IMAGE PROCESSING (CEC366)

QUESTION BANK
(2 Marks and 16 Marks)
 UNIT I

2 Marks

1. Define Image
An image may be defined as two dimensional light intensity function f(x, y)
where x and y denote spatial co-ordinate and the amplitude or value of f at
any point (x, y) is called intensity or grayscale or brightness of the image at
that point.

2. What is Dynamic Range?

The range of values spanned by the gray scale is called dynamic
range of an image. Image will have high contrast, if the dynamic range is
high and image will have dull washed out gray look if the dynamic range
is low.

3. Define Brightness
Brightness of an object is the perceived luminance of the surround.
Two objects with different surroundings would have identical luminance
but different brightness.

5. What do you meant by Gray level?

Gray level refers to a scalar measure of intensity that ranges from
black to grays and finally to white.

6. What do you meant by Color model?

A Color model is a specification of 3D-coordinates system and a
subspace within that system where each color is represented by a single
point.

7. List the hardware oriented color models

1. RGB model
2. CMY model
3. YIQ model
4. HSI model

8. What is Hue and saturation?

Hue is a color attribute that describes a pure color where
saturation gives a measure of the degree to which a pure color is
diluted by white light.

9. List the applications of color models

1. RGB model--- used for color monitors & color video camera
2. CMY model---used for color printing
3. HIS model - used for color image processing
4. YIQ model used for color picture transmission

10. What is Chromatic Adoption?

` The hue of a perceived color depends on the adoption of the viewer.
For example, the American Flag will not immediately appear red, white, and
blue of the viewer has been subjected to high intensity red light before
viewing the flag. The color of the flag will appear to shift in hue toward the
red component cyan.

11. Define Resolutions

Resolution is defined as the smallest number of discernible detail in an image.
Spatial resolution is the smallest discernible detail in an image and gray
level resolution refers to the smallest discernible change is gray level.

12. What is meant by pixel?

A digital image is composed of a finite number of elements each of which
has a particular location or value. These elements are referred to as pixels or
image elements or picture elements or pels elements.

13. Define Digital image

When x, y and the amplitude values of f all are finite discrete
quantities , we call the image digital image.

14. What are the steps involved in DIP?

1. Image Acquisition
2. Preprocessing
3. Segmentation
4. Representation and Description
5. Recognition and Interpretation

15. What is recognition and Interpretation?

Recognition means is a process that assigns a label to an object
based on the information provided by its descriptors.
Interpretation means assigning meaning to a recognized object.

16. Specify the elements of DIP system

1. Image Acquisition
2. Storage
3. Processing
4. Display
 17. List the categories of digital storage
1. Short term storage for use during processing.
2. Online storage for relatively fast recall.
3. Archival storage for infrequent access.
18. What are the types of light
receptors?
The two types of light receptors are
• Cones and
• Rods

19. Differentiate photopic and scotopic vision

Photopic Vision Scotopic Vision

The human being can resolve Several rods are connected to one
the fine details with these cones nerve end. So it gives the overall
because each one is connected picture of the image.
to its own nerve end.

This is also known as bright This is also known as thin light

light vision. vision.

20. How cones and rods are distributed in retina?

In each eye, cones are in the range 6-7 million and rods are in the range 75-
150 million.

21. Define subjective brightness and brightness adaptation

Subjective brightness means intensity as preserved by the human visual system.
Brightness adaptation means the human visual system can operate only from
scotopic to glare limit. It cannot operate over the range simultaneously. It
accomplishes this large variation by changes in its overall intensity.
22. Define weber ratio
The ratio of increment of illumination to background of illumination is
called as weber ratio.(ie) Δi/i
If the ratio (Δi/i) is small, then small percentage of change in intensity is
needed (ie) good brightness adaptation.
If the ratio (Δi/i) is large , then large percentage of change in intensity is
needed (ie) poor brightness adaptation.

23. What is meant by machband effect?

 Machband effect means the intensity of the stripes is constant.
Therefore it preserves the brightness pattern near the boundaries, these
bands are called as machband effect.

24. What is simultaneous contrast?

The region reserved brightness not depend on its intensity but also
on its background. All centre square have same intensity. However they
appear to the eye to become darker as the background becomes lighter.

25. What is meant by illumination and reflectance?

Illumination is the amount of source light incident on the scene. It is
represented as i(x, y).
Reflectance is the amount of light reflected by the object in the
scene. It is represented by r(x, y).

26. Define sampling and quantization

Sampling means digitizing the co-ordinate
value (x, y). Quantization means digitizing the
amplitude value.

27. Find the number of bits required to store a 256 X 256 image with 32 gray levels
32 gray levels = 25
= 5 bits
256 * 256 * 5 = 327680 bits
28. Write the expression to find the number of bits to store a digital image?
The number of bits required to store a digital
image is b=M X N X k
When M=N, this equation
becomes b=N^2k

29. Write short notes on neighbors of a pixel.

The pixel p at co-ordinates (x, y) has 4 neighbors (ie) 2 horizontal
and 2 vertical neighbors whose co-ordinates is given by (x+1, y), (x-1,y),
(x,y-1), (x, y+1). This is called as direct neighbors. It is denoted by N4(P)
Four diagonal neighbors of p have co-ordinates (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-
1), (x-1, y-1), (x-1, y+1). It is denoted by ND(4).
Eight neighbors of p denoted by N8(P) is a combination of 4 direct
neighbors and 4 diagonal neighbors.

30. Explain the types of connectivity.

1. 4 connectivity
2. 8 connectivity
3. M connectivity (mixed connectivity)
31. What is meant by path?
 Path from pixel p with co-ordinates (x, y) to pixel q with co-
ordinates (s,t) is a sequence of distinct pixels with co-ordinates.

32. Give the formula for calculating D4 and D8

distance. D4 distance ( city block distance)
is defined by
D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t|
D8 distance(chess board distance) is
defined by D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|,
|y-t|).

33.What is the need for transform?

The need for transform is most of the signals or images are time domain
signal (ie)signals can be measured with a function of time. This representation
is not always best. For most image processing applications anyone of the
mathematical transformation are applied to the signal or images to obtain
further information from that signal.

34.What are the applications of transform?

1) To reduce band width
2) To reduce redundancy
3) To extract feature.

35.What are the properties of unitary transform?

1) Determinant and the Eigen values of a unitary matrix have unity magnitude
2) the entropy of a random vector is preserved under a unitary Transformation
3) Since the entropy is a measure of average information, this means
information is preserved under a unitary transformation.
The equations (1) and (2) are known as fourier transform pair.

36.Define Fourier spectrum and spectral density

Fourier spectrum is
defined as F(u) =
|F(u)| e jφ(u) Where
|F(u)| = R2(u)+I2(u)
φ(u) = tan-1(I(u)/R(u))
37.Give the relation for 1-D discrete Fourier transform pair
The discrete Fourier transform is defined by
n-1
F(u) = 1/N ∑ f(x) e –j2πux/N
x=0
The inverse discrete Fourier transform is given by
n-1
f(x) = ∑ F(u) e j2πux/N
 x=0
These equations are known as discrete Fourier transform pair.

38.Specify the properties of 2D Fourier transform.

The properties are
• Separability
• Translation
• Periodicity and conjugate symmetry
• Rotation
• Distributivity and scaling
• Average value
• Laplacian
• Convolution and correlation
• sampling

16 Marks

1. Explain Brightness adaptation and Discrimination

The digital images are displayed as a discrete set of intensities, the eye’s ability
to discriminate between different intensity levels.
Subjective brightness is a logarithmic function of the light intensity incident on the
eye. The long solid curve represents the range of intensities t o which the visual system
can adapt.
In photopic vision alone the range is about 10^6.
It accomplishes the large variation by changes in its overall sensitivity phenomenon is
known as brightness adaptation.
The eye’s ability to discriminate between different intensity levels at any specific
adaptation.
The eye is capable of detecting contouring effects in monochrome
Image whose overall intensity is represented by fewer than approximately
two dozen levels. The second phenomenon called simultaneous contrast is
related to the fact that a region’s perceived brightness does not depend on its
intensity. They app ear to the eye become dark eras the background gets
lighter.

2.Explain sampling and quantization:

For computer processing, the image function f(x,y)must be digitized
both spatially and in amplitude. Digitization of spatial co-ordinates is called
image sampling and amplitude digitization is called grey level quantization.
Sampling:
Consider a digital image of size 1024*1024,256 with a display area
used for the image being the same ,the pixels in the lower resolution images
where duplicated inorder to fulfill the entire display .the pixel replication
produced a checker board effect, which is visible in the image of lower
resolution .it is not possible to differentiate a 512*512 images from
a1024*1024 under this effect. but a slight increase in grainess and a small
decrease in sharpness is noted.
A 256*256 image shows a fine checker board pattern in the edges
and more pronounced grainess there out the image .these effect is much
more visible in 128*128 images and it becomes quite pronounced in
64*64 and 32*32 images.
Quantization:
It discusses the effects produced when the number of bits used to
represent the grey level in an image is decreased .this is illustrated by
reducing the grey level required to represent a 1024*1024,512 image.
The 256,128,and 64 level image are visually identical for all
practical purposes the 32 level images has developed a set of rigid like
structure in areas of smooth grey
lines.this effect caused by the user insufficient number of grey levels in
smooth areas of digital image is called a false contouring.this is visible in
images displayed using 16 or lesser gray level values.

