FHYRL AIVANZE G.

BENLOT SEAM II
BSMT 1 - PILOT ASSIGNMENT

FITTINGS AND LASHING IN A CONTAINER SHIP

(SECURING & LASHING AND THEIR FUNCTIONS)

When a container is loaded over ships, it is secured to the ship's structure and to the
container placed below it by means of lashing rods, turnbuckles, twist-locks etc. This prevents
the containers from moving from their places or falling off into the sea during rough weather
or heavy winds.
Containership cargo securing devices consist of portable securing devices and fixed
securing devices. Fixed fittings are Stacking cones, foundations, deck foundations, lashing
plates, lashing eyes, lashing pots, d-rings. Fixed fittings are integrated into the hull structure
or fitted on the double bottom or hatch covers. Loose fittings are twist-locks, stackers, bridge
fittings, tension/pressure elements, spanners, lashing rods and turnbuckles.
A proper inventory and inspection report for securing devices as required by the
vessel’s cargo securing manual shall be periodically prepared and forwarded to the vessel
operator.

Fixed Fitting (Attached to Ship) :

Loose Fittings in common use :
 Who Does the Container Lashing?
Normally Stevedores are responsible for lashing and de-lashing jobs in port. However,
due to less port stay and constraint of time, the deck crew is also responsible for this operation.
Before the arrival of the port, the ship’s crew normally de-lashes the container so that
time can be saved in the port and the containers can be discharged immediately after berthing.
The container Lashing is regularly checked by the ship’s crew so as to avoid any type
of accidents due to improper lashing.

Important points to be noted for safe lashing and de-lashing

operation:
• Wear all the required Personal protective equipment (PPE) such as a reflective vest,
steel toe shoes, hard helmet, gloves etc.
• Stretch and warm up your muscles prior to working as it is a strenuous physical job.
• Try using a back support belt and always use your knee to lift.
• Be cautious while walking around the ship as the ship structure can be a tripping
hazard.
• Be careful from slip, trip and fall while boarding or leaving ship from gangway with
carrying loads
• Do not walk under suspended load i.e., gantry, hanging container etc.
• Work platforms, railings, steps, and catwalks must be inspected prior to the starting of
operations.
• All manhole cover or booby hatches to be closed while lashing.
• Be careful while walking over the rods and twist locks while working.
• Always keep the lashing equipment in their assigned place or side of the walking path.
• Understand the plan and order of lashing and unlashing.
• The reefer containers require extra attention and coordination for plugging and
unplugging when loading or unloading is carried out.
• Beware of trip hazard due to reefer container power cord.
• Do not touch any electrical equipment or power chord until it is instructed that it is
safe to work on.
• All the lashing and other materials must be removed and secured from the top of the
hatch cover prior to the removal of the same.
• Be careful of fall hazards when lashing outside containers on the hatch cover or
pedestal.
• Fall arrester or safety harness must be used by workers when operating aloft.
• Always be at a safe distance from co-workers during lashing or unlashing containers
as the long rods can be hazardous if not handled properly.
• It is a normal practice not to lash or unlash any closer than at least 3 containers widths
away from another co-worker.
• Always work in pairs when handling rods and turnbuckles.
• Always walk the bars up, slide them down and control the rods at all time.
• Do not leave or throw the rod or other equipment until you are sure that it is safe to
do so and no one is around the vicinity.
• Do not lose a turnbuckle and leave the rods hanging. When securing a rod, the
turnbuckle must be tightened right away.
• Always report defective lashing gear, defective ship’s railing, or any other inadequate
structure or system involved in the operation to the concerned person or ship’s staff.

