Unit V: Thyristors and Other Devices: Basic 4-Layer Device, The Silicon-Controlled

Rectifier, SCR Applications, Unijunction Transistor , IGBT, Phototransistor, Light-Activated

SCR, Optical Couplers

Thyristors:
In general, Thyristors are also switching devices similar to the transistors. As we already
discussed, Transistors are the tiny electronic component that changed the world, today we
can find them in every electronic device like TVs, mobiles, laptops, calculators, earphones
etc.

They are adaptable and versatile, but it doesn’t mean that they can be used in every
application, we can use them as amplifying and switching device but they cannot handle
higher current, also a transistor required a continuous switching current. So, for all these
issues and to overcome these problems we use Thyristors.

Thyristors are a broad classification of bipolar-conducting semiconductor devices having

four (or more) alternating N-P-N-P layers.

Thyristors include:

 Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR),

 Triode AC current (TRIAC)
 Gate turn off switch (GTO),
 Insulated gate controlled Bipolar transistor(IGBT)
 Diode for AC current (DIAC),
 Uni junction Transistor (UJT),
 programmable unijunction transistor (PUT).

Silicon Controlled Rectifier:

We know that the diode allows electric current in one direction and blocks electric current
in another direction. In other words, the diode converts the AC current in to DC current.
This unique behavior of the diodes makes it possible to build different types of rectifiers
such as half wave, full wave and bridge rectifiers. These rectifiers converts the Alternating
Current into Direct Current.

The half wave, full wave, and bridge rectifiers uses normal p-n junction diodes (two layer
diodes). So if the voltage applied to these diodes is high enough, then the diodes may get
destroyed. So the rectifiers cannot operate at high voltages.

To overcome these drawback, scientists have developed a special type of rectifier known as
Silicon Controlled Rectifier. These rectifiers can withstand at high voltages.
Definition:

A Silicon Controlled Rectifier is a 3 terminal and 4 layer semiconductor current controlling

device. It is mainly used in the devices for the control of high power. Silicon controlled
rectifier is also sometimes referred to as SCR diode, 4-layer diode, 4-layer device, or
Thyristor. It is made up of a silicon material which controls high power and converts high
AC current into DC current (rectification). Hence, it is named as silicon controlled rectifier.

Silicon controlled rectifier is a unidirectional current controlling device. Just like a normal
p-n junction diode, it allows electric current in only one direction and blocks electric
current in another direction. A normal p-n junction diode is made of two semiconductor
layers namely P-type and N-type. However, a SCR diode is made of 4 semiconductor layers
of alternating P and N type materials.

SCR Symbol:

The schematic symbol of a silicon controlled rectifier is shown in the below figure. A SCR
diode consists of three terminals namely anode (A), cathode (K), Gate (G). The diode arrow
represents the direction of conventional current.

Construction of Silicon Controlled Rectifier:

A silicon controlled rectifier is made up of 4 semiconductor layers of alternating P and N

type materials, which forms NPNP or PNPN structures. It has three P-N junctions namely
J1, J2, J3 with three terminals attached to the semiconductors materials namely anode (A),
cathode (K), and gate (G). Anode is a positively charged electrode through which the
conventional current enters into an electrical device, cathode is a negatively charged
electrode through which the conventional current leaves an electrical device, gate is a
terminal that controls the flow of current between anode and cathode. The gate terminal is
also sometimes referred to as control terminal.
  The Anode terminal of SCR diode is connected to the first p-type material of a PNPN
structure
 Cathode terminal is connected to the last n-type material
 Gate terminal is connected to the second p-type material of a PNPN structure which
is nearest to the cathode.

When 4 semiconductor layers of alternating P and N type materials are placed one over
another, three junctions are formed in PNPN structure. In a PNPN structure, the
junction J1 is formed between the first P-N layer, the junction J2 is formed between the N-P
layer and the junction J3 is formed between the last P-N layer. The doping of PNPN
structure is depends on the application of SCR diode

Modes of Operation in SCR:

There are three modes of operation for a Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), depending
upon the biasing given to it.