3.Explain about Mach band effect?

Two phenomena demonstrate that perceived brightness is not only a
function of intensity. They are mach band pattern and simultaneous
contrast.
Mach band pattern:
It states that the visual system tends to undershoot or overshoot around the
boundary of regions of different intensities .This is called mach band
pattern. Although the width of the stripe is constant, it is perceived as if the
brightness pattern is strongly scalloped near the boundaries by darker part.
Simultaneous contrast is related to the fact that a regions perceived
brightness does not depend only on its intensity. In the figure all the center
square have the same intensity however they appear to the eye as the
background gets lighter.
Example: A piece of paper seems white when lying on the desk but can
appear when used to shield the eyes while looking at brighter sky.

4. Explain color image fundamentals.

Although the process followed by the human brain in perceiving and
interpreting color is a physiopsychological phenomenon that is not yet fully
understood, the physical nature of color can be expressed on a formal basis
supported by experimental and theoretical results.
Basically, the colors that humans and some other animals perceive in
an object are determined by the nature of the light reflected from the object.
The visible light is composed of a relatively narrow band of frequencies in
the electromagnetic spectrum. A body that reflects light that is balanced in
all visible wavelengths appears white to the observer. For example, green
objects reflect light with wavelengths primarily in the 500 to 570 nm range
while absorbing most of the energy at other wavelengths.
Three basic quantities are used to describe the quality of a chromatic
light source: radiance, luminance and brightness. Radiance is the total
amount of energy that flows from the light source, and is usually measured
in watts(W). Luminance, measured in lumens(lm), gives a measure of the
amount of energy an observer perceives from a loght source. Finally,
brightness is a subjective descriptor that is practically impossible to
measure.

5. Explain CMY model.

This model deals about the cyan,magenta and yellow are the secondary
colors of light.When a surface coated with cyan pigment is illuminated
with white light no red lihgt is reflected from the surface.Cyan subtracts
red light from reflected white light,which itself is composed of equal
amounts of red,green and blue light.in this mode cyan data input or perform
an RGB to CMY conversion internally.
C=1-
R M= 1
- G Y=
1-B
All color values have been normalized to the range [0,1].the light reflected
from a surface coated with pure cyan does not contain red .RGB values can be
obtained easily from a set of CMY values by subtracting the individual Cmy
values from 1.Combining these colors produces a black .When black is added giving
rise to the CMYK color model.This is fourcoloring printing .

6. Describe the fundamental steps in image processing?

Digital image processing encompasses a broad range of hardware,
software and theoretical underpinnings.
The problem domain in this example consists of pieces of mail and the
objective is to read the address on each piece. Thus the desired output in this
case is a stream of alphanumeric characters.
The first step in the process is image acquisition that is acquire a digital
image .To do so requires an imaging sensor and the capability to digitize the
signal produced by the sensor.
After the digital image has been obtained the next step deals with
preprocessing that image. The key function of this is to improve the image in
ways that increase the chances for success of the other processes.
The next stage deals with segmentation. Broadly defined segmentation
partitions an input image into its constituent parts or objects. The key role of
this is to extract individual characters and words from the background,
 The output of the segmentation stage usually is raw pixel data,
constituting either the boundary of a region or all the points in the region itself.
Choosing a representation is only part of the solution for transforming
raw data into a form suitable for subsequent computer processing. Description
also called feature selection deals with extracting features that result in some
quantitative information of interest that are basic for differentiating one class
of object from another.
The last stage involves recognition and interpretation. Recognition is
the process that assigns a label to an object based on the information provided
by its descriptors. Interpretation involves assigning meaning to an ensemble
of recognized objects.
Knowledge about a problem domain is coded into an image processing
system in the form of knowledge database. This knowledge may be simple as
detailing regions of an image where the information of interest is known to

be located thus limiting the search that has to be conducted in seeking that
information.

The knowledge base also can be quite complex such as an interrelated

list of all major possible defects in a materials inspection problem or an image
database containing high resolution satellite images of a region in connection
with change detection application.
Although we do not discuss image display explicitly at this
point it is important to keep in mind that viewing the results of image
processing can take place at the output of any step.

7. Explain the basic Elements of digital image processing:

Five elements of digital image processing,
• image acquisitions
• storage
• processing
• communication
• display
1)Image acquisition :
 Two devices are required to acquire a digital image
,they are 1)physical device:
Produces an electric signal proportional to the amount of light
energy sensed. 2)a digitizer:
Device for converting the electric output into a digital form.
2.storage:
An 8 bit image of size 1024*1024 requires one million bits of
storage.three types of storage:
1. short term storage:
It is used during processing. it is provide by computer memory. it
consisits of frame buffer which can store one or more images and can be
accessed quickly at the video rates.
2. online storage:
It is used for fast recall. It normally uses the magnetic disk,Winchester disk
with100s 0f megabits are commonly used .
3. archival storage:
They are passive storage devices and it is used for infrequent
access.magnetic tapes and optical disc are the media. High density magnetic
tapes can store 1 megabit in about 13 feet of tape .
3) Processing:
Processing of a digital image p involves procedures that are expressedin
terms of algorithms .with the exception of image acquisition and display most
image processing functions can be implemented in software .the need for a
specialized hardware is called increased speed in application. Large scale
image processing systems are still being used for massive image application
.steps are being merge for general purpose small computer equipped with
image processing hardware.
4) communication:
Communication in ip involves local communication between ip systems
and remote communication from one point to another in communication
with the transmission of image hardware and software are available for
most of the computers .the telephone line can transmit a max rate of 9600
bits per second.so to transmit a 512*512,8 bit image at this rate require at
last 5 mins.wireless link using intermediate stations such as satellites are
much faster but they are costly.
5) display:
Monochrome and colour tv monitors are the principal display devices
used in modern ips.monitors are driven by the outputs of the hardware in
the display module of the computer.

8Explain the Structure of the Human eye

 The eye is early a sphere, with an average diameter of approximately 20 mm.
Three membrance encloses the eye,
1. Cornea
2. Sclera or Cornea:
3. Retina
. The cornea is a tough, transparent tissue that covers the anterior surface of the eye.
Sclera:
Sclera is an opaque membrance e that encloses the remainder of the optical globe.
Choroid:
-Choroid directly below the sclera. This membrance contains a
network of blood vessels that serve as the major source of nutrition to the
eye.
-Choroid coat is heavily pigmented and helps to reduce the amount of
extraneous light entering the eye.
-The choroid is divided into the ciliary body and the iris diaphragm.
Lens:
The lens is made up of concentric lay ours of fibrous cells and is suspended by
fibrous that attach to the ciliary body. It contains 60to 70% of water about
60%fat and m ore protein than any other tissue in the eye.
Retina:
 The innermost membrance of the eye is retina, which lines the inside
of the wall’s entire posterior portion. There are 2 classes of receptors,
1. Cones
2. Rods
Cones:
The cones in each eye between 6and7 million. They are located
primarily in the central portion of the retina called the fovea, and highly
sensitive to Colour.
Rods:
The number of rods is much larger; some 75 to 150 millions are
distributed over the retinal surface.
Fovea as a square sensor array of size 1.5mm*1.5mm.

9.Explain the RGB model

RGB model,each color appears in its primary spectral components of
red ,green and blue.This model is based on a Cartesian coordinate
system.This color subspace of interest is the cube.RGB values are at three
corners cyan.magenta and yellow are at three other corner black is at the
origin and white is the at the corner farthest from the origin this model the
gray scale extends from black to white along the line joining these two
points .The different colors in this model are points on or inside the cube
and are defined by vectors extending from the origin.
Images represented in the RGB color model consist of three
component images,one for each primary colors.The no of bits used to
represented each pixel in which each red,green and blue images is an 8 bit
image.Each RGB color pixel of values is said to be 24 bits .The total no of
colors in a 24 bit RGB images is 92803=16777,216.
The acquiring a color image is basically the process is shown in fig,. A
color image can be acquired by using three filters,sensitive to red,green and
blue.When we view a color scene with a monochrome camera equipped
with one of these filters the result is a monochrome image whose intensity
is proportional to the response of that filter.
Repeating this process with each filter produces three monochrome images
that are the RGB component images of the color scene.the subset of color
is called the set of safe RGB colors or the set of all system safe colors. In
inter net applications they are called safe Web colors or safe browser
colors.There are 256 colors are obtained from different combination but we
are using only 216 colors .

