Web Development

Web development refers to the creating, building, and maintaining of websites. It includes aspects such as web design,
web publishing, web programming, and database management. It is the creation of an application that works over the
internet i.e. websites.
The word Web Development is made up of two words, that is:
1. Web: It refers to websites, web pages or anything that works over the internet.
2. Development: It refers to building the application from scratch.
Web Development can be classified into two ways:
 Frontend Development
 Backend Development

Internet and Web programming

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Introduction :
The Internet is a global network of interconnected computer systems that enables communication and the
sharing of information across the world. The Internet has revolutionized the way people communicate, learn,
and conduct business.
Web programming refers to the development of web applications and websites that are accessed over the
Internet. Web programming involves creating web pages, web applications, and other online content that can
be displayed in a web browser.
Web programming is accomplished using a variety of programming languages, including HTML, CSS,
JavaScript, PHP, Python, Ruby, and Java. Each of these languages has its strengths and weaknesses, and the
choice of language depends on the needs of the project.
Web programming involves creating dynamic websites that are interactive and user-friendly. This includes the
use of databases, server-side scripting, and client-side scripting to create applications that can process data,
display content, and interact with users.
The Internet is a vast network of computers, and servers, which communicate with each other. The internet
connects the whole wide world together. The Internet is a vast network that connects billions of computers and
other electronic devices all around the world. You can get nearly any information, communicate with anyone
on the globe, and do a lot more with the Internet. All of this is possible by connecting a computer to the
Internet, generally known as going online. When someone says a computer is online, they are simply referring
to the fact that it is linked to the Internet. How does it actually work at a very low level?

What is an IP Address?
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All the computers of the world on the Internet network communicate with each other with underground or
underwater cables or wirelessly. If I want to download a file from the internet or load a web page or literally do
anything related to the internet, my computer must have an address so that other computers can find and locate
mine in order to deliver that particular file or webpage that I am requesting. In technical terms, that address is
called IP Address or Internet Protocol Address.
Let us understand it with another example, like if someone wants to send you a mail then he/she must have
your home address. Similarly, your computer too needs an address so that other computers on the internet can
communicate with each other without the confusion of delivering information to someone else’s computer.
And that is why each computer in this world has a unique IP Address. Or in other words, an IP address is a
unique address that is used to identify computers or nodes on the internet. This address is just a string of
numbers written in a certain format. It is generally expressed in a set of numbers for example 192.155.12.1.
Here each number in the set is from 0 to 255 range. Or we can say that a full IP address ranges from 0.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255. And these IP addresses are assigned by IANA(known as Internet Corporation For Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority).
But what is Internet protocol? This is just a set of rules that makes the internet work. You are able to read this
article because your computer or phone has a unique address where the page that you requested (to read this
article from GeeksforGeeks) has been delivered successfully.
Working of IP addresses
The working of IP addresses is similar to other languages. It can also use some set of rules to
send information. Using these protocols we can easily send, and receive data or files to the
connected devices. There are several steps behind the scenes. Let us look at them
 Your device directly requests your Internet Service Provider which then grants your device
access to the web.
 And an IP Address is assigned to your device from the given range available.
 Your internet activity goes through your service provider, and they route it back to you, using
your IP address.
 Your IP address can change. For example, turning your router on or off can change your IP
Address.
 When you are out from your home location your home IP address doesn’t accompany you. It
changes as you change the network of your device.

Introducing the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

This section presents an in-depth introduction to the protocols that are included in TCP/IP. Although the information is conceptual, you
should learn the names of the protocols. You should also learn what each protocol does.

“TCP/IP” is the acronym that is commonly used for the set of network protocols that compose the Internet Protocol suite. Many texts use
the term “Internet” to describe both the protocol suite and the global wide area network. In this book, “TCP/IP” refers specifically to the
Internet protocol suite. “Internet” refers to the wide area network and the bodies that govern the Internet.

To interconnect your TCP/IP network with other networks, you must obtain a unique IP address for your network. At the time of this writing,
you obtain this address from an Internet service provider (ISP).

