Basic Electronics Important Questions with Answers

a) Draw and compare the energy band diagram for metals, insulators, and semi conductor

Energy bands : In a solid , the energy of electrons lie within certain range. The energy levels of allowed energy are
in the form of bands, these bands are separated by regions of forbidden energy called band gaps.
(a) In conductors: valence band and conduction band overlap each other.
In semiconductors: Valence band and conduction band are separated by a small energy gap.
In insulators: They are separated by a large energy gap.
(b) In conductors : Large number of free electrons are available in conduction band.
In semiconductor : A very small number of electrons are available for electrical conduction.
In insulators : Conduction band is almost empty i.e., no electron is available for conduction.
Effect of temperature :
(i) In conductors : At high temperature , the collisions of electrons become more frequent with the atoms /
molecules at lattice site in the metals as a result the conductivity decreases (or resistivity increases).
(ii) In semiconductors : As the temperature of the semiconducting material increases, more electrons hole pairs
becomes available in the conduction band and valence band , and hence the conductivity increases or the resistivity
decreases.
(ii) In insulators : The energy band between conduction band and valence band is very large , so it is unsurpassable
for small temperature rise. So , there is no change in their behavior.

2)Write the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

arameter Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

The semiconductor in its pure When a chemical impurity is added to an

form is known as intrinsic intrinsic semiconductor, then the resulting
Definition
semiconductor. semiconductor is known as extrinsic
semiconductor.

There is no classification of Based on the impurity added, the extrinsic

Types intrinsic semiconductor. semiconductors are of two types viz. P-type
semiconductor and N-type semiconductor.

In case of intrinsic In an extrinsic semiconductor, the doping is

semiconductor, there is no performed, i.e. a small amount of impurity is
Doping
doping or addition of added in the pure semiconductor.
impurity.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, In case of extrinsic semiconductors, the

the number of electrons is number of holes and electrons are not equal.
Charge carrier equal to number of holes. In a P-type semiconductor, the holes are more
density than electrons while in an N-type
semiconductor, the electrons are more than
holes.

The electrical conductivity of The extrinsic semiconductors have high

Conductivity intrinsic semiconductors is electrical conductivity.
low.

The conductivity of intrinsic The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is

Dependency of
semiconductor is dependent dependent on temperature as well as amount
conductivity
on temperature only. of impurity added.

The intrinsic semiconductor The extrinsic semiconductor conducts at 0

Conductivity at
does not conduct at 0 Kelvin Kelvin temperature.
0 Kelvin
temperature.

In the intrinsic In case of extrinsic semiconductors, the

Cause of charge
semiconductors, the charge charge carriers are produced due to thermal
carrier
carriers are produced only agitation as well as chemical impurities added
production
due to thermal agitation. to the semiconductor.

Intrinsic semiconductors The operating temperature for extrinsic

Operating
have low operating semiconductors is high.
temperature
temperature.

At 0 Kelvin, the Fermi level At 0 Kelvin, the Fermi level in extrinsic

in intrinsic semiconductors semiconductor depends upon the types of
exactly lies between semiconductor, i.e. in case of N-type
Fermi level
conduction band and valance semiconductor, it lies closer to conduction
band. band and in the P-type semiconductor, it lies
closer to valance band.
arameter Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

In an intrinsic semiconductor, In case of extrinsic semiconductor, the ratio of

Ratio of charge
the ratio of majority and majority and minority charge carriers is not
carriers
minority charge carriers is 1. unity.

The crystalline forms of pure The examples of extrinsic semiconductors are

silicon and germanium are pure silicon and germanium doped with
Examples
the examples of intrinsic chemical impurities like As, P, Bi, Sb, In, B,
semiconductors. Al, etc.

3) Discuss how a depletion layer is formed in a P-N diode and how does it vary with biasing? Draw
V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode.

What is P-N Junction?

Definition: A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types,
namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.
In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method of doping. The p-side or the positive side
of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of electrons.
The process of doping is explained in further detail in the next section.