Several container lashing incidents have taken the lives of seafarers in the past.
Handing cargo containers is not an easy job and needs adequate safe practices to carry it out
safely and adequately.
 RUDDER
(DIFFERENT TYPES OF RUDDERS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS)

A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship. It is a flat, vertical or

horizontal plate located at the stern (rear) of the vessel, which is used to change the direction
of the ship by deflecting the water flow around the hull. The rudder is usually mounted on a
pintle and gudgeon or a hinge, allowing it to swing from side to side. It is operated by a
steering mechanism that is typically controlled by the ship's navigator or pilot. The size and
shape of the rudder depend on the size and design of the ship, and it is an essential component
of any vessel, from small ships to large cargo ships.

TYPES OF RUDDERS FOR SHIPS

1. Spade or Balanced Rudder

A spade rudder is basically a rudder plate that is fixed to the rudder stock only at the
top of the rudder. In other words, the rudder stock (or the axis of the rudder) doesn’t run down
along the span of the rudder. The position of the rudder stock along the chord of the rudder
(width meaning, from the forward to aft end of the rudder) actually decides whether the
rudder is balanced of semi-balanced one. In balanced rudders, (which spade rudders generally
are) the rudder stock is at such a position such that 40% of the rudder area is forward of the
stock and the remaining is aft of it.
A genuine question that must have come up in your mind is, why is such a position
chosen for the rudder stock? The answer lies in simple physics. The center of gravity of the
rudder will lie somewhere close to 40% of its chord length from its forward end. If the axis of
the rudder is placed near to this location, the torque required to rotate the rudder will be much
lesser than what is required to move it, had the axis been placed at the forward end of the
rudder. So, the energy requirement of the steering gear equipment is reduced, therefore
lowering the fuel consumption of the ship.
 2. Unbalanced Rudder

These rudders have their stocks attached at the forward most point of their span.
Unlike balanced rudders, the rudder stock runs along the chord length of the rudder. The
reason is simple. In this case, the torque required to turn the rudder is way higher than what
is required for a corresponding balanced rudder. So, the topmost part of the rudder has to be
fixed to the spindle so as to prevent it from vertical displacement from its natural position.
However, unbalanced rudders are not widely used now.
Having discussed the conventional types of rudders, let us shift into something yet
more interesting. Researchers and ship operators had found significant problems with the
balanced and unbalanced rudders. That is, in case there was a failure of the steering gear
mechanism while turning a ship. The rudder would remain still with its angle of attack in that
condition. The solution to this was found in designing an optimized Semi-Balanced Rudder.

a. Semi-Balanced Rudder

If you have been able to visualize a balanced and unbalanced rudder by now, it should
be pretty easy to visualize a semi-balanced rudder. In fact, the rudder you see on most ships
are semi-balanced in the modern industry. The name semi-balanced itself implies, that the
rudder is partly balanced and partly unbalanced. If you refer to the figure below, you’ll see
that a portion of the chord length from the top is unbalanced, and the remaining chord length
is balanced.
The top part being unbalanced will help in acting as structural support to the rudder
from vertical displacement. And the balanced part will render less torque in swinging the
rudder. As a result, a semi-balanced rudder returns to the centerline orientation on its own if
the steering gear equipment fails during a turn.
Note in the above figure the Rudder horn. Semi-balanced rudders are again of two
types depending upon the depth of the horn (which affects the response and torque
characteristics of the rudder). A shallow horn rudder will have a horn which extends hardly
half the chord length of the rudder from the top. Whereas, a deep horn rudder will feature a
horn deeply extending up to more than 50 % of its chord length from the top of the rudder.
 b. Flaps Rudder

You must have watched an aero-plane’s wings closely. Did you watch those flaps
coming in and out of the aft end of the wing? Why do you think they do that? Primarily to
change the effective angle of attack of the entire aero-foil section of the wing. You’ll see,
during a takeoff, how all the flaps are completely deployed. That actually helps in attaining
the effective angle of attack so as to get the maximum lift force.
The same principle, when used in rudders, provides a similar result. Just that, in case
of rudders, the flaps are not retractable and they have their significant effects when the rudder
is given some angle of attack.

