium, Thorium, Radium etc)

CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 9
 Drilling WasteManagement

1.Minimizing 2. Maintaining 3. Maximizing

environmental borehole drilling
impact stability efficiency

CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 10
 Minimize the use of drilling fluids
• Some of the techniques include pipe wipers and vacuuming of spills on the rig
floors

• Pneumatic drilling (air, air/water)

• Developing variations of fluids that are less toxic and easily to bio treatment.

• Drilling practice that reduce the generation of drilling waste.

• Directional drilling
• Drilling smaller diameter holes
• Drilling techniques that use less drilling fluids

CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 11
 Lengthen the lifetime of drilling muds by reusing
• Solids must be removed before reusing the drilling mud.
• This is to avoid the existence of ultrafine solids content in the mud that will affect
the fluid’s performance and general stability
• Hence, reducing “worn out” mud that needs to be disposed of.

• M-I SWACO RECLAIM technology – chemically enhanced solids-removal process

• Flocculants – used to remove oil-wet solids
• Surfactants – used to weaken mud’s emulsion for the flocculants to work
demulsify brine droplets from the mud
• Centrifuge – to remove the small solids and brine (water)

Geehan T., Gilmor A. and Guo Q. The cutting edge in drilling waste management, Oilfield Review, Winter 2006/2007, 54-67

CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 12
 M-I SWACORECLAIMtechnology

Geehan T., Gilmor A. and Guo Q. The cutting edge in drilling waste management, Oilfield Review, Winter 2006/2007, 54-67
CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 13
Geehan T., Gilmor A. and Guo Q. The cutting edge in drilling waste management, Oilfield Review, Winter 2006/2007, 54-67
CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 14
 • Road spreading
• One use of cuttings is to stabilize surfaces that
are subject to erosion, such as roads or drilling
pads.
• Construction Material
• Need to be treated to render the cuttings more
innocuous
• Used for
Reuse of drilling • fill material,
• daily cover material at landfills,
cuttings • aggregate or filler in concrete, brick, or block
manufacturing.
• Restoration of Wetlands Using Cuttings
• as a substrate for restoring coastal wetlands
• Use for Fuel
• Cuttings were blended in at a low rate with coal,
the primary fuel source
15
 Disposal options
Leave in place – the cuttings Cover – wastes are left in
and fluids are left in place, Bioremediate –wastes are place or transported to a
usually in a reserve pit or on left in place and treated with landfill and covered with
the sea floor some form of some sort of benign material
bioremediation technique
for oily waste

Spreading –wastes are land

farmed by spreading in a Entomb – wastes are Retrieve and reinject – the
relatively thin layer, allowing entombed either in place or cuttings and waste fluids are
the wastes to dewater by a separate site by some form slurrified and injected into
evaporation. Then by of solidification process. appropriate waste disposal
bioremediation. Done onshore. well (onshore or offshore)

Caenn R., Darley H.C.H and Gray G. R. Composition and Properties of drilling and completion fluids, 6th Edition, 2011, Gulf Professional Publishing, Elsevier
 CRI– Cuttingsreinjection
1. Typically cuttings are mixed with seawater
2. Grinded
3. Or other mechanical action to form a stable
viscous slurry
4. Pumped down a dedicated disposal well or
through annulus between casing strings on
an active well
5. Forced under pressure into formations
6. Which creates hydraulic fracture in the
formation.
7. At the end of the injection program, the well
or the annulus are sealed with cement.
Geehan T., Gilmor A. and Guo Q. The cutting edge in drilling waste management, Oilfield
Review, Winter 2006/2007, 54-67

CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 17
Geehan T., Gilmor A. and Guo Q. The cutting edge in drilling waste management, Oilfield
Review, Winter 2006/2007, 54-67
CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK 18
Discussion

1. Discuss the advantage

and disadvantage of
offshore discharge.
2. Discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of
onshore disposal.