Formation of P-N Junction

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a P-N junction, there will be a grain
boundary that would inhibit the movement of electrons from one side to the other by scattering the
electrons and holes and thus, we use the process of doping. We will understand the process of doping
with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor sheet. If we add a small
amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-type silicon. This
sheet will now contain both the p-type region and the n-type region and a junction between these two
regions. The processes that follow after forming a P-N junction are of two types – diffusion and drift.
There is a difference in the concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction. The holes
from the p-side diffuse to the n-side, and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give
rise to a diffusion current across the junction.
Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode
There are two operating regions in the P-N junction diode:

 P-type
 N-type
There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and this is based on the voltage applied:

 Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.

 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type while the
negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type and the
positive is connected to the n-type.

Forward Bias

When the p-type is connected to the battery’s positive terminal and the n-type to the negative terminal,
then the P-N junction is said to be forward-biased. When the P-N junction is forward biased, the built-in
electric field at the P-N junction and the applied electric field are in opposite directions. When both the
electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has a magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field. This
results in a less resistive and thinner depletion region. The depletion region’s resistance becomes
negligible when the applied voltage is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the
depletion region becomes completely negligible, and the current flows across it unimpeded.

Reverse Bias
When the p-type is connected to the battery’s negative terminal and the n-type is connected to the positive
side, the P-N junction is reverse biased. In this case, the built-in electric field and the applied electric field
are in the same direction. When the two fields are added, the resultant electric field is in the same
direction as the built-in electric field, creating a more resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion
region becomes more resistive and thicker if the applied voltage becomes larger.

4) Draw and explain the circuit of a half-wave rectifier with capacitor filter.
 The half wave rectifier converts the Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). But the
obtained Direct Current (DC) at the output is not a pure Direct Current (DC). It is a pulsating
Direct Current (DC).
 The pulsating Direct Current (DC) is not constant. It fluctuates with respect to time. When this
fluctuating Direct Current (DC) is applied to any electronic device, the device may not work
properly. Sometimes the device may also be damaged. So the fluctuating Direct Current (DC) is
not useful in most of the applications.
 Therefore, we need a Direct Current (DC) that does not fluctuate with respect to time. The only
solution for this is smoothing the fluctuating Direct Current (DC). This can be achieved by using
a device called filter.
 The pulsating Direct Current (DC) contains both AC and DC components. DC components are
useful but AC components are not useful. So we need to reduce or completely remove the AC
components. By using the filter, we can reduce the AC components at the output.
 The filter is an electronic device that allows dc components and blocks the ac components of
the rectifier output.
 The filter is made up of a combination of components such as capacitors, resistors, and inductors.
The capacitor allows the ac component and blocks the dc component. The inductor allows the dc
component and blocks the ac component.
 In this tutorial, a filter made up of a combination of resistor and capacitor is explained.
 In the below circuit diagram, the capacitor C is connected in shunt with load resistor (RL).


 When AC voltage is applied, during the positive half cycle, the diode D is forward biased and
allows electric current through it.
 As we already know that, the capacitor provides high resistive path to dc components (low-
frequency signal) and low resistive path to ac components (high-frequency signal).
 Electric current always prefers to flow through a low resistance path. So when the electric current
reaches the filter, the dc components experience a high resistance from the capacitor and ac
components experience a low resistance from the capacitor.
 The dc components does not like to flow through the capacitor (high resistance path). So they
find an alternative path (low resistance path) and flows to the load resistor (RL) through that
path.


  On the other hand, the ac components experience a low resistance from the capacitor. So the ac
components easily passes through the capacitor. Only a small part of the ac components passes
through the load resistor (RL) producing a small ripple voltage at the output.
 The passage of ac components through the capacitor is nothing but charging of the capacitor.
 In simple words, the ac components is nothing but an excess current that flows through the
capacitor and charges it. This prevents any sudden change in the voltage at the output.
 During the conduction period, the capacitor charges to the maximum value of the supply voltage.
When the voltage between the plates of the capacitor is equal to the supply voltage, the capacitor
is said to be fully charged.

 When the capacitor is fully charged, it holds the charge until the input AC supply to the rectifier
reaches the negative half cycle.
 When the negative half cycle is reached, the diode D gets reverse biased and stops allowing
electric current through it. During this non-conduction period, the input voltage is less than that of
the capacitor voltage. So the capacitor discharges all the stored charges through the load resistor
RL. This prevents the output load voltage from falling to zero.
 The capacitor discharges until the input supply voltage is less than the capacitor voltage. When
the input supply voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage, the capacitor again starts charging.
 When the positive half cycle is reached again, the diode D is forward biased and allows electric
current. This makes capacitor to charge again.
 The capacitor filter with a large discharge time constant will produce a very smooth DC voltage.
 Thus, a smooth and steady DC voltage is obtained by using the filter.