10.Descibe the HSI color model

The RGB,CMY and other color models are not well suited for
describing colors in terms that are practical for human interpretation.For
eg,one does not refer to the color of an automobile by giving the percentage
of each of the primaries composing its color.
 When humans view a color object we describe it by its hue, saturation
and brightness.
1. Hue is a color attribute that describes a pure color.
2. Saturation gives a measure of the degree to which a pure color is diluted
by white light.
3. Brightness is a subjective descriptor that is practically impossible to
measure. It embodies the achromatic notion of intensity and is one of
the key factors in describing color sensation

4. Intensity is a most useful descriptor of monochromatic images.

11.Converting colors from RGB to HSI
Given an image in RGB color format ,
the H component of each RGB pixel is obtained using the equation
H = {theta if B<=G
360-theta if B>G

with theta = cos-1{1/2[R-G) +(R-B)/[(R-G)2 + (R-B)(G-B)]1/2}

The saturation component is given by
S =1-3/(R+G+B)[min(R,G,B)]
the intensity component is given by
I=1/3(R+G+B)
Converting colors from HSI to RGB
Given values of HSI in the interval [0,1],we now want to find the
corresponding RGB values in the same range .We begin by multiplying H by
360o,which returns the hue to its original range of [0o,360o]
RG sector(0o<=120o).when h is in this sector ,the RGB components are given
by the equations
B = I (1 - S)
R = I [1 + S cos H/cos(60o - H)]
G = 1 - (R + B)

GB Sector(120o <= H < 240o).If the given value of H is in this ,we first
subtract 120o from it
H = H -120o
Then the RGB components are
B = I (1 – S)
G = I [1 + S cos H/cos(60o - H)]
B = 1 - (R + G)
BR Sector(240 <=H<=360o).Finally if H is in this range we subtract 240o from it
o

H = H - 240o
Then the RGB components are
G = I (1 - S)
B = I [1 + S cos H/cos(60o - H)]
R = 1 - (G + B)
 UNIT II & III
2 Marks

1. Specify the objective of image enhancement technique.

The objective of enhancement technique is to process an image so that the
result is more suitable than the original image for a particular application.

2. List the 2 categories of image enhancement.

• Spatial domain refers to image plane itself & approaches in this
category are based on direct manipulation of picture image.
• Frequency domain methods based on modifying the image by fourier transform.

3. What is the purpose of image averaging?

An important application of image averaging is in the field of
astronomy, where imaging with very low light levels is routine, causing sensor
noise frequently to render single images virtually useless for analysis.

4. What is meant by masking?

• Mask is the small 2-D array in which the values of mask co-efficient determines
the nature of process.

• The enhancement technique based on this type of approach is referred to as mask

processing.

5. Define histogram.
The histogram of a digital image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is a
discrete function h(rk)=nk.
rk-kth gray level
nk-number of pixels in the image having gray level rk.

6.What is meant by histogram equalization?

k k
Sk= T(rk) = ∑ Pr(rj) = ∑ nj/n where k=0,1,2,….L-1
j=0 j=0
This transformation is called histogram equalization.

7.Differentiate linear spatial filter and non-linear spatial filter.

s.no. Linear spatial filter Non-linear spatial filter

 1. Response is a sum of products of They do not explicitly use co-
the filter co-efficient. efficients in the sum-of-products.

2. R = w(-1,-1) f(x-1,y-1) + R = w1z1 + w2z2 + … +w9z9

w(-1,0) f(x-1,y) + … + 9
w(0,0) f(x,y) + … + = ∑ wizi
w(1,0) f(x+1,y) + i=1
w(1,1) f(x+1,y+1).

8. Give the mask used for high boost filtering.

0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1

-1 A+4 -1 -1 A+8 -1

0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1

9. What is meant by laplacian filter?

The laplacian for a function f(x,y) of 2 variables is defined as,
2 2 2 2 2
10.Write the steps involved in frequency domain filtering.
1. Multiply the input image by (-1) to center the transform.
2. Compute F(u,v), the DFT of the image from (1).
3. Multiply F(u,v) by a filter function H(u,v).
4. Compute the inverse DFT of the result in (3).
5. Obtain the real part of the result in (4).
6. Multiply the result in (5) by (-1)

11.What do you mean by Point processing?

Image enhancement at any Point in an image depends only on the gray
level at that point is often referred to as Point processing.

12.Define Derivative filter?

For a function f (x, y), the gradient f at co-ordinate (x, y) is defined as the vector
∆f = ∂f/∂x
∂f/∂y
∆f = mag (∆f) = {[(∂f/∂x) 2 +(∂f/∂y) 2 ]} 1/2

13.Define spatial filtering

 Spatial filtering is the process of moving the filter mask from point to
point in an image. For linear spatial filter, the response is given by a sum of
products of the filter coefficients, and the corresponding image pixels in the
area spanned by the filter mask.

14.What is a Median filter?

The median filter replaces the value of a pixel by the median of the gray
levels in the neighborhood of that pixel.

15.What is maximum filter and minimum filter?

The 100th percentile is maximum filter is used in finding brightest
points in an image. The 0th percentile filter is minimum filter used for finding
darkest points in an image.

16.Write the application of sharpening filters

1. Electronic printing and medical imaging to industrial application
2. Autonomous target detection in smart weapons.

17.Name the different types of derivative filters

1. Perwitt operators
2. Roberts cross gradient operators
3. Sobel operators

18.What is meant by Image Restoration?

Restoration attempts to reconstruct or recover an image that has been
degraded by using a clear knowledge of the degrading phenomenon.

19.What are the two properties in Linear Operator?

• Additivity
• Homogenity
20.Give the additivity property of Linear Operator
H[f1(x,y)+f2(x,y)]=H[f1(x,y)]+H[f2(x,y)]
The additive property says that if H is the linear operator,the response
to a sum of two is equal to the sum of the two responses.

21.How a degradation process is modeled?

 22.Define Gray-level interpolation
Gray-level interpolation deals with the assignment of gray levels to
pixels in the spatially transformed image

23.What is meant by Noise probability density function?

The spatial noise descriptor is the statistical behavior of gray level
values in the noise component of the model.

24.Why the restoration is called as unconstrained restoration?

In the absence of any knowledge about the noise ‘n’, a meaningful
criterion function is to seek an f^ such that H f^ approximates of in a least
square sense by assuming the noise term is as small as possible.
Where H = system operator.
f^ = estimated input
image. g = degraded
image.

25. Which is the most frequent method to overcome the difficulty to

formulate the spatial relocation of pixels?
The point is the most frequent method, which are subsets of pixels
whose location in the input (distorted) and output (corrected) imaged is known
precisely.

26.What are the three methods of estimating the degradation function?

1. Observation
2. Experimentation
3. Mathematical modeling.

27.What are the types of noise models?

• Guassian noise
• Rayleigh noise
• Erlang noise
• Exponential noise
• Uniform noise
• Impulse noise
28.Give the relation for guassian noise
Guassian noise:
The PDF guassian random variable Z is
given by P(Z)=e-(Z-μ)2/2σ2/√2πσ
Z->Gray level
value σ->standard
deviation σ2-
>varianze of Z
μ->mean of the graylevel value Z

29.Give the relation for rayleigh noise

Rayleigh noise:
The PDF is
P(Z)= 2(z-a)e-(z—a)2/b/b for Z>=a
0 for Z<a

mean μ=a+√πb/4
standard deviation σ2=b(4-π)/4

30.Give the relation for Gamma noise

Gamma noise:
The PDF is
P(Z)=ab zb-1 ae-az/(b-1) for Z>=0
0 for Z<0
mean μ=b/a
standard deviation σ2=b/a2
31.Give the relation for Exponential noise
Exponential noise
The PDF is
P(Z)= ae-az Z>=0
0 Z<0
mean μ=1/a
standard deviation σ2=1/a2

32.Give the relation for Uniform noise

Uniform noise:
The PDF is
P(Z)=1/(b-a)if a<=Z<=b
0 otherwise
mean μ=a+b/2
standard deviation σ2=(b-a)2/12
33.Give the relation for Impulse noise
Impulse noise:
The PDF is
P(Z) =Pa for z=a
Pb for z=b
0 Otherwise

34.What is inverse filtering?

The simplest approach to restoration is direct inverse filtering, an

estimate F^(u,v) of the transform of the original image simply by dividing the
transform of the degraded image G^(u,v) by the degradation function.
F^ (u,v) = G^(u,v)/H(u,v)

35.What is pseudo inverse filter?

It is the stabilized version of the inverse filter.For a linear shift invariant
system with frequency response H(u,v) the pseudo inverse filter is defined as
H-(u,v)=1/(H(u,v) H=/0
0 H=0
36.What is meant by least mean square filter?
The limitation of inverse and pseudo inverse filter is very sensitive
noise. The wiener filtering is a method of restoring images in the presence of
blurr as well as noise.

37.Give the difference between Enhancement and Restoration

• Enhancement technique is based primarily on the pleasing aspects it
might present to the viewer. For example: Contrast Stretching.
• Where as Removal of image blur by applying a deblurrings function is
considered a restoration technique

16 Marks
1. Discuss different mean
filters
ƒ^(x,y)=1/mn Σ g(s,t)
(s,t)ЄSxy
Geometric mean filter
An image restored using a geometric mean filter is given by the
expression f^(x,y) = [ п g(s,t) ]
(s,t)ЄSxy
here ,each restored pixel is given by the product of the pixels in
the subimage window , raised to the power 1/mn
• Harmonic filters
 The harmonic mean filtering operation is given by the expression
ƒ ^(x,y) = mn/∑(1/g(s,t))
• Contra harmonic mean filter
Contra harmonic mean filtering operation yields a restored image based on the
expression
Q+1 Q
f^(x,y)=∑g(x,t) /∑g(s,t)
where Q is called the order of the filter.This filter is well suited for
reducing or virtually eliminating the effect of salt and pepper noise.