If hosts on your network are to participate in the Internet Domain Name System (DNS), you must obtain and register a unique domain name.
The InterNIC coordinates the registration of domain names through a group of worldwide registries. For more information on DNS, refer
to System Administration Guide: Naming and Directory Services (DNS, NIS, and LDAP).

Protocol Layers and the Open Systems Interconnection Model

Most network protocol suites are structured as a series of layers, sometimes collectively referred to as a protocol stack. Each layer is
designed for a specific purpose. Each layer exists on both the sending and receiving systems. A specific layer on one system sends or
receives exactly the same object that another system's peer process sends or receives. These activities occur independently from activities
in layers above or below the layer under consideration. In essence, each layer on a system acts independently of other layers on the same
system. Each layer acts in parallel with the same layer on other systems.

OSI Reference Model

Most network protocol suites are structured in layers. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) designed the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model that uses structured layers. The OSI model describes a structure with seven layers for network
activities. One or more protocols is associated with each layer. The layers represent data transfer operations that are common to all types of
data transfers among cooperating networks.
The OSI model lists the protocol layers from the top (layer 7) to the bottom (layer 1). The following table shows the model.

Table 1-1 Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model

Layer Layer Name Description

No.

7 Application Consists of standard communication services and applications that everyone can
use.

6 Presentation Ensures that information is delivered to the receiving system in a form that the
system can understand.

5 Session Manages the connections and terminations between cooperating systems.

4 Transport Manages the transfer of data. Also assures that the received data are identical to
the transmitted data.

3 Network Manages data addressing and delivery between networks.

2 Data link Handles the transfer of data across the network media.

1 Physical Defines the characteristics of the network hardware.

The OSI model defines conceptual operations that are not unique to any particular network protocol suite. For example, the OSI network
protocol suite implements all seven layers of the OSI model. TCP/IP uses some of OSI model layers. TCP/IP also combines other layers.
Other network protocols, such as SNA, add an eighth layer.

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture Model

The OSI model describes idealized network communications with a family of protocols. TCP/IP does not directly correspond to this model.
TCP/IP either combines several OSI layers into a single layer, or does not use certain layers at all. The following table shows the layers of
the Oracle Solaris implementation of TCP/IP. The table lists the layers from the topmost layer (application) to the bottommost layer (physical
network).

Table 1-2 TCP/IP Protocol Stack

OSI Ref. OSI Layer TCP/IP TCP/IP Protocol Examples

Layer No. Equivalent Layer

5,6,7 Application, session, Application NFS, NIS, DNS, LDAP, telnet, ftp, rlogin, rsh, rcp, RIP, RDISC,
presentation SNMP, and others

4 Transport Transport TCP, UDP, SCTP

3 Network Internet IPv4, IPv6, ARP, ICMP

2 Data link Data link PPP, IEEE 802.2

1 Physical Physical Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), Token Ring, RS-232, FDDI, and
network others
The table shows the TCP/IP protocol layers and the OSI model equivalents. Also shown are examples of the protocols that are available at
each level of the TCP/IP protocol stack. Each system that is involved in a communication transaction runs a unique implementation of the
protocol stack.

Physical Network Layer

The physical network layer specifies the characteristics of the hardware to be used for the network. For example, physical network layer
specifies the physical characteristics of the communications media. The physical layer of TCP/IP describes hardware standards such as
IEEE 802.3, the specification for Ethernet network media, and RS-232, the specification for standard pin connectors.

Data-Link Layer
The data-link layer identifies the network protocol type of the packet, in this instance TCP/IP. The data-link layer also provides error control
and “framing.” Examples of data-link layer protocols are Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing.

Internet Layer
The Internet layer, also known as the network layer or IP layer, accepts and delivers packets for the network. This layer includes the
powerful Internet Protocol (IP), the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).