5) With circuit and necessary waveforms explain the operation of Bridge rectifier

We can define bridge rectifiers as a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or more diodes in a bridge
circuit configuration to efficiently convert alternating (AC) current to a direct (DC) current.

Construction

The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge rectifier circuit is made of
four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The four diodes are connected in a closed-loop
configuration to efficiently convert the alternating current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). The main
advantage of this configuration is the absence of the expensive centre-tapped transformer. Therefore, the
size and cost are reduced.
The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC signal is obtained across the load
resistor RL connected between terminals C and D. The four diodes are arranged in such a way that only
two diodes conduct electricity during each half cycle. D1 and D3 are pairs that conduct electric current
during the positive half cycle/. Likewise, diodes D2 and D4 conduct electric current during a negative half
cycle.

Working
When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes positive during the positive
half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes D1 and D3 becoming forward biased
while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased.
The current flow during the positive half-cycle is shown in the figure below:

During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A becomes negative. This
causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and diode D1 and D3 to be reverse biased.
The current flow during the negative half cycle is shown in the figure below:
From the figures given above, we notice that the current flow across load resistor RL is the same during
the positive and negative half-cycles. The output DC signal polarity may be either completely positive or
negative. In our case, it is completely positive. If the diodes’ direction is reversed, we get a complete
negative DC voltage.
Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative half cycles of the input
AC signal.
The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in the below figure.
6) Compare half-wave and full-wave rectifier
Difference between half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier
A rectifier is an electronic device which convert alternate current voltage into direct current voltage .
There are two types of rectifier first Half wave rectifier and second is full wave rectifier. Half-Wave
rectifier is an electronic circuit which converts only one half of the alternate current cycle into pulsating
direct current cycle. Half wave rectifier uses only half of AC cycle for the conversion process. When
positive half of the input is passed then negative half is blocked and vice-versa. Full wave rectifier is an
electronic circuit which converts entire cycle of AC into Pulsating DC.

Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier

1) A rectifier circuit which allows to 1) A rectifier circuit which has the

pass only one half of the applied input ability to pass full applied input signal
signal and blocks the other half signal is called a full wave rectifier.
is called a half wave rectifier. 2) The full wave rectifier shows
2) The half wave rectifier shows the bidirectional nature.
unidirectional nature.
3) The circuit of full wave rectifier
3) The circuit of half wave rectifier is made up of two or more diode.
made up of only single diode.
4) The full wave rectifier has better
4)The half wave rectifier has good voltage regulation than the half wave
voltage regulation. rectifier.
5) The maximum value of applied 5) The peak inverse voltage is twice of
input voltage is equal to the peak the maximum value of applied input
inverse voltage voltage.

7) Explain about Zener break down in detail

PN Junction Breakdown
An electrical breakdown of any material such as the conductor, semiconductor, and insulator can occur
due to two different phenomena known as a) Zener Breakdown b) Avalanche Breakdown.

What Is Zener Breakdown?

When the diode is reverse biased, the kinetic energy of the electrons increases, and they move at a high
velocity. The high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms and give rise to free electrons. These free
electrons, in turn, give rise to a high value of reverse saturation current. This is known as Zener
breakdown.
What Is Avalanche Breakdown?
The avalanche breakdown occurs when a high reverse voltage is applied across the diode. As we increase
the applied reverse voltage, the electric field across the junction increases. This electric field exerts a
force on the electrons at the junction and frees them from covalent bonds. These free electrons start
moving with high velocity
across the junction and collide with the other atoms, thus creating more free electrons. This results in a
rapid increase in net current. Both these breakdowns occur in Zener diodes.

Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Si and Ge Zener Diode

Zener Breakdown vs Avalanche Breakdown

The main difference between Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown is their mechanism of
occurrence. Zener breakdown occurs because of the high electric field. The avalanche breakdown occurs
because of the collision of free electrons with atoms. Both these breakdowns can occur simultaneously.
Let us look at the other differences between them in the below table.

Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown

The process in which the electrons move across The process of applying high voltage and
the barrier from the valence band of p-type increasing the free electrons or electric current
material to the conduction band of n-type in semiconductors and insulating materials is
material is known as Zener breakdown. called an avalanche breakdown.