2. Draw the degradation model and explain.

H is a linear positive invariant process the the degraded image is given in the
spatial domain byg(x,y)=h(x,y)*f(x,y)+ŋ(x,y)
where h(x,y) is the spatial representation of the degradation
function and the symbol “*” indicates spatial convolution.
• The convolution in the spatial domain is equal to multiplication in the
frequency domain.
• The equivalent frequency domain representation is

G(u,v)=H(u,v)F(u,v)+N(u,v)
Where the terms in capital letters are the Fourier transforms of the
corresponding terms in the previous equation.
3. Write short notes on Median
Filters
Introduction:
-Median Filter is one of the part of the smoothing filter.
-No mask is used in the median filters.
-We choose 3x3 sub-image arranged in ascending order and
leave first four values.
3 5 7
2 10 20
30 9 4

2,3,4,5,7,9,10,20,30
 -Take the median value.
-This median filter is the non-linear spatial
filtering. 1)median filtering smoothing
2)Max
filter
3)Min
filter
Max filter:
R=Max
-Max filter gives the brightest points
Min filter:
R=Min
-It helps to get the largest point in the image.

4.Write short notes on Wiener Filtering.

• The inverse filtering approach makes no explicit provision for handling noise.
• An approach that incorporate both the degradation function and
statistical characteristics of noise into the restoration process.
• The method is founded on considering images and noise as random
processes,and the objective is to find an estimate f of the uncorrupted image
f such that the mean square error between them is minimized.

• It is assumed that the noise and the image are uncorrelated,that one or
other has zero mean:and that the gray levels in the estimate are a linear
function of the levels in the degradated image.
• Based on these conditions,the minimum of the error function in Eq is
given in the frequency domain by the expression
• This result is known as the wiener filter after N.Wiener,who proposed the
concepts in the year shown.the filter which consists of the term inside the
brackets also is commonly referred to as the minimum mean square error
filter or the least square error filter.
• We include references at the end of sources containing detailed
derivations of the wiener filter.
• The restored image in the spatial domain is given by the inverse Fourier
transform of the frequency domain estimate F(u,v).
• If the noise is zero,then the noise power spectrum vanishes and the
wiener filter reduces to the inverse filter.
• However the power spectrum of the undegraded image seldom is
known. Where k is a specified constant.
• Example illustrates the power spectrum of wiener filtering over direct
inverse filtering.the value of K was chosen interactively to yield the best
visual results.
• It illustrates the full inverse filtered result similarly is the radially
limited inverse filter .
• These images are duplicated here for convenience in making comparisons.
• As expected ,the inverse filter produced an unusable image.The \noise in the inring filter.
• The wiener filter result is by no means perfect,but it does give us a
hint as to image content.
• The noise is still quite visible, but the text can be seen through a
“curtain” of noise.
5. Explain Histogram processing
• The Histogram of the digital image with gray levels in the range [0,L-
1]is the discrete function p(rk)=nk/n where rk is the kth gray level, nk
is the number of pixel,n is the total number of pixel in the image and
k=0,1,2,…….L-1.
• P(rk) gives the an estimate probability of occurrence of gray-level rk..
Figure show the the histogram of four basic types of images.
Figure: Histogram corresponding to four basic image types

Histrogram Equalization
• Let the variable r represent the gray levels in the image to be
enhanced. The pixel value are continous quantities normalized that lie
in the interval [0,1] with r=0 represent black with r=1 represent
white.
• The transformation of the form
• S=T(r) ............................................ (1)
• Which produce a level s for every pixel value r in the original
 image.it satisfy condition:
o T(r) is the single-valued and monotonically increasing in
the interval 0≤r≤1 and
o 0≤T(r)≤1 for 0≤r≤1
▪ Condition 1 preserves the order from black to white
in the gray scale.
▪ Condition 2 guarantees a mapping that is consistent
with the allowed range of pixel values.
R=T-¹(s) 0≤s≤1 ..................................... (2)
• The probability density function of the transformed graylevel is
Ps(s)=[pr(r)dr/ds] r=T-¹(s) ..................................(3)
• Consider the transformation function
S=T(r)= ∫Pr(w)dw 0≤r≤1 ............................... (4)
Where w is the dummy variable of integration .
From Eqn(4) the derivative of s with respect to r is
ds/dr=pr(r)
Substituting dr/ds into eqn(3)
yields
Ps(s)=[1] 0≤s≤1
Histogram Specfication
• Histogram equalization method does not lent itself to interactive application .
• Let Pr(r) and Pz(z) be the original and desired probability function.
Suppose the histogram equalization is utilized on the original image
S=T(r)=∫Pr(w) dw ............................................... (5)

• Desired image levels could be equalized using the

transformation function V=G(z)=∫Pr(w)dw ... (6)
• The inverse process is, z=G-¹(v). Here Ps(s) and Pv(v) are
identical uniform densities
Z=G-¹(s)
Assume that G-¹(s) is single-valued, the procedure can be summarized as follow
1. Equalize the level of the original image using eqn(4)
2. Specify the desired density function and obtain the transformation
function G(z) using eqn(6)
3. Apply the inverse transformation function Z=G-¹(s) to the level
obtained in step 1.
we can obtain result in combined transformation function
z=G-¹[T(r)] .................................................... (7)
Histogram specification for digital image is limited one
1. First specify a particular histogram by digitizing the given function.
2. Specifying a histogram shape by means of a graphic device whose
output is fed into the processor executing the histogram.

2. Explain Spatial Filtering

 • The use of spatial mask for the image processing usually called
spatial filtering and spatial mask are spatial filters.
• The linear filter classified into
o Low pass
o High pass
o Band pass filtering
• Consider 3*3 mask

W1 W2 W3
W4 W5 W6
W7 W8 W9

• Denoting the gray level of pixels under the mask at any location
by z1,z2,z3……,z9, the response of a linear mask is
R=w1z1+ w2z2 + ....... +w9z9

Smoothing Filters
• Lowpass Spatial filtering:
▪ The filter has to have positive coefficient.
▪ The response would be the sum of gray levels of nine
pixels which could cause R to be out of the gray level
range.
▪ The solution is to scale the sum by dividing R by 9.The
use of the form of mask are called neighborhood
averaging 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1/9

• Median filtering:
▪ To achive noise reduction rather than blurring.
▪ The gray level of each pixel is replaced by the median
of the gray level in the neighbourhood of that pixel
Sharpening Filters
• Basic highpass spatial filtering:
▪ The filter should be positive ecoefficient near the center
and negative in the outer periphery.
▪ The sum of the coefficient are 0.
▪ This eliminate the zero- frequency term reducing
significantly the global contrast of the image
-1 -1 -1
-1 8 -1
 • High_boost
filtering:
The definition is
High-boost=(A)(Original)-Lowpass
=(A-1) (Original)+ Original –Lowpass
=(A-1) (Original)+Hignpass
• Derivative Filters:
▪ Averaging is anlog to integration , differentiation can be
expected to have opposite effect and thus sharpen the
image

3. Explain the Geometric Transformations used in image restoration.

• Geometric transformations are used for image restoration,
modify the spatial relationship between the pixels in an image.
• Geometric transformations are often called rubber sheet
transformations, because they are may be viewed as the process of
printing an image on a sheet of rubber.
• The geometric transformations consists of two basic operations:
(1) Spatial transformation
(2) Gray level interpolation

1. Spatial transformations:-
An image f of pixel coordinates(x,y) undergoes geometric
distortion to produce an image g with coordinates(x’,y’).this
transformation may be expressed as
x’=r(x,y)
y’=s(x,y)
• where r(x,y) and s(x’,y’) are the spatial transformations that
produced the geometrically distorted image g(x’,y’).
• If r(x,y) and s(x,y) were known analytically recovering f(x,y) from
the distorted image g(x’,y’) by applying the transformations in
reverse might possible theoretically.
• The method used most frequently to formulate the spatial relocation
of pixels by the use of tiepoints,which are a subset of pixels whose
location in the input and output image is known precisely.
• The vertices of the quadrilaterals are corresponding tiepoints.
▪ r(x,y)=c1x+c2y+c3xy+c4
▪ S(x,y)=c5x+c6y+c7xy+c8
▪ x’=c1x+c2y+c3xy+c4
▪ y’=c5x+c6y+c7xy+c8
• Since there are a total of eight known tiepoints these equations can
be solved for eight coefficients ci,i=1,2,…8.
 • The coefficient constitute the geometric distortion model used to
transform all pixels within the quadrilateral region defined by the
tiepoints used to obtain the coefficients.
• Tiepoints are established by a number of different techniques
depending on the application.
2. Gray level Interpolation:-
• Depending on the values of coefficients ci equations can yield
noninteger values for x’ and y’.
• Because the distorted image g is digital ,its pixel values are defined
only at integer co ordinates .
• Thus using non integer values for x’, y’ causes a mapping into
locations of g for which no gray levels are defined.
• The technique is used to accomplish this is called gray level interpolation.

4. Describehomomorphic filtering
• The illumination – reflectance model can be used to develop a
frequency domain procedure for improving the appearance of an
image by simultaneous gray – level compression and contrast
enhancement.
• An image can be expressed as the product of illumination and
reflectance components.
f(x,y) = i(x,y) r(x,y)
F(f(x,y)) = F(i(x,y)
r(x,y))

Where F i(u,v)) and F(r(u,v)) are the Fourier transformation of

i(x,y)and r(x,y) respectively.