c. Pleuger Rudder

Perhaps one of the most innovative rudder mechanisms you will ever come across.
Suppose you have a ship, too large to be manoeuvre in a basin with size constraints, such that
the ship cannot use its propeller during the manoeuvre. This situation often arises in case of
large ships operating in space-constrained basins, or in any case of low-speed manoeuvres.
So, a Pleuger rudder (as you can see in the figure below), has a smaller auxiliary
propeller housed within it (which runs by a motor). As this housing is mounted on the rudder
itself, it generates a thrust (which is smaller than what is generated by the ship’s main engine
propeller) in a direction that is oriented along the rudder, therefore allowing effective
manoeuvre in slow speed condition.
Such a rudder can be used in normal conditions also. Just that, in normal speeds, the
Pleuger is not operated. However, when the Pleuger is run, the main engine propeller must
not be operated simultaneously, which will otherwise cause the Pleuger to be torn away.
 PROPELLER
(DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROPELLERS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS)

A propeller is a rotating device used to propel a ship through the water. It consists of
several blades, usually made of metal, that are attached to a hub and rotate around a central
shaft. The shaft is powered by an engine, usually a diesel engine or a gas turbine, which drives
the propeller blades to generate thrust and move the vessel forward. The propeller's size and
pitch (angle of the blades) are designed to match the engine's power output and the ship's size
and shape, as well as the intended operating speed and conditions. Propellers are an essential
component of most modern vessels, from small pleasure boats to large cargo ships and cruise
liners. They are also used in other watercraft, such as submarines and underwater vehicles.

TYPES OF PROPELLERS
A. Classification by Number of Blades Attached

Propeller blades may vary from 3 blade propeller to 4 blade propeller and sometimes
even 5 blade propellers. However, the most commonly used are 3 blades and 4 blade
propellers.

However, the most commonly used are 4 blades and 5 blade propellers.

The propeller efficiency will be highest for a propeller with a minimum number of
blades i.e., 2 blade propeller. But to achieve strength factor and considering the heavy loads
subjected by the ship, sea and weather two-blade propellers are not used for merchant ships.

3 Blade Propeller

A 3-blade propeller has the following characteristics:

• The manufacturing cost is lower than other types.

• Are normally made up of aluminum alloy.
• Gives a good high-speed performance.
• The acceleration is better than other types.
• Low-speed handling is not much efficient.
4 Blade Propeller

A 4-blade propeller has the following characteristics:

• The manufacturing cost is higher than the 3 blade propellers.

• 4 blade propellers are normally made up of stainless-steel alloys.
• Have better strength and durability.
• Gives good low-speed handling and performance.
• Has a better holding power in rough seas.
• 4 blade propeller provides a better fuel economy than all the other types.

5 Blade Propeller

A 5-blade propeller has the following characteristics:

• Manufacturing cost is higher of all.

• Vibration is minimal from all the other types.
• 5 blade propellers have better holding power in rough seas.

6 Blade Propeller
• Manufacturing cost is high
• Vibration is minimal from all the other types.
• 6 blade propellers have better holding power in rough seas.
• With a six-blade propeller, the induced pressure field over the propeller decreases

Large container ships are mainly fitted with 5 or 6-bladed propellers.

B. Classification by Pitch of the Blade

Pitch of a propeller can be defined as the displacement that a propeller makes for every
full revolution of 360 ̊. The classification of the propellers on the basis of pitch is as follows.

Fixed Pitch Propeller

The blades in the fixed pitch propeller are permanently attached to the hub. The fixed
pitch type propellers are cast and the position of the blades and hence the position of the pitch
is permanently fixed and cannot be changed during the operation. They are normally made
from copper alloy.
Fixed pitch propellers are robust and reliable as the system doesn’t incorporate any
mechanical and hydraulic connection as in Controlled Pitch Propeller (CPP). The
manufacturing, installation and operational costs are lower than the controlled pitch propeller
(CPP) type. The manoeuvrability of the fixed-pitch propeller is also not as good as CPP.
These types of propellers are fitted in a ship that does not have good manoeuvrability
requirements.