This is observed in Zener diodes having a Zener This is observed in Zener diode having a Zener
breakdown voltage Vz of 5 to 8 volts. breakdown voltage Vz greater than 8 volts.

The valence electrons are pulled into The valence electrons are pushed to conduction
conduction due to the high electric field in the due to the energy imparted by accelerated
narrow depletion region. electrons, which gain their velocity due to their
collision with other atoms.
The increase in temperature decreases the The increase in temperature increases the
breakdown voltage. breakdown voltage.

The VI characteristics of a Zener breakdown The VI characteristic curve of the avalanche

has a sharp curve. breakdown is not as sharp as the Zener
breakdown.

It occurs in diodes that are highly doped. It occurs in diodes that are lightly doped.

8) Explain V-I characteristics of Zener diode.

The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.

When reverse-biased voltage is applied to a Zener diode, it allows only a small amount of leakage current
until the voltage is less than Zener voltage.
The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two parts as follows:
(i) Forward Characteristics
(ii) Reverse Characteristics

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a Zener diode. From the graph, we
understand that it is almost identical to the forward characteristics of any other P-N junction diode.

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, a small reverse saturation current Io flows across
the diode. This current is due to thermally generated minority carriers. As the reverse voltage increases, at
a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current increases drastically and sharply. This is an
indication that the breakdown has occurred. We call this voltage breakdown voltage or Zener voltage, and
Vz denotes it.

Zener Diode Specifications

Some commonly used specifications for Zener diodes are as follows:

 Zener/Breakdown Voltage – The Zener or the reverse breakdown voltage ranges from 2.4 V to
200 V, sometimes it can go up to 1 kV while the maximum for the surface-mounted device is 47
V.
 Current Iz (max) – It is the maximum current at the rated Zener Voltage (Vz – 200μA to 200 A)
 Current Iz (min) – It is the minimum value of current required for the diode to break down.
 Power Rating – It denotes the maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate. It is given by the
product of the voltage of the diode and the current flowing through it.
 Temperature Stability – Diodes around 5 V have the best stability
 Voltage Tolerance – It is typically ±5%
 Zener Resistance (Rz) – It is the resistance to the Zener diode exhibits.

9) Explain the working principle of (i) Photo diode (ii) Varactor diode

Varactor Diode

Varactor diode is a type of diode whose internal capacitance varies with respect to the reverse voltage. It
always works in reverse bias conditions and is a voltage-dependent semiconductor device. Several names
know varactor diode as Varicap, Voltcap, Voltage variable capacitance, or Tunning diode.

Symbol of Varactor Diode

From the diagram given below, it is evident that the symbol of the varactor diode is similar to that of the
PN-junction diode. The diode has two terminals: anode and cathode. One end of the symbol consists of
the diode, and the other has two parallel lines representing the capacitor’s conductive plates. The gap
between the plates shows their dielectric.

Operation of Varactor Diode

The function of the varactor diode is to store charges, so it is always operated in reverse bias conditions.
When a forward bias voltage is applied, the electric current flows. As a result, the depletion region
becomes negligible, which is undesirable.
The junction capacitance of a p-n junction diode is inversely proportional to the width of the depletion
layer. In other words, if the width of the depletion layer is less, then the capacitance is more, and vice
versa. So if we need to increase the capacitance of a varactor diode, the reverse bias voltage should be
decreased. It causes the width of the depletion layer to decrease, resulting in higher capacitance.
Similarly, increasing the reverse bias voltage should decrease the capacitance. This ability to get different
values of capacitances just by changing the voltage applied is the biggest advantage of a varactor diode
compared to a normal variable capacitor.

Working of a Photodiode
A PN photodiode is similar to a conventional PN junction diode. When a PN junction diode is reverse
biased, the depletion region widens. Minority charge carriers are generated that constitute the reverse
current of the diode. This reverse current is directly proportional to the applied reverse voltage.