• The inverse (exponential) operation yields the desird enhanced image,

denoted by g(x,y); that is,
Ln[f(x,y)] = ln[i(x,y) r(x,y)]
F[ln(f(x,y))] = F[ln(i(x,y)]+F[ln(
r(x,y))]

• This method is based on a special case of a class of systems know as

homomorphism systems.
• In this particular application,
▪ The key to the approach is the separation of the
illumination and reflectance components achieved in the
from.
▪ The homomorphism filter function can then operate on
these on these component separately.
▪ The illumination components of an image generally is
 characterized by slow spatial variations.
▪ While the reflectance component tends to vary abruptly,
particularly at the junction, while the reflectance
component tends to vary abruptly, particularly at the
junctions of dissimilar objects.
▪ A good deal of control can be gained over the illumination
and reflectance components with a homomorphic filter.
▪ This control requires specification of a filter function
H(u.v) that affects the low - and high – frequency
components of the Fourier transform in different ways.

5. Explain the different Noise Distribution

in detail. Introduction:
• Noise are unwanted signal which corrupts the original signal.
• Origin of noise source is during image acquisition and/or
transmission and digitization.
• During capturing ,performance of imaging sensors are
affected by the environmental conditions due to the quality
of sensors.
• Image acquisition are the principle source of noise.
• Due to the interference in the transmission it will affect the
transmission of the image.
• Types:
Rayleigh noise:
The PDF is
P(Z)= 2(z-a)e-(z—a)2/b/b for Z>=a
0 for Z<a

mean μ=a+√πb/4
standard deviation σ2=b(4-π)/4

Gamma noise:
The PDF is

P(Z)=ab zb-1 ae-az/(b-1) for Z>=0

0 for Z<0
mean μ=b/a
standard deviation σ2=b/a2
Exponential noise
The PDF is
P(Z)= ae-az Z>=0
0 Z<0
mean μ=1/a
 standard deviation σ2=1/a2

Uniform noise:
The PDF is
P(Z)=1/(b-a)if a<=Z<=b
0 otherwise
mean μ=a+b/2
standard deviation σ2=(b-a)2/12
Impulse noise:
The PDF is
P(Z) =Pa for z=a
Pb for z=b
0 Otherwise

UNIT IV
1. What is segmentation?
Segmentation subdivides on image in to its constitute regions or
objects. The level to which the subdivides is carried depends on the problem
being solved .That is segmentation should when the objects of interest in
application have been isolated.

2. Write the applications of segmentation.

• Detection of isolated points.
• Detection of lines and edges in an image.

3. What are the three types of discontinuity in digital image?

Points, lines and edges.

4. How the derivatives are obtained in edge detection during formulation?

The first derivative at any point in an image is obtained by using the
magnitude of the gradient at that point. Similarly the second derivatives are
obtained by using the laplacian.

5. Write about linking edge points.

The approach for linking edge points is to analyze the characteristics of
pixels in a small neighborhood (3x3 or 5x5) about every point (x,y)in an
image that has undergone edge detection. All points that are similar.

6. What are the two properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels?
(1) The strength of the response of the gradient operator used to
produce the edge pixel.
 (2) The direction of the gradient.

7. What is edge?
An edge isa set of connected pixels that lie on the boundary between
two regions edges are more closely modeled as having a ramplike profile.
The slope of the ramp is inversely proportional to the degree of blurring in
the edge.

8. Give the properties of the second derivative around an edge?

• The sign of the second derivative can be used to determine whether
an edge pixel lies on the dark or light side of an edge.
• It produces two values for every edge in an image.
• An imaginary straightline joining the extreme positive and negative
values of the second derivative would cross zero near the midpoint of
the edge.

9. Define Gradient Operator?

First order derivatives of a digital image are based on various
approximation of the 2-D gradient. The gradient of an image f(x,y) at
location(x,y) is defined as the vector
Magnitude of the vector is
∆f=mag( ∆f )=[Gx2+ Gy2]1/2
∞(x,y)=tan-1(Gy/Gx)
∞(x,y) is the direction angle of vector ∆f

10. What is meant by object point and background point?

To execute the objects from the background is to select a threshold
T that separate these modes. Then any point (x,y) for which f(x,y)>T is
called an object point. Otherwise the point is called background point.

11. What is global, Local and dynamic or adaptive threshold?

When Threshold T depends only on f(x,y) then the threshold is called
global . If T depends both on f(x,y) and p(x,y) is called local. If T depends on
the spatial coordinates x and y the threshold is called dynamic or adaptive
where f(x,y) is the original image.

12. Define region growing?

Region growing is a procedure that groups pixels or subregions in to
layer regions based on predefined criteria. The basic approach is to start with
a set of seed points and from there grow regions by appending to each seed
these neighbouring pixels that have properties similar to the seed.

13. Specify the steps involved in splitting and merging?

 Split into 4 disjoint quadrants any region Ri for which
P(Ri)=FALSE. Merge any adjacent regions Rj and Rk for
which P(RjURk)=TRUE. Stop when no further merging or
splitting is positive.

14. Define pattern.

A pattern is a quantitative or structural description of an objective or

some other entity of interest in an image,

15. Define pattern class.

A pattern class is a family of patterns that share some common
properties .Pattern classes are denoted w1,w2,----wm, where M is the
number of classes .

16.List the three pattern arrangements.

Vectors
Strings
Treestchi
ng

17. Give the decision theoretic methods.

Matching-Matching by minimum distance
classifier Matching by correlation

18. Define training pattern and training set.

The patterns used to estimate the parameters are called training
patterns,anda set of such patterns from each class is called a training set.

19. Define training

The process by which a training set is used to obtain decision functions
is called learning or training.

20. What are the layers in back propagation network?

Input layer, Hidden layer and out put layer

16 Marks

1. Write short notes on image segmentation.

• Segmentation subdivides on image in to its constitute regions or
objects. The level to which the subdivides is carried depends on the
problem being solved .
• Examples: In autonomous air to ground target acquisition applications
 identifying vehicles on a road is of interest.
• The first step is to segment the road from the image and then to
segment the elements of the road down to objects of a range of sizes
that correspond potential vehicles.
• In target acquistition ,the system designer has n control of the environment.
• So the usual approach is to focus on selecting the types of sensors
most likely to enhance the objects of interest .
• Example is the use of infrared imaging to detect objects with a
strong heat signature,such as tanks in motion.
• Segmentation algorithms for monochrome images are based on
one of the two basic properties of gray level values . They are
discontinuity and similarity.
• The areas of interest based on this category are detection of isolated
points and detection of lines and edges in an image.
• Based on the second category the approach is based on
thresholding, region growing and region splitting and merging .
• The concept of segmenting an image based on discontinuity or
similarity of the gray level values of its pixels is applicable to both
static and dynamic images.

2. Write short notes on edge

detection Edge Detection:
• Edge detection is “local” image processing methods designed to
detect edge pixels.
• Concept that is based on a measure of intensity-level discontinuity at a point.
• It is possible to link edge points into edge segments, and sometimes
these segments are linked in such a way that they correspond to
boundaries, but this is not always the case.
The image gradient and its properties:
• The tool of choice for finding edge strength and direction at
location (x,y) of an image, f, is the gradient, denoted by ▼ƒ, a and
defined as the vector
gx ∂ƒ/∂x

▼ƒ≡grad(ƒ)≡ gy = ∂ƒ/∂y

• The magnitude length of vector ▼ƒ, denoted as M(x,y)

M(x,y)=mag(▼ƒ)=√gx²+gy²
Is the value of the rate of change in the
direction of the gradient vector.
• The direction of the gradient vector is given by the angle
α(x,y)=tanˉ¹ gy/gx

measured with respect to the x-axis.

 • Follows, using these differences as our estimates of the partials, that ∂ƒ/∂x=-2 and
∂ƒ/∂y=2 at the point in equation. Then
gx ∂ƒ/∂x -2
▼ƒ= = =
gy
∂ƒ/∂y 2

from which we obtain M(x,y)=2√2 at that point.

Gradient operators:
• Obtaining the gradient of an image requires computing the partials derivatives
∂ƒ/∂x and ∂ƒ/∂y at every pixel location in the image.

gx=∂ƒ(x,y)/ ∂x= ƒ(x+1,y)- ƒ(x,y)

gy=∂ƒ(x,y)/ ∂y= ƒ(x,y+1)- ƒ(x,y)
• An approach used frequently is to approximate the gradient by absolute value:
▼ƒ≈‫׀‬Gx‫ ׀׀‬+‫׀‬Gy

• Based on the first category ,the approach is based on abrupt changes

in gray level
The Laplacian
• The laplacian of a 2-D function f(x,y) is a second order derivatives defined as
▼²ƒ=∂²ƒ/∂²x+∂²ƒ/∂²y
• The first laplacian is combined with smoothing as a precursor to
finding edges via zero crossings. Consider the function.
▼² ƒ=8z5-(z1+z2+z3+z4+z6+z7+z8+z9)

0 -1 0

-1 4 -1

0 -1 0

3. Write Short notes on edge linking by local processing.

• One of the simplest approaches f or linking edge points is to
analyze the characteristics of the pixels in a small neighborhood
about every point in an image that has undergone edge detection.
• Two properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels in the analysis are
▪ The strength of the response of the gradient
operator used to produce the edge pixel,
▪ The direction of the
gradient. The first property is given by the
value of ▼f.
Thus an edge pixel with coordinates (x’,y’) and in the predefined
neighborhood of (x,y) is similar in magnitude to the pixel at (x,y) if |▼f(x,y)
- ▼(x’,y’)|<=T where T is a nonnegative threshold.
The direction of the gradient vector is given by
α(x,y)=tanˉ¹ gy/gx
Then an edge pixel at (x’,y’) in the predefined neighborhood of (x,y) has an
angle similar to the pixel at (x,y) if | α(x,y)= α(x’,y’)|<A where A is an angle
threshold. Note that the direction of the edge at (x,y) in reality is
perpendicular to the direction of the gradient vector at that point.
A point in the predefined neighborhood of (x,y) is linked to the pixel at
(x’,y’) if both magnitude and direction criteria are satisfied. This process is
repeated for every location in the image. A record must be kept of linked
points as the center of the neighborhood is moved from pixel to pixel. A
simple bookkeeping procedure is to assign a different gray level to each set
of linked edge pixels.