IP Protocol
The IP protocol and its associated routing protocols are possibly the most significant of the entire TCP/IP suite. IP is responsible for the
following:

 IP addressing – The IP addressing conventions are part of the IP protocol. Designing an IPv4 Addressing Scheme introduces IPv4
addressing and IPv6 Addressing Overview introduces IPv6 addressing.
 Host-to-host communications – IP determines the path a packet must take, based on the receiving system's IP address.
 Packet formatting – IP assembles packets into units that are known as datagrams. Datagrams are fully described in Internet Layer:
Where Packets Are Prepared for Delivery.
 Fragmentation – If a packet is too large for transmission over the network media, IP on the sending system breaks the packet into
smaller fragments. IP on the receiving system then reconstructs the fragments into the original packet.

Oracle Solaris supports both IPv4 and IPv6 addressing formats, which are described in this book. To avoid confusion when addressing the
Internet Protocol, one of the following conventions is used:

 When the term “IP” is used in a description, the description applies to both IPv4 and IPv6.
 When the term “IPv4” is used in a description, the description applies only to IPv4.
 When the term “IPv6” is used in a description, the description applies only to IPv6.

ARP Protocol
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) conceptually exists between the data-link and Internet layers. ARP assists IP in directing datagrams
to the appropriate receiving system by mapping Ethernet addresses (48 bits long) to known IP addresses (32 bits long).

ICMP Protocol
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) detects and reports network error conditions. ICMP reports on the following:

 Dropped packets – Packets that arrive too fast to be processed

 Connectivity failure – A destination system cannot be reached
 Redirection – Redirecting a sending system to use another router

Chapter 8, Administering a TCP/IP Network (Tasks) contains more information on Oracle Solaris commands that use ICMP for error
detection.

Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer ensures that packets arrive in sequence and without error, by swapping acknowledgments of data reception,
and retransmitting lost packets. This type of communication is known as end-to-end. Transport layer protocols at this level are Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP). TCP and SCTP provide reliable,
end-to-end service. UDP provides unreliable datagram service.
TCP Protocol
TCP enables applications to communicate with each other as though they were connected by a physical circuit. TCP sends data in a form
that appears to be transmitted in a character-by-character fashion, rather than as discrete packets. This transmission consists of the
following:

 Starting point, which opens the connection

 Entire transmission in byte order
 Ending point, which closes the connection.

TCP attaches a header onto the transmitted data. This header contains many parameters that help processes on the sending system
connect to peer processes on the receiving system.

TCP confirms that a packet has reached its destination by establishing an end-to-end connection between sending and receiving hosts. TCP
is therefore considered a “reliable, connection-oriented” protocol.

SCTP Protocol
SCTP is a reliable, connection-oriented transport layer protocol that provides the same services to applications that are available from TCP.
Moreover, SCTP can support connections between systems that have more than one address, or multihomed. The SCTP connection
between sending and receiving system is called an association. Data in the association is organized in chunks. Because SCTP supports
multihoming, certain applications, particularly applications used by the telecommunications industry, need to run over SCTP, rather than
TCP.

UDP Protocol
UDP provides datagram delivery service. UDP does not verify connections between receiving and sending hosts. Because UDP eliminates
the processes of establishing and verifying connections, applications that send small amounts of data use UDP.

Application Layer
The application layer defines standard Internet services and network applications that anyone can use. These services work with the
transport layer to send and receive data. Many application layer protocols exist. The following list shows examples of application layer
protocols:

 Standard TCP/IP services such as the ftp, tftp, and telnet commands
 UNIX “r” commands, such as rlogin and rsh
 Name services, such as NIS and the domain name system (DNS)
 Directory services (LDAP)
 File services, such as the NFS service
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), which enables network management
 Router Discovery Server protocol (RDISC) and Routing Information Protocol (RIP) routing protocols

What Is an Internet Service Provider (ISP)?

The term “internet service provider (ISP)” refers to a company that provides access to the
internet to both personal and business customers. ISPs make it possible for their customers to
surf the web, shop online, conduct business, and connect with family and friends—all for a fee.

ISPs may also provide other services, including email services, domain registration, web
hosting, and browser packages. An ISP may also be referred to as an information service
provider, a storage service provider, an internet network service provider (INSP), or any
combination of these three based on the services offered by the company.
How Does an ISP Work?
Internet service providers can supply their consumers with internet access either through a
cable, dial-up connection, or a digital subscriber line. A digital subscriber line provides internet
through a modem and telephone lines. Internet service providers maintain these structures to
ensure this access is stable and uninterrupted.