1) Forward Blocking Mode (Off State)

2) Forward Conducting Mode (On State)

3) Reverse Blocking Mode (Off State)

Forward Blocking Mode (Off State):

In this mode of operation, the positive voltage (+) is given to anode A (+), negative voltage
(-) is given to cathode K (-), and gate G is open circuited as shown in the below figure.

In this case, the junction J1 and junction J3 are forward biased whereas the
junction J2 becomes reverse biased. Due to the reverse bias voltage, the width of depletion
region increases at junction J2.

This depletion region at junction J2 acts as a wall or obstacle between the junction J1 and
junction J3. It blocks the current flowing between junction J1 and junction J3. Therefore, the
majority of the current does not flow between junction J1 and junction J3. However, a small
amount of leakage current flows between junction J1 and junction J3.

When the voltage applied to the SCR reaches a breakdown value, the high energy minority
carriers causes avalanche breakdown.

Forward Conducting Mode (On State):

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier can be made to conduct in two ways:

i. By increasing the forward bias voltage applied between anode and cathode beyond
the breakdown voltage
ii. By applying positive voltage at gate terminal.

In the first case, the forward bias voltage applied between anode and cathode is increased
beyond the breakdown voltage, the minority carriers (free electrons in anode and holes in
cathode) gains large amount of energy and accelerated to greater velocities. This high
speed minority carriers collides with other atoms and generates more charge carriers.
Likewise, many collisions happens with other atoms. Due to this, millions of charge carriers
are generated. As a result depletion region breakdown occurs at junction J2 and current
starts flowing through the SCR. So the SCR will be in On state. The current flow in the SCR
increases rapidly after junction breakdown occurs.

In the second case, a small positive voltage VG is applied to the gate terminal. As we know
that, in forward blocking mode, current does not flows through the circuit because of the
wide depletion region present at the junction J2. This depletion region was formed because
of the reverse biased gate terminal. So this problem can be easily solved by applying a small
positive voltage at the Gate terminal. When a small positive voltage is applied to the gate
terminal, it will become forward biased. So the depletion region width at junction
J2 becomes very narrow. Under this condition, applying a small forward bias voltage
between anode and cathode is enough for electric current to penetrate through this narrow
depletion region. Therefore, electric current starts flowing through the SCR circuit.

In second case, we no need to apply large voltage between anode and cathode. A small
voltage between anode and cathode, and positive voltage to gate terminal is enough to
brought SCR from blocking mode to conducting mode.

Reverse Blocking Mode (On State):

In this mode of operation, the negative voltage (-) is given to anode (+), positive voltage (+)
is given to cathode (-), and gate is open circuited as shown in the below figure. In this case,
the junction J1 and junction J3 are reverse biased whereas the junction J2 becomes forward
biased.

As the junctions J1 and junction J3 are reverse biased, no current flows through the SCR
circuit. But a small leakage current flows due to drift of charge carriers in the forward
biased junction J2. This small leakage current is not enough to turn on the SCR. So the SCR
will be in Off state.

V-I Characteristics of SCR:

The V-I characteristics of SCR is shown in the above figure. The horizontal line in the above
figure represents the amount of voltage applied across the SCR whereas the vertical line
represents the amount of current flows in the SCR.

VA = Anode voltage, IA = Anode current, +VA = Forward anode voltage, +IA = Forward anode
current, -VA = Reverse anode voltage, +IA = Reverse anode current

The V-I characteristics of SCR is divided into three regions:

 Forward blocking region

 Forward conduction region
 Reverse blocking region

Forward blocking region:

In this region, the positive voltage (+) is given to anode (+), negative voltage (-) is given to
cathode (-), and gate is open circuited. Due to this the junction J1 and J3 become forward
biased while J2 become reverse biased. Therefore, a small leakage current flows from anode
to cathode terminals of the SCR. This small leakage current is known as forward leakage
current.