4. Write short notes on the applications of artificial neural

networks in image processing.

5. The real-time automatic images processing and pattern recognition are very
important for many problems in medicine, physics, geology, space research,
military applications and so on. For example, it is necessary for pilots and drivers
for immediate decision-making in poor visibility conditions. An approach to
image enhancement through artificial neural network’s (ANN) processing is
proposed.ANN is for images enhancement through approximation of image
transform function T. This function is approximated with use of ANN which is
trained evolutionary in the time of test images processing. Each ANN is
genetically encoded as the list of its connections. Truncation selection is used for
parental subpopulation formation. Original crossover and mutation operators,
which respect structures of the ANNs undergoing recombination and mutation,
are used. Nodes with Write Short notes on edge linking by local processing.
• One of the simplest approaches f or linking edge points is to
analyze the characteristics of the pixels in a small neighborhood
about every point in an image that has undergone edge detection.
• Two properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels in the analysis are
▪ The strength of the response of the gradient
operator used to produce the edge pixel,
▪ The direction of the
gradient. The first property is given by the
value of ▼f.
Thus an edge pixel with coordinates (x’,y’) and in the predefined
neighborhood of (x,y) is similar in magnitude to the pixel at (x,y) if |▼f(x,y)
- ▼(x’,y’)|<=T where T is a nonnegative threshold.
The direction of the gradient vector is given by
α(x,y)=tanˉ¹ gy/gx
Then an edge pixel at (x’,y’) in the predefined neighborhood of (x,y) has an
angle similar to the pixel at (x,y) if | α(x,y)= α(x’,y’)|<A where A is an angle
threshold. Note that the direction of the edge at (x,y) in reality is
perpendicular to the direction of the gradient vector at that point.
A point in the predefined neighborhood of (x,y) is linked to the pixel at
(x’,y’) if both magnitude and direction criteria are satisfied. This process is
repeated for every location in the image. A record must be kept of linked
points as the center of the neighborhood is moved from pixel to pixel. A
simple bookkeeping procedure is to assign a different gray level to each set
of linked edge pixels.

6. Write short notes on the applications of artificial neural

networks in image processing.

The real-time automatic images processing and pattern recognition are very
important for many problems in medicine, physics, geology, space research,
military applications and so on. For example, it is necessary for pilots and
drivers for immediate decision-making in poor visibility conditions. An
approach to image enhancement through artificial neural network’s (ANN)
processing is proposed.ANN is for images enhancement through
approximation of image transform function T. This function is approximated
with use of ANN which is trained evolutionary in the time of test images
processing. Each ANN is genetically encoded as the list of its connections.
Truncation selection is used for parental subpopulation formation. Original
crossover and mutation operators, which respect structures of the ANNs
undergoing recombination and mutation, are used. Nodes with sigmoid
activation functions are considered. The population size adapts to the
properties of evolution during the algorithm run using simple resizing
strategy. In this application pixel-by-pixel brightness processing with use of
ANN paradigm is adopted. The topology of ANN is tuned simultaneously with
connections weights. The ANN approximating T function should have three
input nodes and one output node. During the training we evaluate each ANN
with respect to the visual quality of the processed images.

The three-step procedure for image enhancement is proposed:

(1) multiplicative adjustment of image brightness
(2) local level processing using ANN;
(3) global level auto smoothing algorithm.

The artificial neural network training stage with use of single 128х128 pixels
image takes about 70 seconds on the Intel Pentium IV 3 GHz processor. After
 completion of the learning process the obtained artificial neural network is
ready to process
arbitrary images that were not presented during the training. The processing
time for 512х512 pixels image is about 0.25 second. The ANN, as a rule,
included 3 input nodes, one or more hidden nodes and one output node.

16 Marks

1.Discuss region oriented segmentation in detail

The objective of segmentation is to partition an image into regions.

We approached this problem by finding boundaries between based on
discontinuities in gray levels, segmentation was accomplished via
thresholds based on the distribution of pixels properties, such as gray level
values or color.
Basic Formulation:
Let Represent the region of image. We may view segmentation as a
process that partition R into n subregions,R1,R2,… ,such that
n
(a) ΣRi=
R i=1
(b) Ri is a connected region, i=1,2,… ... n.
(c) Ri∩Rj=Фfor all i and j,i≠j.
(d) P(Ri)=TRUE for i=1,2,… ................. n.
(e) P(RiURj)=FALSE for i≠j.

Here, P(Ri) is a logical predicate defined over the points in set Ri and Ф is the null set.
➢ Condition (a) indicates that the segmentation must be complete that is
every pixel must be in a region.
➢ Condition (b) requires that points in a region must be connected in
some predefined sense.
➢ Condition(c) indicates that the regions must be disjoint.
➢ Condition(d) deals with the properties that must be satisfied by the pixels in
a segmented region.
Region Growing:
As its name implies region growing is a procedure that groups pixel
or subregions into larger regions based on predefined criteria. The basic
approach is to start with a set of “seed” points and from these grow regions.
➢ If the result of these computation shows clusters of values, the pixels
whose properties place them near the centroid of these clusters can be
used as seeds.
➢ Descriptors alone can yield misleading results if connectivity or adjacency
information is not used in the region growing process.
 Region Splitting and Merging:
The procedure just discussed grows regions from a set of seed points.
An alternative into subdivided an image initially into a set of arbitrary,
disjointed regions and then merge and/or split the regions in an attempt to
satisfy the conditions.

R1 R
2
R3 R41 R42

R43 R44
1. Split into four disjoint quadrants any region Ri for which P(Ri)=FALSE.
2. Merge any adjacent regions Rj and Rk for which P(RjURk)=TRUE.
3. Stop when no further merging or splitting is possible.
Mean and standard deviation of pixels in a region to quantify the texture of region.
Role of thresholding:
We introduced a simple model in which an image f(x,y) is
formed as the product of a reflectance component r(x,y) and an
illumination components i(x,y). consider the computer generated
reflectance function.
➢ The histogram of this function is clearly bimodal and could be
portioned easily by placing a single global threshold, T, in the
histogram valley.
➢ Multiplying the reflectance function by the illumination function.
➢ Original valley was virtually eliminated, making segmentation
by a single threshold an impossible task.
➢ Although we seldom have the reflectance function by itself to work
with, this simple illustration shows that the reflective nature of
objects and background can be such that they are separable.
ƒ(x,y)=i(x,y)r(x,y)
Taking the natural logarithm of this equation
yields a sum: z(x,y)=ln ƒ(x,y)
=ln i(x,y)+ln r(x,y)
=i (x,y)+r (x,y)
➢ If i (x,y) and r (x,y) are independent random variable, the histogram
of z(x,y) is given by the convolution of the histogram of i (x,y) and r
(x,y).
➢ But if i (x,y) had a border histogram the convolution process would
smear the histogram of r (x,y), yielding a histogram for z(x,y)
whose shape could be quite different from that of the histogram of r
(x,y).
➢ The degree of distortion depends on the broadness of the histogram
of i (x,y), which in turn depends on the nonuniformity of the
illumination function.
 ➢ We have dealt with the logarithm of ƒ(x,y), instead of dealing
with the image function directly.
➢ When access to the illumination source is available, a solution
frequently used in practice to compensate for nonuniformity is to
project the illumination pattern onto a constant, white reflective
surface.
➢ This yields an image g(x,y)=ki(x,y), where k is a constant that
depends on the surface and i(x,y) is the illumination pattern.
➢ For any image ƒ(x,y)=i(x,y)r(x,y) obtained from the same
illumination function, simply dividing ƒ(x,y) by g(x,y) yields a
normalized function h(x,y)= ƒ(x,y)/g(x,y)= r(x,y)/k.
➢ Thus, if r(x,y) can be segmented by using a single threshold T, then
h(x,y) can be segmented by using single threshold of value T/k.

UNIT V
2 Marks
1. What is image compression?
Image compression refers to the process of redundancy amount of
data required to represent the given quantity of information for digital image.
The basis of reduction process is removal of redundant data.

2. What is Data Compression?

Data compression requires the identification and extraction of source
redundancy. In other words, data compression seeks to reduce the
number of bits used to store or transmit information.