Controllable Pitch Propeller

In a Controlled Pitch type propeller, it is possible to alter the pitch by rotating the blade
about its vertical axis by means of mechanical and hydraulic arrangement. This helps in
driving the propulsion machinery at constant load with no reversing mechanism required as
the pitch can be altered to match the required operating condition. Thus, the manoeuvrability
improves and the engine efficiency also increases.

This drawback includes the possibility of oil pollution as the hydraulic oil in the boss
which is used for controlling the pitch may leak out. It is a complex and expensive system
from both installation and operational points. Moreover, the pitch can get stuck in one
position, making it difficult to manoeuvre the engine.

Propeller dimension approximate value:

• For Container ship d/D = 0.74
• For Bulk carrier and Tanker d/D = 0.65

Where d- diameter of propeller, D- design draught

How does a ship Propeller work?

A ship propeller works by generating thrust to move the vessel through the water. The
propeller consists of several blades, usually between three and five, that are angled to create a
helical surface. The blades are curved in shape and act like wings, generating lift as they rotate.
As the propeller blades turn, they create a pressure difference between the front and back sides
of the blades, which pushes water backward and generates a force in the opposite direction,
known as thrust.

The propeller is attached to a central shaft that is driven by an engine. The engine
supplies power to rotate the propeller blades, and the resulting thrust moves the vessel
forward. The amount of thrust generated by the propeller depends on several factors,
including the size and shape of the blades, the number of blades, the speed of rotation, and
the power of the engine.

To change the direction of the ship, the rudder is used to deflect the water flow, which
then alters the direction of the thrust generated by the propeller. The propeller thrust can be
adjusted by varying the speed of rotation, the pitch (angle) of the blades, or both, which allows
the ship to operate efficiently in different operating conditions, such as varying speeds or water
depths.

TYPES OF PROPELLER SHAFT

The ship engine is connected to the propeller via different shafts connected together,
which can be named as:

Thrust Shaft
The crankshaft of the engine is first connected to the thrust shaft which passes through
the thrust bearing whose main function is to transfer the thrust to the ship’s structure. The
casing of the thrust bearing is similar in construction to that of the main engine bedplate and
the bearing is lubricated by main engine lubrication system oil. The material of the thrust shaft
is usually solid forged ingot steel.

Intermediate Shaft
The thrust shaft is then connected to a long intermediate shaft which comes in parts
and is joined together using solid forged couplings. The length and number of intermediate
shafts joined together depends on the location of the main engine as a larger ship will have
more distance between the main engine and the propeller. The material of the intermediate
shaft is usually solid forged ingot steel.

Tail Shaft
The Tail shaft, as the name suggests, is the end part of the shafting arrangement and
carries the propeller. The tail shaft itself is carried on a lubricated stern tube bearing with seals
as it connects and protrudes out of the ship’s engine room into the open sea, carrying the
propeller.
The lubrication system can be of oil-based or water type. The tail shaft transmits the
engine power and motion drive to the propeller. The material of the tail shaft is usually high
strength duplex stainless-steel alloy.

BOW & STERN THRUSTERS

(DIFFERENT PARTS OF BOW AND STERN THRUSTERS)

Bow and Stern thrusters are auxiliary propulsion systems installed on a ship to
provide additional maneuverability when docking or maneuvering in confined waters.

A bow thruster is a propulsion system located at the front of the vessel, typically in the
bow (front) area. It consists of a propeller mounted on a horizontal or vertical shaft, which
can be rotated to generate thrust in any direction. By creating thrust perpendicular to the ship's
longitudinal axis, a bow thruster can move the bow of the ship sideways, making it easier to
maneuver in tight spaces.
A stern thruster, on the other hand, is a propulsion system located at the rear of the
vessel, usually in the stern (rear) area. It works similarly to a bow thruster but provides thrust
at the stern of the ship, making it easier to control the vessel's movement when backing up or
turning around.
 Both bow and stern thrusters are typically electrically or hydraulically powered and
can be operated independently of the main propulsion system. They are controlled by a
separate joystick or lever on the bridge, allowing the ship's crew to adjust the direction and
intensity of the thruster's thrust. Bow and stern thrusters are especially useful for large or bulky
vessels that are difficult to maneuver in close quarters, such as cruise ships, tankers, or
container ships.