Similarly, in the photodiode, there is a built-in-potential difference across the depletion region. When a
light ray or photon of enough energy (hv) greater than the energy gap (Eg) falls on the junction of the
photodiode, it dislodges or removes an electron from its valance band into the conduction band. The
electron lefts an empty space called a hole, thus electron-hole pair is generated. This phenomenon is also
called the inner photovoltaic effect. Under the influence of an inbuilt electric field, the electron and hole
moves in opposite directions i.e. the electron moves toward the cathode and the hole moves toward the
anode. This current is called photocurrent and it is directly proportional to the intensity of the falling light.
In photodiodes, there is still a flow of current even when there is no light source or photons falling onto
its junction. This current is known as dark current. It is extremely small in microampere. It resembles the
leakage current of any conventional PN junction diode. It is the unwanted current in reverse bias that
varies directly with temperature and it must be reduced to have increased sensitivity of the photodiode.
The total current of any photodiode is the sum of the photocurrent and the dark current.
10) Explain the operation of Light Emitting Diode and write its applications.

What is LED?
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric current flows
through it. When current passes through an LED, the electrons recombine with holes emitting light in the
process. LEDs allow the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse
direction.

Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the semiconductor material used and the
amount of doping, an LED will emit coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength when forward
biased. As shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted light can
come out.
Read More: Diodes

LED Symbol
The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode, with the addition of two small arrows denoting the
emission of light.
Simple LED Circuit

The figure below shows a simple LED circuit.

The circuit consists of an LED, a voltage supply and a resistor to regulate the current and voltage.

How does an LED work?

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent from p → n while the minority holes are
sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the concentration of minority carriers increases. The excess
minority carriers at the junction recombine with the majority charges carriers.

The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. In standard diodes, the energy is released
in the form of heat. But in light-emitting diodes, the energy is released in the form of photons. We call
this phenomenon electroluminescence. Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and electrical
phenomenon where a material emits light in response to an electric current passed through it. As the
forward voltage increases, the intensity of the light increases and reaches a maximum.
What determines the colour of an LED?
The colour of an LED is determined by the material used in the semiconducting element. The two primary
materials used in LEDs are aluminium gallium indium phosphide alloys and indium gallium nitride
alloys. Aluminium alloys are used to obtain red, orange and yellow light, and indium alloys are used to
get green, blue and white light. Slight changes in the composition of these alloys change the colour of the
emitted light.

Applications of LED
LEDs find applications in various fields, including optical communication, alarm and security systems,
remote-controlled operations, robotics, etc. It finds usage in many areas because of its long-lasting
capability, low power requirements, swift response time, and fast switching capabilities. Below are a few
standards LED uses:

 Used for TV back-lighting

 Used in displays
 Used in Automotives
 LEDs used in the dimming of lights

11) Explain the Construction and working of PNP transistor

PNP Transistor

Definition: PNP transistor is three terminal current controlled device which consists of three terminals
formed by sandwiching a layer of N-type material between the two P-type semiconductors. It acts as a
current sink because all the emitter current sinks into the base terminal.
PNP transistor can also be understood as positive – negative – positive transistor.

The majority charge carriers involved in the conduction process of PNP transistor are holes. Thus, the
current which generates at the collector is the consequence of the movement of holes.

Construction

The PNP transistor is formed three layer of semiconductor, one is N-type and other two are P-type. The
structure thus formed will be a PNP transistor. It will have three terminal, the first P-type semiconductor
is called emitter and the other P-type material is termed as the collector.
The semiconductor material which is between both this semiconductor is called base terminal. The PNP
transistor is biased in such a way that the base-emitter junction is forward biased and collector based
junction is reversed biased.

Therefore, the emitter terminal is connected to the positive terminal of the battery V EB while the base
terminal of the transistor is connected to a negative terminal of the battery VEB. The collector based
junction is reversed biased by connecting the collector terminal with the negative terminal of the battery
VCB while the base terminal is connected to positive terminal of the battery VCB.

The magnitude of the voltage of the battery which is used to bias emitter and base terminal of the
transistor is more as compared with the battery source which is used to bias the collector base terminal of
the battery source.

Working of PNP Transistor

PNP transistor works when the emitter-base junction is forward biased while collector-base junction is
reverse biased. The emitter terminal is formed by P-type semiconductor thus, for forward biasing the P-
type terminal should be connected with positive terminal and N-type with negative terminal.

Similarly, in order to reverse bias collector-base junction, the P-type is connected with negative terminal
while the N-type is connected with positive terminal.