The region OA of V-I characteristics is known as forward blocking region in which the SCR
does not conduct electric current.

Forward Conduction region:

If the forward bias voltage applied between anode and cathode is increased beyond the
breakdown voltage, the minority carriers (free electrons in anode and holes in cathode)
gains large amount of energy and accelerated to greater velocities. This high speed
minority carriers collides with other atoms and generates more charge carriers. Likewise,
many collisions happens with atoms. Due to this, millions of charge carriers are generated.
As a result depletion region breakdown occurs at junction J2 and current starts flowing
through the SCR. So the SCR will be in On state. The current flow in the SCR increases
rapidly after junction breakdown occurs.

The voltage at which the junction J2 gets broken when the gate is open is called forward
breakdown voltage (VBF).

The region BC of the V-I characteristics is called conduction region. In this region, the
current flowing from anode to cathode increases rapidly. The region AB indicates that as
soon as the device becomes on, the voltage across the SCR drops to some volts.

Reverse Blocking Region:

In this region, the negative voltage (-) is given to anode (+), positive voltage (+) is given to
cathode (-), and gate is open circuited. In this case, the junction J1 and junction J3 are
reverse biased whereas the junction J2 becomes forward biased.

As the junctions J1 and junction J3 are reverse biased, no current flows through the SCR
circuit. But a small leakage current flows due to drift of charge carriers in the forward
biased junction J2. This small leakage current is called reverse leakage current. This small
leakage current is not sufficient to turn on the SCR.

If the reverse bias voltage applied between anode and cathode is increased beyond the
reverse breakdown voltage (VBR), an avalanche breakdown occurs. As a result, the current
increases rapidly. The region EF is called reverse avalanche region. This rapid increase in
current may damage the SCR device.

Applications of SCR:
Due to the wide variety of advantages, like ability to turn ON from OFF state in response to
a low gate current and also able to switch high voltages, makes the SCR or thyristor to be
used in a variety of applications.

These applications include switching, rectification, regulation, protection, etc. The SCRs are
used for home appliance control include lighting, temperature control, fan speed
regulation, heating, and alarm activation.

For industrial applications, SCRs are used to control the motor speed, battery charging and
power conversions. Some of them are explained below.

SCR as a Switch:
The switching operation is one of the most important applications of the SCR. The SCR is
often used as solid state relay and has more advantages than electromagnetic relays or
switches as there are no moving parts in SCR.

The below figure shows the application of an SCR as a switch to ON and OFF the power
supplied to the load. The AC power supplied to the load is controlled by applying alternate
triggering pulses to the SCR. The resistors R1 and R2 protect the diodes D1 and D2
respectively. The resistor R limits the gate current flow.

During the positive half cycle of the input, SCR1 is forward biased and SCR2 is reverse
biased. If the switch S is closed, gate current is applied to the SCR1 through diode D1 and
hence SCR1 is turned ON. Therefore, the current flows to the load through SCR1.

Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the signal, SCR2 is forward biased and SCR1 is
reverse biased. If the switch S is closed, gate current flows to the SCR2 through diode D2.
Hence the SCR2 is turned ON and the load current flows through it.
Therefore, by controlling the switch S the load current can be controlled at any desired
position. It is observed that, this switch handles a few mill ampere current to control the
several hundred ampere current in the load. So this method of switching is more
advantageous than mechanical or electromechanical switching.

Half Wave Rectifier:

The circuit below shows the single phase half wave rectifier circuit using SCR. A diode in
series with the variable resistor is connected to the gate which is responsible to trigger the
SCR.

 During the negative half cycle of the AC input signal, the SCR is reverse biased.
Hence, no current flows through the load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input, SCR is forward biased. If the resistor is
varied such that the minimum triggering current is applied to the gate, then the SCR
is turned ON. Hence the current starts flowing to the load.
 If the gate current is higher, the supply voltage at which the SCR is turned ON will be
lesser. The angle at which the SCR starts conducting is referred as firing angle. For
this rectifier circuit, firing angle can be varied during the positive half cycle only.
 Therefore, by varying the firing angle or gate current (by changing the resistance in
this circuit), it is possible to make the SCR conduct part or full positive half cycle so
that the average power fed to the load get varied.