~ What different types of Thrusters are used on Recreational Boats?

Tunnel Thrusters
Are the most common, with a tunnel installed through the bow below the waterline
and the thruster is inserted into the tunnel from inside the boat. The tunnel is usually
constructed of fiberglass or aluminum tubing, depending on the material of the hull, which
both protects the thruster unit and concentrates the thrust from the propeller.
One of the challenges of tunnels is creating a proper radius at each end of tunnel to
allow water to be sucked into the tunnel without cavitation (bubbles of air hitting the propeller
blades). If cavitation occurs, thrusters can become very noisy and lose up to 25 percent of
overall performance. In higher-performance boats, deflectors on the forward side of the tunnel
entrances also become important to minimize any speed loss due to turbulence.

External Thrusters
Are typically used when a boat doesn’t have enough space for a tunnel to be installed.
Carrying a thruster as an external appendage does create a small amount of drag, dampening
performance, particularly on faster boats that reach speeds of 30 knots or more. It can also be
a challenge to fit a boat with an external thruster on a boat trailer, and there is, in addition,
some potential for damage if you snag a buoy.
Retractable Thrusters
As the name suggests, may be retracted into the hull when not in use, and deployed
into the water with an actuator when you need them. This eliminates additional drag, which
is something that sailors are often concerned about. It also solves limitations due to draft. For
example, if the bow section of a boat is too shallow, any tunnel would be too close to the
waterline to be effective. More space is required inside the hull to install retractable thruster,
however, along with the need for a mechanical installation.

~ What different types of Thrusters are used on Recreational Boats?

There are three common propeller configurations on thrusters—single, twin tandem,

and twin counter-rotating. They are:

Single Propellers
Are the simplest, cost the least, and are well-suited to applications with shorter,
smaller-diameter tunnels.

Twin Tandem Propellers

Move water more efficiently by using two propellers, making them a better choice
when higher thrust is desired.

Twin Counter-Rotating Propellers

Provide the most efficiency in moving the most water in a given tunnel diameter. As
the costs to produce are higher, they are mostly used on yachts 50 feet and larger.

~ What are the different characteristics of thruster propellers?

Thruster propellers are a complex subject as they come with varying numbers of
blades, are made of composite and alloy materials, and work within a variety of tunnels.
Those with minimal prop-tip clearance – the distance from the end of the prop to the surface
of the tunnel – tend to make a thruster more efficient and powerful. Propellers with more
prop-tip clearance are quieter but produce less thrust. In general, prop blades are fairly rigid;
if the material is too flexible, there are losses.

~ What are the different types of thruster power sources?

DC Electricity

Is the most common power source for thrusters on recreational boats and is relatively
easy to install for what is normally low-intensity usage when leaving and arriving at the dock.
DC-powered thrusters may have limited run time due to the power draw on batteries and the
heat generated in the electric motor, as thrusters with on/off configuration are always run at
full speed.
Proportional controllers for DC thrusters developed by Side-Power provide the ability
to apply power on a graduated basis, extending run times while reducing both noise and
power draw. Coupled with joystick products that link thrusters and primary propulsion and
maneuvering systems, the popularity of DC power aboard recreational and commercial boats
has steadily increased.
Hydraulic Power

Has the advantage of unlimited run time, making it a favorite in many commercial
applications and on large yachts that use hydraulics for other purposes. It can be relatively
expensive to install, however, especially on a boat being refit if hoses need to be run to the
bow.