The internet consists of a network of cables connecting the globe, including copper telephone
wires, TV cables, and fiber optic cables. ISPs not only provide entities with access to the internet,
but they also maintain the infrastructure that makes it possible. An internet service provider
takes the data you are requesting through the internet and sends it to a server that has that
information through these cables.

To receive internet from an internet service provider, an individual must enroll in that provider’s
service, usually through a subscription. Individuals will create an account and pay a monthly rate
for their internet service provider to supply them with any equipment they may need and the
bandwidth to access the internet. Larger entities such as companies, apartments, or other
businesses will pay more expensive rates to increase their bandwidth and capabilities.

When one subscribes and connects to an internet service provider, they join their network that
interconnects with networks across the globe. The internet allows one to access almost any
information they need and communicate with those worldwide. The internet and the services
that internet service providers supply go beyond the world wide web.

World Wide Web (WWW)

 What is World Wide Web?
 World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or web pages stored
in web servers and connected to local computers through the internet. These websites contain
text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc. Users can access the content of these sites from
any part of the world over the internet using their devices such as computers, laptops, cell
phones, etc. The WWW, along with internet, enables the retrieval and display of text and media to
your device.
 The building blocks of the Web are web pages which are formatted in HTML and connected by
links called "hypertext" or hyperlinks and accessed by HTTP. These links are electronic connections
that link related pieces of information so that users can access the desired information quickly.
Hypertext offers the advantage to select a word or phrase from text and thus to access other
pages that provide additional information related to that word or phrase.
 A web page is given an online address called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A particular
collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is called a website,
e.g., www.facebook.com, www.google.com, etc. So, the World Wide Web is like a huge electronic
book whose pages are stored on multiple servers across the world.
  Small websites store all of their WebPages on a single server, but big websites or organizations
place their WebPages on different servers in different countries so that when users of a country
search their site they could get the information quickly from the nearest server.
 So, the web provides a communication platform for users to retrieve and exchange information
over the internet. Unlike a book, where we move from one page to another in a sequence, on
World Wide Web we follow a web of hypertext links to visit a web page and from that web page
to move to other web pages. You need a browser, which is installed on your computer, to access
the Web.
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The World Wide Web is abbreviated as WWW and is commonly known as the web. The WWW was initiated
by CERN (European library for Nuclear Research) in 1989.
WWW can be defined as the collection of different websites around the world, containing different
information shared via local servers(or computers).
History:
It is a project created, by Timothy Berner Lee in 1989, for researchers to work together effectively at CERN. is
an organization, named the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which was developed for further
development of the web. This organization is directed by Tim Berner’s Lee, aka the father of the web.

What is a domain name?

A domain name is a string of text that maps to an alphanumeric IP address, used to access a website from
client software. In plain English, a domain name is the text that a user types into a browser window to
reach a particular website. For instance, the domain name for Google is ‘google.com’.

The actual address of a website is a complex numerical IP address (e.g. 192.0.2.2), but thanks to DNS,
users are able to enter human-friendly domain names and be routed to the websites they are looking for.
This process is known as a DNS lookup.

A domain name is the address of a website. It's the name you type
into a web browser to access that specific website. For example, the
domain name for freeCodeCamp is freecodecamp.org.

Domain names are important because they make it easy for people to
remember the address of your website.

Imagine what would happen if you had to remember the IP address for every
website you wanted to visit. It would be a real pain to get around the web.

What is web hosting?

Web hosting is a service that stores your website or web application and makes it easily accessible
across different devices such as desktop, mobile, and tablets. Any web application or website is
typically made of many files, such as images, videos, text, and code, that you need to store on
special computers called servers. The web hosting service provider maintains, configures, and runs
physical servers that you can rent for your files. Web site and web application hosting services also
provide additional support, such as security, website backup, and website performance, which free
up your time so that you can focus on the core functions of your website.