Full Wave Rectifier

In a full wave rectifier, both positive and negative wave of the input supply are rectified.
Hence, compared to the half wave rectifier, the average value of the DC voltage is high and
also ripple content is less. The below figure shows the full wave rectifier circuit consisting
of two SCRs connected with centre tapped transformer.
• During the positive half cycle of the input, SCR1 is forward biased and SCR2 is reverse
biased. By applying the proper gate signal, SCR1 is turned ON and hence load current starts
flowing through it.

• During the negative half cycle of the input, SCR2 is forward biased and SCR1 is reverse
biased. With a gate triggering, SCR2 is turned ON and hence the load current flows through
the SCR2.

• Therefore, by varying the triggering current to the SCRs, the average power delivered to
the load is varied.

Over voltage Protection using SCR:

Due to the fast switching action of the SCR, one of the common SCR Applications is that it
can be employed as a protecting device. The circuit used for the protection against over
voltages is referred as Crowbar circuit.

The figure below shows the crowbar circuit using SCR. This crowbar circuit is connected
across the circuit or load which is to be protected. This circuit consists of SCR which is
triggered by zener diode arrangement. This zener diode is selected in such a way that
under normal operating condition, it acts as an open switch.

So, the voltage across the resistor is zero and hence the SCR remains in OFF state.
Whenever the voltage of the supply source exceeds the specified limits, zener diodes starts
conducting and a sufficient voltage appears across the resistor. This drives the SCR into
conduction mode. The voltage drop across the SCR is reduced as it is in conduction mode
and thus load is protected from the over voltage.
UJT (Uni Junction Transistor):

A Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device. The main

characteristics of UJT is when it is triggered, the emitter current increases re-generatively
until it is limited by emitter power supply. Due to this characteristic feature, it is used in
applications like switching pulse generator, saw-tooth wave generator etc.

A transistor that is formed because of the P-type and the N-type material so that a single
junction is formed because of them this type of transistor is defined as uni junction
transistor. These transistors are similar to that of JFET’s but their operations completely
differ. Hence this transistor doesn’t suits for amplification techniques. This can be utilized
during the switching of the devices to ON/OFF.

These transistors switching operation is completely different in comparison with the Field
Effect Transistors (FET) and the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). If the channel in this
transistor is formed of N-type semiconductor that is low in doping concentration the P-
type is infused on it. This p-type is of high in doping concentration.

Construction of UJT:
The UJT consists of an n-type silicon semiconductor bar with an electrical on each end. The
terminals of these connections are called Base terminals (B 1 and B2). Near to base B2, a pn-
junction is formed between a p-type emitter and the n-type silicon bar. The terminal of this
junction is called emitter terminal (E).
Since the device has three terminals and one pn-junction, for this region this is called as a
Unijunction Transistor (UJT).
The device has only pn-junction so it forms a diode. Because the two base leads are taken
from one section of the diode, hence the device is also called as Double-Based Diode.
The emitter is heavily doped while the n-region is lightly doped. Thus, the resistance
between base terminals is very high when emitter terminal is open.