3. What are two main types of Data compression?

• Lossless compression can recover the exact original data after
compression. It is used mainly for compressing database records,
spreadsheets or word processing files, where exact replication of the
original is essential.
• Lossy compression will result in a certain loss of accuracy in
exchange for a substantial increase in compression. Lossy
compression is more effective when used to compress graphic
images and digitised voice where losses outside visual or aural
perception can be tolerated.
4. What is the need for Compression?
In terms of storage, the capacity of a storage device can be effectively
increased with
methods that compress a body of data on its way to a storage device and
 decompress
es it when it is retrieved.
In terms of communications, the bandwidth of a digital communication
link can be effectively increased by compressing data at the sending end
and decompressing data at the receiving end.
At any given time, the ability of the Internet to transfer data is fixed. Thus,
if data can effectively be compressed wherever possible, significant
improvements of data throughput can be achieved. Many files can be
combined into one compressed document making sending easier.
5. What are different Compression Methods?
Run Length Encoding
(RLE) Arithmetic coding
Huffman coding
and Transform
coding
6. Define is coding redundancy?
If the gray level of an image is coded in a way that uses more code
words than necessary to represent each gray level, then the resulting image
is said to contain coding redundancy.

7. Define interpixel redundancy?

The value of any given pixel can be predicted from the values of its neighbors.
The information carried by is small. Therefore the visual contribution of a
single pixel to an image is redundant. Otherwise called as spatial redundant
geometric redundant or interpixel redundant.
Eg: Run length coding

8. What is run length coding?

Run-length Encoding, or RLE is a technique used to reduce the size of
a repeating string of characters. This repeating string is called a run;
typically RLE encodes a run of symbols into two bytes, a count and a
symbol. RLE can compress any type of data regardless of its information
content, but the content of data to be compressed affects the compression
ratio. Compression is normally measured with the compression ratio:
9. Define compression ratio.
Compression Ratio = original size / compressed size: 1
10. Define psycho visual redundancy?
In normal visual processing certain information has less
importance than other information. So this information is said to be
psycho visual redundancy
11. Define encoder
Source encoder is responsible for removing the coding and interpixel
redundancy and psycho visual redundancy.
There are two components
A) Source Encoder
B) Channel Encoder

12. Define source encoder

Source encoder performs three operations
1) Mapper -this transforms the input data into non-visual format. It
reduces the interpixel redundancy.
2) Quantizer - It reduces the psycho visual redundancy of the input
images .This step is omitted if the system is error free.
3) Symbol encoder- This reduces the coding redundancy .This is the
final stage of encoding process.

13. Define channel encoder

The channel encoder reduces reduces the impact of the channel noise
by inserting redundant bits into the source encoded data.
Eg: Hamming code

14. What are the types of decoder?

Source decoder- has two components
a) Symbol decoder- This performs inverse operation of symbol encoder.
b) Inverse mapping- This performs inverse operation of
mapper. Channel decoder-this is omitted if the
system is error free.

15. What are the operations performed by error free compression?

1) Devising an alternative representation of the image in which
its interpixel redundant are reduced.
2) Coding the representation to eliminate coding redundancy

16. What is Variable Length Coding?

Variable Length Coding is the simplest approach to error free
compression. It reduces only the coding redundancy. It assigns the shortest
possible codeword to the most probable gray levels.

17. Define Huffman coding

• Huffman coding is a popular technique for removing coding redundancy.
• When coding the symbols of an information source the
Huffman code yields the smallest possible number of code
 words, code symbols per source symbol.
18. Define Block code
Each source symbol is mapped into fixed sequence of code
symbols or code words. So it is called as block code.

19. Define instantaneous code

A code word that is not a prefix of any other code word is called
instantaneous or prefix codeword.

20. Define arithmetic coding

In arithmetic coding one to one corresponds between source
symbols and code word doesn’t exist where as the single arithmetic code
word assigned for a sequence of source symbols. A code word defines an
interval of number between 0 and 1.

21. What is bit plane Decomposition?

An effective technique for reducing an image’s interpixel
redundancies is to process the image’s bit plane individually. This
technique is based on the concept of decomposing multilevel images
into a series of binary images and compressing each binary image via
one of several well-known binary compression methods.
22. Draw the block diagram of transform coding system

Input image Wavelet transform Quantizer Symbol Compressed

encoder image

Symbol Inverse wavelet Decompressed

Compressed image decoder transform image

23. How effectiveness of quantization can be improved?

• Introducing an enlarged quantization interval around zero,
called a dead zero.
• Adapting the size of the quantization intervals from scale to
scale. In either case, the selected quantization intervals must
be transmitted to the decoder with the encoded image bit
stream.
24. What are the coding systems in JPEG?
1. A lossy baseline coding system, which is based on the
DCT and is adequate for most compression application.
2. An extended coding system for greater
compression, higher precision or progressive
reconstruction applications.
3. a lossless independent coding system for reversible compression.
25. What is JPEG?
The acronym is expanded as "Joint Photographic Expert Group". It is an
international standard in 1992. It perfectly Works with color and grayscale
images, Many applications e.g., satellite, medical,...
26. What are the basic steps in JPEG?

The Major Steps in JPEG Coding involve:

❖ DCT (Discrete Cosine Transformation)
❖ Quantization
❖ Zigzag Scan
❖ DPCM on DC component
❖ RLE on AC Components
❖ Entropy Coding
❖
27. What is MPEG?
The acronym is expanded as "Moving Picture Expert Group". It is an
international standard in 1992. It perfectly Works with video and also
used in teleconferencing

28. Draw the JPEG Encoder.

29.Draw the JPEG Decoder

30.What is zig zag sequence?

The purpose of the Zig-zag Scan:

❖ To group low frequency coefficients in top of vector.
❖ Maps 8 x 8 to a 1 x 64 vector

31.Define I-frame
I-frame is Intraframe or Independent frame. An I-frame is
compressed independently of all frames. It resembles a JPEG encoded
image. It is the reference point for the motion estimation needed to generate
subsequent P and P-frame.

32.Define P-frame
P-frame is called predictive frame. A P-frame is the compressed
difference between the current frame and a prediction of it based on the
previous I or P-frame

33.Define B-frame
B-frame is the bidirectional frame. A B-frame is the compressed
difference between the current frame and a prediction of it based on the
previous I or P-frame or next P-frame. Accordingly the decoder must have
access to both past and future reference frames.
 16 Marks
1. Define Compression and explain data Redundancy
in image compression

Compression: It is the process of reducing the size of the given data or an

image. It will help us to reduce the storage space required to store an image
or File.

Data Redundancy:
The data or words that either provide no relevant information
or simply restate that which is already known .It is said to be data
redundancy.

Consider N1 and N2 number of information carrying units in

two data sets that represent the same information

Data Redundancy Rd = 1-

1/Cr Where Cr is called the

Compression Ratio.

` Cr=N1/N2.

Types of Redundancy

There are three basic Redundancy and they are classified as

1) Coding Redundancy
2) Interpixel Redundancy
3) Psychovisual Redundancy.

1. Coding Redundancy :
We developed this technique for image enhancement by histogram
processing on the assumption that the grey levels of an image are random
quantities. Here the grey level histogram of the image also can provide a
great deal of insight in the construction of codes to reduce the amount of
data used to represent it.
2. Interpixel Redundancy :
Inorder to reduce the interpixel redundancy in an image, the 2-D pixel array
normally used for human viewing and interpretation must be transformed in
to more efficient form.
 3. Psychovisual Redundancy:
Certain information simply has less relative importance than other
information in the normal visual processing. This information is called
Psycovisual Redundant.

2. Explain Huffman coding with an example.

• This technique was developed by David Huffman.

• The codes generated using this technique or procedure are called Huffman codes.
• These codes are prefix codes and are optimum for a given model.

The Huffman procedure is based on two observations

regarding optimum prefix codes
1. In an optimum code, symbols that occur more frequently
will have shorter code words than symbols that occur less frequently.
2. in an optimum code ,the two symbols that occur least
frequently will have the same length

Design of a Huffman Code

To design a Huffman code ,we first sort the letters in descending
probability Find the Huffman code for the following:
P(A)=0.2, p(B)=0.1, p(C)=0.2,p(D)=0.05,p(E)=0.3,p(F)=0.05,p(G)=0.1

Find the average length and entropy

M
Average length  p(ak)l(ak)
= k 1
 I=3(0.2)+3(0.1)+3(0.2)+5(0.05)+1(0.3)+5(0.05)+4(0.1)
=2.7 bits/symbol

M
Entropy  p(ak)log2p(ak)
=H(ak)= - k 1

=0.7667

Find Efficiency

Efficiency =Entropy/average length

=0.284%

Define Compression and Explain the general compression system model

Compression: It is the process of reducing the size of the given data or an image. It
will help us to reduce the storage space required to store an image or File.

Image Compression Model:

There are two Structural model and they are broadly Classified as follows
1. An Encoder
2. A Decoder.
An Input image f(x,y) is fed in to encoder and create a set of symbols and
after transmission over the channel ,the encoded representation is fed in to
the decoder.

A General Compression system model:

The General system model consist of the following

components,They are broadly classified as Source
1. Source Encoder Decoder
2. Channel Encoder
3. Channel
4. Channel Decoder
5. Souce Decoder
The Source Encoder Will removes the input redundancies. The channel encoder will increase the
noise immunity of the source encoder’s output. If the channel between encoder and decoder is
noise free then the channel encoder and decoder can be omitted.