What are the different types of website hosting?

We break down the top six types of website hosting and why you might choose them.

Your website needs to be stored on a computer server to be accessible to all your visitors 24/7, so you need the
best web hosting services. When you begin looking for a website host, you might find that there is a confusing
variety available. Companies like to try to separate their products from others on the crowded market, but there are
often only slight differences between one host and another.
In this article, we go over the most popular types of website hosting for creative professionals so you can decide
which is the best option for your next project.

01. Shared website hosting

Shared website hosting is the cheapest and most common form of web hosting. If a website hosting company
doesn’t make a big deal about the type of hosting that it offers, then it’s probably shared web hosting.

As the name implies, shared web hosting means your website is hosted on a server that’s shared with other people.
Everyone shares the CPU, memory, hard drives, and network bandwidth. This keeps costs low, but your website
might have performance issues when another site on the same server experiences a massive spike in traffic.

In practice, shared web hosting from any reputable web host offers more than enough performance and stability for
any site with fewer than 20,000 visits per month.

02. VPS website hosting

VPS (virtual private server) hosting is similar to shared web hosting in that multiple websites are stored on the same
hardware. However, you do get your own set amount of server resources that no one else touches. Your website will
be unaffected by traffic spikes on other sites, and it's easier to scale up your plans in the future.

When you use VPS hosting, it feels like you’re getting a whole server to yourself, and there’s greatly increased
configurability. You should consider VPS hosting if you need to run a mid-sized business website, but for most
creatives, it’s overkill.

03. Cloud hosting

Cloud hosting takes the virtualization of VPS to the next level by hosting your site on a network of computers.

When you choose traditional shared hosting or VPS web hosting, if the server goes down for any reason, then your
website is unavailable to customers. This doesn’t happen with cloud hosting, as if one server goes offline, visitors
will be seamlessly pointed to another server on the cloud network.
Having your website “on the cloud” has other benefits. Your site can be cached on different servers around the
world, making it load more quickly for international visitors. It’s also easy to scale up a website on cloud hosting. If
your website takes off, you can just buy more traffic and storage space without having to worry about moving
servers or installing new hardware.

Cloud hosting is most applicable for large-scale websites, but many web hosting companies are moving to this type.
This means the price of cloud hosting is being driven down, so it’s becoming relevant even for small creative-based
sites.

Don't miss our round up of the best cloud storage options available too.
04. Dedicated server hosting
To actually get a physical web server to yourself, you need dedicated server hosting. You won’t be sharing any
resources with anyone else, so you get complete control over how the server works and your website should perform
better.

Dedicated servers are more expensive, and we only recommend them for companies that need super-fast loading
speeds or highly customized setups.

05. WordPress hosting

Website hosting is split into the hardware used behind the scenes and the software that is supported. It’s common to
see WordPress hosting listed as a separate option from web hosting companies.

Typically, this means you get the content management system automatically installed on your web hosting, along
with a bunch of pre-installed themes and plugins. This can make it easier to get a complete WordPress website off
the ground in a matter of hours.

06. Managed hosting

Another consideration is whether you need managed hosting. With a managed hosting plan, the hosting provider
will perform many of the daily maintenance tasks of running a website for you. The host will perform updates on
software, check for security leaks, make backups, and generally ensure that your website is running smoothly.

Without managed hosting, you’re essentially on your own. But most good web hosting companies do offer their
users a reasonable level of technical support and assistance.

1. A particularly popular type of managed hosting is managed WordPress hosting. Basically, the web hosting
company handles all the daily maintenance of your WordPress website for you. In some cases, the host will
even help set up themes and plugins.

Web hosting companies typically have long lists of different types of hosting from which to choose. Shared web
hosting is fine for small sites, but as your traffic grows, you might want to consider VPS web hosting, cloud hosting,
or dedicated servers.

Another way that hosting is delineated is by the particular features and services that they offer. WordPress hosting,
for example, includes tools that make building and running a WordPress website easier. Managed hosting means the
web hosting provider will handle more of the daily maintenance of your server and website for you.