Operation of UJT:

With Emitter Open:

When the voltage VBB is applied with emitter open. A potential gradient is established along
the n-type silicon bar. As the emitter is located close to the base B 2, thus a major part of
VBB appears between the emitter and base B 1. The voltage V1 between emitter and B1,
establishes a reverse bias on the pn-junction and the emitter current is cut off, but a small
leakage current flows from B2 to emitter due to minority charge carriers. Thus, the device is
said to be in OFF state.
With Emitter at Positive Potential:
When a positive voltage is applied at the emitter terminal, the pn-junction will remain
reverse biased till the input voltage is less than V1. A soon as the input voltage at emitter
exceeds V1, the pn-junction becomes forward biased. Under this condition, holes are
supplied from p-type region into the n-type bar. These holes are repelled by positive
B2 terminal and attracted towards the B1 terminal. This increase in the number of holes in
the emitter to B1 region results in the decrease of resistance of this section of the bar.
Because of this, the internal voltage drop from emitter to B1 region is reduced, thus the
emitter current (IE) increases. As more holes are supplied, a condition of saturation is
reached. At the point of saturation, the emitter current is limited by the emitter power
supply. Now, the device is conducting, hence said to be in ON state.

Equivalent Circuit of UJT

UJT Characteristics: The curve between emitter voltage (VE) and emitter current (IE) of
UJT, at a given value of VBB is known as emitter characteristics of UJT.
Cutoff: Cutoff region is the area where the Unijunction Transistor (UJT) doesn’t get
sufficient voltage to turn on. The applied voltage hasn’t reached the triggering voltage, thus
making transistor to be in off state.
Negative Resistance Region:
When the transistor reaches the triggering voltage, VTRIG, Unijunction Transistor (UJT) will
turn on. After a certain time, if the applied voltage increases to the emitter lead, it will
reach out at VPEAK. The voltage drops from VPEAK to Valley Point even though the current
increases (negative resistance).
Saturation:
Saturation region is the area where the current and voltage raises, if the applied voltage to
emitter terminal increases.

Advantages of UJT:
 Low cost
 Excellent characteristics
 Low power absorbing device under normal operating conditions

Applications of UJT:
 switching Device
 Triggering Device for Triacs and SCR’s
 Timing Circuits
 For phase control
 In sawtooth generators
 In simple relaxation oscillators

IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor):

It takes the best parts of both BJT and MOSFET into a single transistor. It takes the input
characteristics (high input impedance) of MOSFET (Insulated Gate) and the output
characteristics of BJT (Bipolar nature).

It is the combination of BJT and MOSFET. Its name also implies the fusion between them.
“Insulated Gate” refers to the input part of MOSFET having very high input impedance. It
does not draw any input current rather it operates on the voltage at its gate terminal.
“Bipolar” refers to the output part of the BJT having bipolar nature where the current flow
is due to both types of charge carriers. It allows it to handle very large currents and
voltages using small voltage signals. This hybrid combination makes the IGBT a voltage-
controlled device.
Symbol of IGBT:

It is a four-layer PNPN device having three PN junctions. It has three terminals Gate (G),
Collector(C) and Emitter (E). The terminal’s name also implies being taken from both
transistors. Gate terminal as it is the input part, taken from MOSFET while the collector and
emitter as they are the output, taken from the BJT.

Construction of IGBT:

IGBT is made of four layers of semiconductor to form a PNPN structure. The collector (C)
electrode is attached to P layer while the emitter (E) is attached between the P and N
layers. A P+ substrate is used for the construction of IGBT. An N- layer is placed on top of it
to form PN junction J1. Two P regions are fabricated on top of N- layer to form PN junction
J2. The P region is designed in such a way to leave a path in the middle for the gate (G)
electrode. N+ regions are diffused over the P region as shown in the above figure.

The emitter and gate are metal electrodes. The emitter is directly attached to the N+ region
while the gate is insulated using a silicon dioxide layer.
Working of IGBT: The two terminals of IGBT collector (C) and emitter (E) are used for the
conduction of current while the gate (G) is used for controlling the IGBT. Its working is
based on the biasing between Gate-Emitter terminals and Collector-Emitter terminals.