CGE686/Chapter 2.2/PNFMK
CHAPTER 2.3: Mercury
CHAPTER 2: UPSTREAM POLLUTION PREVENTION AND WASTE
MANAGEMENT
 1 2 3
Explain the impacts of the Discuss the benefits of Justify the choice of
generated wastes from the pollution prevention and appropriate pollution control
major sectors of oil and gas waste management measures based on the type
industry to the environment techniques in oil and gas of waste as well as adhering
and human health. (Chapter industry according to the to the Environmental Quality
1) three P’s of sustainability Act (2012) and its related
(People, Planet, Profit). regulations.

Course Outcomes
 To understand the environmental
impact of produced water, drilling
muds and drilling cuttings, and flaring.

To identify the ways to minimize the

Learning outcomes generation of upstream waste.
(LO) for Chapter2

To identify on the suitable pollution

control technology for upstream
waste.

CGE686/Chapter 2.3/PNFMK 3
Concept of earth’s carryingcapacity
CGE686/Chapter 2.3/PNFMK 4
Mercury Cycle

CGE686/Chapter 2.3/PNFMK 5
 Mercury

• A concern in oil & gas industry. Found in LOCATION ELEMENTAL MERCURY

almost all oil and gas reservoirs. CONCENTRATION
(mg/m3)
• Highest concentrations normally found South America 69-119
from reservoirs in South America,
East/ South East Asia 58-193
East/South East Asia, Easter Europe.
North Africa 0.3-130
• European/African/North American gas N Europe 0.01-180
sources also contain mercury. Middle East 1-9
• Mercury is classified as hazardous N America 0.005-0.04
substance with limited use

CGE686/Chapter 2.3/PNFMK 6
CGE686/Chapter 2.3/PNFMK 7
 Equipment and ProcessImpact
Corrosion/embrittlement

• Caused by elemental mercury

• Mechanisms:
• Amalgam (mercury alloy) corrosion
• Liquid Metal Embrittlement, LME
• Galvanic corrosion

Precipitation(HgS)

• Fouling
• Plugging of compact equipment

Poison the precious metal catalysts

CGE686/Chapter 2.3/PNFMK 8
Health impact

CGE686/Chapter 2.3/PNFMK 9
Health impact

CGE686/Chapter 2.3/PNFMK 10
Mercury removal from oiland
natural gas
• Adsorption
• Activated carbon
• Molecular sieve
• Zeolite
• Alumina

CGE686/Chapter 2.3/PNFMK 11
 Petrobras mercury removal process
• Desanding hydrocyclone. Crude oil is delivered
to a desanding hydrocyclone
• Stir tank reactor. A sulfur-containing chemical is
added to the stir tank to precipitate the
elemental mercury dissolved in the crude oil.
• Filter. The oil was then filtered through a
diatomaceous earth (DE) precoated candle filter
to remove the mercury sulfide precipitate from
the crude oil.
• Absorbents. The filtered crude oil was polished
by flowing it over absorbents (copper sulfide-
coated or –impregnated alumina beads), similar
to those used in gas and condensate treatment.

CGE686/Chapter 2.3/PNFMK 12
CGE686/Chapter 2.3/PNFMK 13
CHAPTER 2.4: Flaring
CHAPTER 2: UPSTREAM POLLUTION PREVENTION AND WASTE
MANAGEMENT
 1 2 3
Explain the impacts of the Discuss the benefits of Justify the choice of
generated wastes from the pollution prevention and appropriate pollution control
major sectors of oil and gas waste management measures based on the type
industry to the environment techniques in oil and gas of waste as well as adhering
and human health. (Chapter industry according to the to the Environmental Quality
1) three P’s of sustainability Act (2012) and its related
(People, Planet, Profit). regulations.

Course Outcomes
 To understand the environmental
impact of produced water, drilling
muds and drilling cuttings, and flaring.

To identify the ways to minimize the

Learning outcomes generation of upstream waste.
(LO) for Chapter2

To identify on the suitable pollution

control technology for upstream
waste.

CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 3
GasFlaring Definitions
Definition 1: Routine flaring
These definitions are to
• Done during normal oil production in the absence of sufficient facilities
identify the potential to re-inject the produced gas, on-site utilization or dispatch to a market.
actions of its mitigation • This includes flaring from oil/gas separators etc
for new or existing
facilities. The mitigation Definition 2: Safety flaring
may be through
commercial solutions, • To ensure safe operation of the facility
on-site utilization or re- • Example: gas stemming from an accident or incident that jeopardizes
injection for routine the safe operation of the facility etc
flaring or improved
facility design and/or Definition 3: Non-routine flaring
operational procedures • All other flaring other than routine and safety flaring
for routine, non-routine • Example: temporary (partial) failure of equipment that handles the gas
and safety flaring. during normal operation etc

CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 4
 Gasemissions

Three main types of gas emissions in oil and gas industry, namely;
1. Combustion gases consisting of carbon dioxides and minor amounts of carbon
monoxide, nitrous oxide, N2O, SO2 and uncombusted hydrocarbons (methane
and VOC)
2. Hydrocarbons consisting of methane and mainly aliphatic VOCs vented to
atmosphere or escaping from the hydrocarbon processes through fugitive
emissions
3. Releases of halon and other CFC gases from fire fighting and refrigeration
systems.

CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 5
 Gasflaring composition

Emam E. A. Gas flaring in industry: An overview. 2015. Petroluem & Coal 57 (5), pp 532-555

CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 6
Impact to theenvironment
CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 7
Environmental impact
CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 8
 Impact to theenvironment

• Heat
• Noise
• Particulate emissions

CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 9
http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/zero-routine-flaring-by-2030#1

CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 10
CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 11
 Economic consideration

Depends on gas prices

• If price would remain high for a
long period
• Gas will be processed and
sold
• Because there would be
sufficient fund for gas
To flare? To process? processing and
transportation
infrastructure

CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 12
 1. Collection, compression and injection/reinjection
• Into oil fields for EOR
Methods to • Into wet gas fields for maximal recovery of liquids
• Into refinery pipelines
reduce and • Using as on onsite fuel source
recover flaring • Using as a feedstock for petrochemical production
2. Gas-to-liquid (GTL)
• Converting to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
• Converting to liquefied natural gas (LNG)
• Converting to chemicals and fuels
3. Generating electricity
• Generation and co-generation of steam and electricity
 Selection of bestmethod

• Depends on volume
• Large volume – GTL is an option
• Why large volume – economic of scale
• GTL and LNG requires big capital investments of infrastructure

• Economic of scale
• Reinjection of acid gases from gas sweetening plants is an option when costs
of sulphur removal is more

More examples in Emam E. A. Gas flaring in industry: An overview. 2015. Petroluem & Coal 57 (5), pp 532-555

CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 14
 Gas flaring collection and
compression
• FGRS (flare gas recovery system) collects the
gas from the flare gas header
• Passed through a compressor
• Into a mixed phase separator
• The compressed gas is separated and piped
to the plant fuel gas header
• The recovered gas is mixed in an optimal
manner and supplied to different fuel sinks
such as furnaces, boilers, turbine etc.
• If the flow capacity to the FGRS exceeds,
More examples in Emam E. A. Gas flaring in industry: An the liquid seal will allow the excess gas to go
overview. 2015. Petroluem & Coal 57 (5), pp 532-555 to the flare where it is safely burned

CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK
Gas-to-liquid
technology

• One of the best methods

to reduce gas flaring due
to economic utilization of
control waste gas to
environmentally clean
fuels.
• Fischer-Tropsch (F-T)
technologies are the most
widely used.

CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 16
 GTL
CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK 17
 Electricity production
• Gas flaring can be burned to produce hot
combustion gases that pass directly through a
turbine to generate electrical power.

CGE686/Chapter 2.4/PNFMK