AC Electricity

Is the third common power sources for thrusters, and is found mostly in commercial
applications. AC requires a large, heavy motor and draws a large amount of power. This
requires significant generator power aboard. Advantages of AC electricity are that run time is
unlimited and smaller cables are needed. Another is that the motor’s variable frequency drive
allows the operator to apply only as much thrust as needed.

LOAD LINE AND

PLIMSOLL MARKS
A ship’s waterline is the line where its hull meets the surface of the water. A load line,
also called Plimsoll mark, is a marking indicating the extent to which the weight of a load
may safely submerge a ship, by way of a waterline limit. It is positioned amidships on both
sides of a vessel’s hull and indicates the draft of the ship and the legal limit to which a ship
may be loaded for specific geographical areas and seasons of the year. The purpose of the load
line is to ensure that a ship has sufficient freeboard (the height from the waterline to the main
deck) and thus sufficient reserve buoyancy (volume of ship above the waterline). It should
also ensure adequate stability and avoid excessive stress on the ship’s hull as a result of
overloading. Ships intended for the carriage of timber deck cargo are assigned a smaller
freeboard as the deck cargo provides protection against the impact of waves.

Temperature will affect the load line level because warm water provides less buoyancy,
being less dense than cold water. The same is the case with salinity, because fresh water is less
dense than salty seawater.
LOAD LINE MARKINGS ARE AS FOLLOWS:
TF TROPIC FRESHWATER

The deepest permitted draft considering the relatively benign weather conditions in
tropical waters and the fact that the vessel floats deeper in freshwater due to lower density
than in saltwater.

F FRESHWATER
The deepest permitted draft in freshwater considering that the vessel floats deeper in
freshwater than in saltwater.

T TROPICS
Deepest permitted draft in tropical waters considering the benign weather conditions
in tropical waters.

S SUMMER
Deepest permitted draft during summer considering benign weather conditions.

W WINTER
Deepest permitted draft during winter considering rougher weather conditions.

WNA WINTER NORTH ATLANTIC

Deepest draft permitted considering the rough weather conditions likely to be
encountered during winter in the North Atlantic.

There are 2 types of Load Line markings:

Standard Load Line markings

This is applicable to all types of vessels.

Timber Load Line Markings

This is applicable to vessels carrying timber cargo according to regulations.

These marks embossed on the surface of the hull making it visible even if the ship side
paint fades out. The marks shall again be painted with white or yellow colour on a dark
background / black on a light background.

The complete Load line markings consist of 3 vital parts.

Deck Line
It is a horizontal line measuring 300mm by 25mm. It passes through the upper surface
of the freeboard.

Load Line Disc

It is 300mm diameter and 25mm thick round shaped disc. It is intersected by a
horizontal line. The upper edge of the horizontal line marks the ‘Summer salt water line’ also
known as ‘Plimsoll Line’.
Load Lines
Load lines are horizontal lines extending forward and aft from a vertical line placed at
a distance of 540mm from the center of the disc. They measure 230mm by 25mm. The upper
surfaces of the load lines indicate the maximum depths to which the ships maybe submerged
in different seasons and circumstances. On most ships, you find paint colour changing at
summer mark.

This is how it is seen on the Starboard side of shipside.

The seasonal zones, areas and periods that determine the appropriate load line in a
particular sea area at a given time of the year are by way of the chart.
The Tropical, Summer and Winter freeboard zones are based upon the following
weather criteria:

Summer zones
Regions where not more than 10% of wind speeds exceed force 8 Beaufort (34 Knots).

Tropical Zones
Regions where not more than 1% of wind speeds exceed force 8 Beaufort (34 knots)
and not more than one tropical storm in a ten-year period occurs in an area of 50
Latitude/Longitude square in any one separate calendar month.

Winter Zones
Are all other regions.
~ Why should ships have a Plimsoll line?