The collector-emitter is connected to Vcc such that the collector is kept at a positive voltage
than the emitter. The junction j1 becomes forward biased and j2 becomes reverse biased.
At this point, there is no voltage at the gate. Due to reverse j2, the IGBT remains switched
off and no current will flow between collector and emitter.
Applying a gate voltage VG positive than the emitter, negative charges will accumulate right
beneath the SiO2 layer due to capacitance. Increasing the VG increases the number of
charges which eventually form a layer when the VG exceeds the threshold voltage, in the
upper P-region. This layer form N-channel that shorts N- drift region and N+ region.
The electrons from the emitter flow from N+ region into N- drift region. While the holes
from the collector are injected from the P+ region into the N- drift region. Due to the excess
of both electrons and holes in the drift region, its conductivity increase and starts the
conduction of current. Hence the IGBT switches ON.

V-I Characteristics of IGBT:

Unlike BJT, IGBT is a voltage-controlled device that requires only a small voltage at its gate
to control the collector current. However, the gate-emitter voltage VGE needs to be greater
than the threshold voltage.

Transfer characteristics of the IGBT show the relation of input voltage VGE to output
collector current IC. When the VGE is 0v, there is no IC and the device remains switched off.
When the VGE is slightly increased but remains below threshold voltage VGET, the device
remains switched off but there is a leakage current. When the VGE exceeds the threshold
limit, the IC starts to increase and the device switches ON. Since it is a unidirectional device,
the current only flows in one direction.

The given graph shows the relation between the collector current I C and collector-emitter
voltage VCE at different levels of VGE. At VGE < VGET the IGBT is in cutoff mode and the IC = 0
at any VCE. At VGE > VGET, the IGBT goes into active mode, where the IC increases with an
increase in VCE. Furthermore, for each VGE where VGE1 < VGE2 < VGE3, the IC is different.

Advantages
IGBT as a whole has the advantages of both BJT and MOSFET.
 It has higher voltage and current handling capabilities.
 It has a very high input impedance.
 It can switch very high currents using very low voltage.
 It is voltage-controlled i.e. it has no input current and low input losses.
 The gate drive circuitry is simple and cheap.
It has a higher power gain than both BJT and MOSFET.

Applications of IGBT
IGBTs have numerous applications used in AC as well as DC circuits. Here are some of the
important applications of IGBT
 It is used in SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) to supply power to sensitive medical
equipment and computers.
 It is used in UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) system.
 It is used in AC and DC motor drives offering speed control.
 It is used in chopper and inverters.
 It is used in solar inverters.
Light Activated SCR or LASCR:
It is a semiconductor device which turns ON when it is exposed to light. The constituent
element of SCR is silicon, and it works like a rectifier, and thus, it is termed as Silicon
Controlled Rectifier. The LASCR is a type of thyristor which is triggered by photons
present in the light rays.

It is a three terminal device, consists of cathode, anode and gate terminal. The gate
terminal is used when the electrical triggering is supplied to the LASCR. The advantage of
using triggering of the thyristor by light is prevention from electrical noise disturbances.
Thus, LASCR is considered to be one of the best devices.

Construction of LASCR: The LASCR is made up of silicon material, and the glass lens in the
LASCR is used to focus the light from the external source on the semiconductor material.
The silicon pellet is used in the bottom of the device, and the light intensity dislodges
electrons in the semiconductor crystal and contributes to conduction.

The LASCR works on the principle of photoconduction that is conduction due to photon
striking the semiconductor surface. The LASCR is basically a thyristor; it is made up of
semiconductor material. The light rays falling on the device are focused at one place to
intensify it.
 The more the intensity of light, the more will be the current through the LASCR. The
internal architecture of LASCR consists of two transistors in such a way that the collector of
one transistor is connected to the base of another transistor.

Applications of LASCR:
 The Light activated SCR (LASCR) is used in large computer applications.
 The Light activated SCR (LASCR) is used in high voltage and high current applications.
 It is used in HVDC transmission and VAR compensation.
 It is used in light activated flash units, logic circuits and etc.
 It is used in alarm circuits.
 It is used in optical light control.
 It is used in phase control.
 It is used in motor control.
Phototransistor: It is an electronic switching and current amplification component
which relies on exposure to light to operate. When light falls on the junction, reverse
current flows which are proportional to the luminance. Phototransistors are used
extensively to detect light pulses and convert them into digital electrical signals. These are
operated by light rather than electric current. Providing a large amount of gain, low cost
and these phototransistors might be used in numerous applications.