After applying biasing the depletion region formed at the emitter-base junction will be narrow while the
depletion region formed at the collector-base junction will be wide. This is because emitter-base junction
is forward biased and in forward biased the depletion layer in narrow. Therefore, due to reverse biasing of
collector-base junction the depletion width is broad.

Concept of Effective base width

The holes are the majority charge carrier in P-type semiconductor and electrons are the majority charge
carriers in N-type electrons. The hole in emitter region will be repelled by the positive terminal of the
battery and will be attracted by electrons present in the N-region. Thus, the effective base width between
both the junctions will be reduced.

Effective of Doping and Size of Emitter

We have already discussed in our previous article that the emitter is heavily doped than base and collector
and area of the emitter is also more than the base but less than the collector. The base is lightly doped so it
has fewer electrons.

As a consequence of which these few electrons will combine with holes emitted from emitter region due
to repulsion from the positive terminal of the battery. But only a few holes will combine with electrons
present in the base region due to the small size of the base and light doping.

The majority of electrons are remaining that has not combined with electrons of base terminal. These
electrons will flow towards collector. They will further move towards the end of collector region because
they are attracted by negative terminal of the battery through which collector is connected.

In this due to movement of holes, electric current flows in the circuit. Some of the holes also away from
base constituting the base current in the circuit.

The direction of current flowing in the emitter will be towards emitter while the direction of current
flowing in base and collector will be outwards. The equation of current in PNP transistor is given below.

12. Explain the Construction and working of PNP transistor

NPN Transistor

Definition: NPN transistor is a current controlled circuit which comprises of three terminal that are
emitter, base and collector. It is formed by sandwiching the layer of N-type material between two layers
of P-type material. It acts as the current source because it provides current through the base terminal.
NPN transistor is exactly opposite of PNP transistor.

NPN transistor can be understood as a Negative-Positive-Negative transistor. This is because the N-type
layer of semiconductor consists of electrons as majority carrier. As NPN transistor consists of the emitter
of N-type, the majority charge carriers in NPN transistor are electrons.
These electrons when move from low resistance junction, i.e. emitter-base junction to the junction which
consists of high resistance region, i.e. collector-base junction, it generates current.

The NPN transistor is preferred over PNP transistor because the mobility of electrons is more than the
mobility of holes. In NPN transistors the majority carriers are electrons, and in PNP the majority carriers
are holes. Thus, the mobility of charge carriers in NPN will be more than that of PNP.

The symbol which is used to denote NPN transistor in electronic circuits is given in the diagram below.

Construction

The NPN transistor is formed with the help of three layers of which two are of the N-type semiconductor,
and the other one is P-type semiconductor. It is often said that transistor is formed by connecting two
diodes back to back. But it is not like that, it is just for imagining the construction.

If it is formed by connecting two diodes back to back, then the resulting structure will have four doped
regions because each of the diodes has 2 doped region. In this condition, the base formed by connecting it
back to back will not have uniform doping which is the pre-requisite condition for the transistor.

Thus, it is always formed by three layers, in which one is lightly doped, i.e. base, second is heavily doped,
i.e. emitter and the last one is collector which is moderately doped. The base of P-type is sandwiched
between the emitter and collector of N-type. This results in the formation of an N-type semiconductor.

Working
The base-emitter junction should be forward biased, and the collector-base junction should be reversed
biased. Therefore, the N-terminal of emitter-base junction is connected to the negative terminal of
VBE, and the P-terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminal of the VBE.

To reverse bias the collector-base junction, the N-terminal is connected to the positive terminal of the
VCB and the P-terminal is connected to the negative terminal of the battery VCE. This will make the wide
depletion layer at the collector-base junction and narrow depletion layer at emitter-base junction.

When forward biased is applied to the emitter-base junction, the electrons in N-region will repel from the
negative terminal of the battery and will move towards the base region. The base region is very small as
compared to emitter and collector region. Besides, the doping intensity of base is lowest. Thus, it consists
of fewer holes.

Due to few holes in the base region, only a few electrons will recombine with holes. The other electrons
which have not recombined yet will move towards collector region. This will constitute current in the
circuit. The size of the collector is large so that it can collect more charge carriers and can dissipate heat.

The current in NPN transistor is due to electrons because electrons are the majority charge carriers in
NPN transistor.

The emitter current in NPN transistor is equal to the sum of base and collector current. Mathematically it
can be written as:-