The International load line is very essential to ensure safe and smooth sailing of cargo-
loaded vessels in the sea. Seafarers should be wary of the fact that the water level should not
rise above the line markers due to surcharging of cargo or any technological fault.
It might prove to be severely unsafe to the ship as tactless overloading of heavy
shipment would sink the ship’s stability. Crossing the assigned limit of the Plimsoll mark or
the waterline is considered a violation of an international shipping act and can even land the
ship’s crew, including the captain, in deep trouble.

Draft Surveys

In addition to the association with reserve buoyancy and stability, load lines make it
possible to determine, with reasonable accuracy by draft survey, the amount of cargo on board
a ship.
A draft survey is used to determine the weight of any materials being loaded into or
discharged from a vessel. It measures the displacement of the water both before and after the
loading or unloading, with the resulting difference between the two displacements
representing the weight of the cargo. A draft survey is based on solid mathematics but usually
involves one of the ship’s officers gauging the draft of the vessel from visual reference to the
vessel’s forward, amidships and aft draft marks along with the ascertained list the vessel may
have. The combination of pure science and practical experience allows the officer to calculate
the amount of cargo on board to within more or less 0.5 per cent of the actual quantity.

In many ports, a draft survey is the only way of independently confirming the amount
of cargo the shipper declares as having been shipped and thus the only way of checking the
accuracy of the quantity stated in the bill of lading (which is normally based on the shipper’s
figures) and how much cargo was on board the vessel prior to the start of discharge.

Footnotes

After Samuel Plimsoll, a UK Member of Parliament who campaigned in the 1870s for
the introduction of legislation making it compulsory for every vessel to be clearly marked with
a line which would disappear underwater if the vessel was overloaded.

DRAUGHT MARKS
(HOW TO READ DRAUGHT MARKINGS)

Draught marks are markings on the hull of a ship that indicate the depth of the vessel
below the waterline. The draught marks are typically painted on the ship's sides, fore and aft,
and consist of a series of numbers and letters representing the measurements in feet and inches
or meters and centimeters.
The draught marks provide valuable information about the ship's load and
displacement, which are critical for safety and performance calculations. The draught of the
ship is the vertical distance between the waterline and the deepest point of the hull that is
submerged in the water. The draught varies depending on the weight and distribution of the
cargo, fuel, and other equipment on board.
The draught marks are used by the ship's crew and the port authorities to ensure that
the vessel is loaded within safe limits and complies with local regulations. They are also used
to calculate the ship's displacement, which is the weight of water displaced by the ship when
it is afloat, and to determine the amount of cargo the ship can carry safely. The draught marks
are an essential component of the ship's safety equipment and must be maintained and kept
legible at all times.

What are draft marks? Why do you need them?

All the ships have draft marks in the forward, aft and midship region on port and
Starboard sides. These marks are used to verify the draft of the ship in any loading condition.
In simpler words draft mark tells us what is the ships depth at that time. It is distance from
the Waterline to the lowest part of the ship.
Draft readings when used for calculations give us underwater volume and
Displacement. This helps in knowing cargo quantity on board.

Draft also tells us about minimum depth requirements for ship to stay afloat.

How do you read Load Lines and Draft marks?

LOAD LINES
They are marked only Amidships on both sides. Upper edge of the load line indicates
correct reading. We do not measure anything on Load Line markings. We just have reading
of Yes/No. Load lines deal with FREEBOARD only and NOT DRAFT.

DRAFT MARKS
They are marked on both sides, Forward, Mid-ship and Aft. Readings are taken on
both sides and averaged.

When the markings are in meters, the main meter marks are marked as numbers
followed by the letter M such as 8M, 9M, 10M. In between the metric marks are numeral
markings such as 2, 4, 6 and 8 to indicate 20 cm, 40cm, 60 cm and 80 cm. The height of each
mark is 10 cm and the distance between the mark in 10 cm.

If the water is just in line with the LOWER EDGE of the mark 10M, the draft is 10.0
meters. If the water is in line with the top edge of 10 M, then the draft is 10.10 meters and so
on.