MAPPER:
It transforms the input data in to a format designed to reduce the interpixel
redundancy in the input image.

QUANTIZER:
It reduce the accuracy of the mapper’s output.

SYMBOL ENCODER:
It creates a fixed or variable length code to represent the
quantizer’s output and maps the output in accordance with the code.

Symbol Inverse
decoder mapper

SYMBOL DECODER:
The inverse operation of the source encoder’s symbol will be
performed and maps the blocks.

2.Explain the concepts of Embedded Zero Tree coding

EZW coder was introduced by Shapiro. It is a quantization and coding

strategy that characteristics of the wavelet decomposition.The particular
characteristic used by the EZW algorithm is that there are wavelet
coefficients in different subbands that represent the same spatial location in
the image.
In 10-band decomposition ,the coefficient a in the upper-left corner
of band I represents the same spatial location as coefficient a1 represents the
same spatial location as coefficients a11,a12,a13,a14 in band V. Each of
these pixel represents the same spatial location as four pixels in band VIII.
 a
II
V
a3 a4

VI VII
I

We can visualize the relationships of these coefficients in form

of tree:The coefficient a forms the root of the tree with three
descendants a1,a2,a3.
EZW algorithm is a multiple pass algorithm,with each pass consisting of two
step
s. 0.significance map encoding or the
dominant pass 2.refinement or the
subordinate pass
If Cmax is the value of the largest coefficient,the initial value of the
threshold T0 is given by
[Log Cmax]
T0=2

This selection guarantees that the largest coefficient will lie in the
interval[T0,2T0].In each pass,the threshold Ti is reduced to half the value
it had in the previous pass:

Ti=1/2(Ti-1)

For given value of Ti,we assign one of four possible labels to the coefficients:
 1. significance
positive(sp)
2.significant
negative(sn)
3.zerotree root(zr)
4.isolated zero(iz)

The coefficients labeled significant are simply those that fall in the outer
levels of the quantized and are assigned an initial reconstructed value of
1.5Ti or -1.5Ti,depending on whether the coefficient is positive or negative.
3. Discuss MPEGcompression

standard Introduction:
-The basic structure of the compression algorithm proposed by mpeg is
very similar to that of ITU-T H.261
-In mpeg the blocks are organized in macro blocks which are defined in the
same manner as that of H.261 algorithm
-The mpeg standard initially had applications that require digital storage and
retrieval as a major focus

Frames
I-Frames
-Mpeg includes some frames periodically that are coded without any
reference to the past Frames. These frames are called I-frames
-I-frames do not use temporal correlation for prediction.Thus the number
of frames between two consecutive Iframes is a trade-off between
compression efficiency and convenience.
P and B frames
-In order to improve the compression efficiency mpeg1 algorithm
contains two other types of frames: predictive coded and bidirectionally
predictive coded frames
-Generally the compression efficiency of P-frames is substantially higher than Iframes
Anchor frames
-The I and P frames are sometimes are anchor frames
-To compensate for the reduction in the amount of compression due to the
frequent use of Iframes the mpeg standard introduced Bframes
Group of pictures(GOP)
-GOP is a small random access unit in the video sequence
-The GOP structure is set up as a tradeoff between the high compression efficiency of
-Motion compensated coding and the coding and the fast picture acquisition
capability of periodic intra-only processing
-The format for mpeg is very flexible however the mpeg committee has
provided some suggested value for the various parameters
-For Mpeg 1 these suggested values are called the constraint parameter bitstream
MPEG2
-It takes a toolkit approach providing a number of subsets each
containing different options
-For a particular application the user can select from a set of profiles and levels
Types of profiles

-Simple
-Main
-Snr-scalable
-Spatially scalable
-High
-Simple profile uses the Bframes.but removal of the Bframes makes the
requirements simpler.
MPEG 4
-Provides a more abstract approach to the coding of multimedia.The
standard views the multimedia scene as a collection of objects.These
objects can be coded independently.
-Language called the binary format for scenes based on the virtual
reality modeling language has been developed by Mpeg.
-The protocol for managing the elementary streams and their multiplexed
version called the delivery multimedia integration framework is a part of
Mpeg4
-The different objects that makeup the scene are coded and sent to the multiplexer
-The information about the presence of these objects is also provided
to the motion compensator predictor
-It is also used in facial animation controlled by facial definition parameter
-It allows for object scalability.
MPEG7:
-Focus on the development of a multimedia content description interface
seems to be somewhat removed from the study of data compression
-These activities relate to the core principles of data compression
which is the development of compact descriptions of information
4. Discuss about Vector quantization procedure in detail

Source Encoder Decoder Reconstruction

output
Find closest Table Unblock
Group
code-vector lookup
into
vectors

In vector quantization we group the source output into blocks or vectors.

This vector of source outputs forms the input to the vector quantizer. At both
the encoder and decoder of the vector quantizer, we have a set of L-
dimensional vectors called the codebook of the vector quantizer. The vectors
in this codebook are known as code-vectors. Each code vector is assigned a
binary index.
At the encoder, the input vector is compared to each code-vector in
order to find the code vector closest to the input vector
In order to inform the decoder about which code vector was found
to be the closest to the input vector, we transmit or store the binary index
of the code-vector. Because the decoder has exactly the same codebook,
it can retrieve the code vector
Although the encoder have to perform considerable amount of
computations in order to find the closest reproduction vector to the vector of
source outputs, the decoding consists of a table lookup. This makes vector
quantization a very attractive encoding scheme for applications in which the
resources available for decoding are considerably less than the resources
available for encoding

Advantages of vector quantization over scalar quantization

For a given rate (bits per sample), use of vector quantization results in
lower distortion than when scalar quantization is used at the same rate
Vectors of source output values tend to fall in clusters. By selecting
the quantizer output points to lie in these clusters, we have more accurate
representation of the source output
Use:
One application for which vector quantizer has been extremely popular is image
compression.

Disadvantage of vector quantization:

Vector quantization applications operate at low rates. For
applications such as high-quality video coding, which requires higher
rates this is definitely a problem.
To solve these problems, there are several approaches which
entails some structure in the quantization process

Tree structures vector quantizers:

This structure organizes codebook in such a way that it is easy to
pick which part contains the desired output vector

Structured vector quantizers:

Tree-structured vector quantizer solves the complexity problem, but
acerbates the storage problem
We now take entirely different tacks and develop vector quantize that
do not have these storage problems; however we pay for this relief in other
ways

5. Explain Arithmetic coding with an

example Algorithm Implementation
Sequence being encoded as:
ln=ln-1+(un-1-ln-1)fx(xn-1)
un= ln-1+(un-1-ln-1)fx(xn)
n becomes larger values gets closer and closer together. The intervals
becomes narrower, there are 3 possibilities
1. the interval is entirely confined to the lower half of the unit interval [0,0.5)
2. the interval is entirely confined to the upper half of the unit interval [0.5,1)
3. the interval is in the midpoint of the unit interval

We want to have the sub interval (tag) in the full

[0,1) interval E1:[0,0.5) E1(x)=2x
E1:[0.5,1) E1(x)=2(x-0.5)
This process of generating the bits if the tag without waiting to see the
entire sequence is called incremental encoding

Tag generation with scaling

Eg: A={a1,a2,a3} P(a1)=0.8 P(a2)=0.02 P(a3)=0.18 Fx(1)=0.8 Fx(2)=0.82 Fx(3)=1
Encode the sequence 1321
Solution:
• first element
is 1 Initialize u0=1
l0=0 l1=0+(1-0)0=0
u1=0+(1-0)0.8=0.8
The interval [0,0.8) is either in the upper or the lower half of unit interval so proceed

•Second
element 3 l2=0+(0.8-
0)0.82=0.656
u2=0+(0.8-0)0.1=0.8

interval [0.656,0.8) is in the upper limit. Send the binary code

1 and scale l2=2(0.656-0.5)=0.312
u2=2(0.8-0.5)=0.6

•Third element 2
3=
l 0.312+(0.6-
0.312)0.8=0.5424
u3=0.312+(0.6-
0.312)0.82=0.54816

interval [0.5424,0.54816) is in the upper limit. Send the binary code

1 and scale l3=2(0.5424-0.5)=0.0848
u3=2(0.54816-0.5)=0.09632
interval [0.0848,0.09632) is in the lower limit. Send the binary code
0 and scale l3=2*0.0848=0.1696
u3=2*0.09632=0.19264
interval [0.1696,0.19264) is in the lower limit. Send the binary code
0 and scale l3=2*0.1696=0.3392
u3=2*0.19264=0.38528
interval [0.3392,0.38528) is in the lower limit. Send the binary code
0 and scale l3=2*0.3392=0.6784
u3=2*0.38528=0.77056
interval [0.6784,0.77056) is in the upper limit. Send the binary code
1 and scale l3=2(0.6784-0.5)=0.3568
u3=2(0.77056-0.5)=0.54112
The interval [0.3598,0.54112) is either in the upper or the lower half of
unit interval so proceed
• Fourth element 1
4=
l 0.3568+(0.54112-
0.3568)0=0.3568
u4=0.3568+(0.54112-
0.3568)0.8=0.504256

Stop the encoding.

Binary sequence generated is 110001. Transmit 1 followed by many 0
required by the word length

---------------------------------------------------------------