It is capable of converting light energy into electric energy. Phototransistors work in a

similar way to photoresistors commonly known as LDR (light dependent resistor) but are
able to produce both current and voltage while photoresistors are only capable of
producing current due to change in resistance.

Construction: A phototransistor is nothing but an ordinary bi-polar transistor in which

the base region is exposed to illumination. It is available in both the P-N-P and N-P-N types
having different configurations like common emitter, common collector, and common base
but generally, common emitter configuration is used. It can also work while the base is
made open. Compared to the conventional transistor it has more base and collector areas.
 With no light falling on the device there will be a small current flow due to thermally
generated hole-electron pairs and the output voltage from the circuit will be slightly less
than the supply value due to the voltage drop across the load resistor R. With light falling
on the collector-base junction the current flow increases. With the base connection open
circuit, the collector-base current must flow in the base-emitter circuit, and hence the
current flowing is amplified by normal transistor action.

Photodiode Vs Phototransistor:

Photodiode Phototransistor
The photodiode is a PN-junction diode, used to generate The phototransistor is used to change the energy of
electric current once a photon of light strikes on their surface. the light into an electrical energy
It is less sensitive It is more sensitive
The output response of photodiode is fast The output response of the phototransistor is low
It produces current It produces voltage and current
It is used in solar power generation, detecting UV otherwise IR It is used in compact disc players, smoke detectors,
rays & also for light measuring, etc. lasers, invisible light receivers, etc.
It is more reactive to incident lights It is less reactive
The photodiode has a less dark current Phototransistor has high dark current
In this, both the biasing is used like forward and reverse In this, forward biasing is used
The linear response range of phototransistor is
The linear response range of photodiode is much wider much lower
Photodiode allows low current as compared to a Phototransistor allows high current as compared to
phototransistor the photodiode
The photodiode is used for battery-powered devices that use The phototransistor is used as a solid-state switch,
less power. not like a photodiode.
Applications of Phototransistors

 Punch-card readers.
 Security systems
 Encoders – measure speed and direction
 IR detectors photo
 electric controls
 Computer logic circuitry.
 Relays
 Lighting control (highways etc)
 Level indication
 Counting systems

Optical coupler or Opto coupler: It is an electronic component which can be used in many
different applications as an interface between low voltage digital or control circuits and
large power electronic devices.
 Transformers that they can not only provide a step-down (or step-up) voltage, but
they also provide “electrical isolation” between the higher voltage on the primary
side and the lower voltage on the secondary side.
 But we can also provide electrical isolation between an input source and an output
load using just light by using a very common and valuable electronic component
called an Optocoupler.
 The basic design of an optocoupler, also known as an Opto-isolator, consists of an
LED that produces infra-red light and a semiconductor photo-sensitive device that is
used to detect the emitted infra-red beam. Both the LED and photo-sensitive device
are enclosed in a light-tight body or package with metal legs for the electrical
connections
 An optocoupler or opto-isolator consists of a light emitter, the LED and a light
sensitive receiver which can be a single photo-diode, photo-transistor, photo-
resistor, photo-SCR, or a photo-TRIAC
 working principle of Optocoupler:

An optocoupler consists a Transmitter as IR LED and a Receiver as a photosensitive

component. when light is emitted by an LED and that light hits on the photosensor
(Photodiode, Phototransistor, PhotoTriac) then the photosensor starts to flow the current.
in this system, the Input Light is proportional to the current at the output.

Applications of opto couplers:

Optocouplers can be used as a switching device on their own or in conjunction with other
electronic devices to provide isolation between low and high voltage circuits. These devices
are commonly used for the following purposes:
 Microprocessor input/output switching
 DC and AC power control
 Communications equipment protection
 Power supply regulation