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Experiment no: 07

Basic principles and operation of a VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator)

1. What is the difference between a Schmitt trigger circuit and a comparator circuit?

Ans: A comparator compares the input voltage with the reference voltage and swing
between a high voltage output and a low voltage output. On the other hand, in a
Schmitt trigger circuit, output swings occur only when the magnitude of the input
voltage crosses the upper threshold from smaller values to larger values and when the
magnitude of the input voltage crosses the lower threshold from larger values to smaller
values. In short, a Schmitt trigger is a comparator circuit with two different threshold
voltage levels.

2. Explain why a Schmitt trigger circuit is better than a comparator.

Ans: Because, unlike a comparator, in a Schmitt trigger, if the input voltage falls below
the lower threshold voltage then a high voltage is obtained at the output (assuming the
input was connected at the inverting terminal) and this voltage is retained until the
input voltage climbs and crosses the upper threshold after which the output swings to
the low voltage.

3. Explain how you can design a VCO using a Voltage Controlled Current Source, a
capacitor and a comparator.

Ans:

Inside the VCO there is a constant current source; its function is to charge and discharge
an external capacitor labeled C1 in the diagram. The rate at which this charging and
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discharging occurs is controlled by the input voltage and the external resistor R1. Thus,
C1, R1 and the input voltage altogether determine the output frequency of the VCO. A
Schmitt trigger is employed to switch the current source from charging and discharging
the capacitor C1. The component left to mention is a source follower which is also
known as a buffer amplifier. The purpose of source follower is to amplify the output of
the Schmitt trigger circuit.

4. What sort of a waveform would you observe if you had connected the CRO at pin 6
of the first Op-Amp?

Ans: Triangular.

5. What can you do to change the value of the upper and lower threshold voltages of a
Schmitt trigger circuit?

Ans: We will use BJT (npn in this case), which will work as a switching device.

6. Explain the role of the transistor in this circuit.

Ans: If we recall, a Schmitt trigger is used as we need varying input waveform which
passes through and between its two threshold voltages. This is where we need BJT (npn
in this experiment). The base of the transistor is connected with the output of the
second op-amp which means that when the Schmitt trigger gives a high voltage as
output (+5V here) then there will be a voltage drop of more than 0.7 V between the
base and the emitter terminal which consequently turns on the transistor. BJT is used as
a switching device here.

7. Explain how charging and discharging of the capacitor takes place in this circuit.

Ans: When the transistor is turned on then the capacitor sees a new path now to the
ground (through the emitter terminal of the transistor) and so discharges using this new
path. When discharging, the charges are getting drained from the leftward plate of the
capacitor which makes it negatively charged and with a parallel plate capacitor when
one plate is negatively charged the other plate gets positively charged; so the output of
the op-amp 1 would then be rising. At one point, this output from op-amp 1 crosses the
upper threshold of the Schmitt trigger which then swings of the output of the op-amp 2
from high to low. This causes the voltage drop between base and emitter of the
transistor to be negative and turns off the path for discharging of the capacitor. So the
capacitor now charges again with its polarities at its plates being swapped now! While
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the capacitor is charging the output voltage of the op-amp 1 is decreasing and when it
goes beyond the lower threshold of the Schmitt trigger then again the transistor gets
turned on due to a swing in the output of the op-amp 2 and the capacitor starts to
discharge again. In this way the process continues while the transistor acts as a
switching device.

8. Without varying the input voltage how can you change the frequency of the
oscillation of the VCO?

Ans: By changing the values of other basic components.

9. Why can’t we see a free running frequency using this circuit configuration?

Ans: Free running frequency is the frequency of oscillation of a VCO when the input
voltage is zero. In a IC based VCO the current source is powered up by the biasing
voltage of the IC so even when the input to VCO is zero there is a frequency of
oscillation existing but in the circuit setup of this experiment no frequency exists when
input voltage is zero because at zero volt no current reaches capacitor.

10. Briefly explain the working principle of this circuit.

Ans: It has two op-amps. Op-amp 1 is an integrator circuit and op-amp 2 is a Schmitt
trigger. An integrator takes in the magnitude of the input voltage and multiplies it with
the duration up to which the magnitude stays at the input terminal to provide an output
until saturation is reached. The saturation level depends on the capacitance level and
the duration at which saturation is reached is given by the resistor and capacitor
combination. The output from op-amp 1 is connected to the input of the Schmitt trigger.
To vary the input, we have used BJT, which acts like a switch. The circuit set up produces
a triangular output from op-amp 1 and a square wave output from op-amp 2 the
frequency of which can be varied by changing the dc input voltage and hence we have
our VCO.

Important questions for quiz, lab set up & viva:

1. Define comparator, Schmitt trigger, integrator and VCO.

2. How many op-amps did we use?

Ans: Two
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3. What are the op-amps called?

Ans: Left 741 IC is Integrator, Right 741 IC is Schmitt Trigger.

4. How does a BJT work?

Ans: In two ways: i) as amplifier, ii) as switch; in this experiment it was used as switch.

5. How do you find whether a BJT is working as an amplifier or switch?

Ans: If BJT has biasing networkamplifer

If BJT has no biasing networkswitch

6. From which pin and which op-amps did we take output?

Ans: Pin 6 of op-amp 2.

7. What was the shape of our output from op-amp 2?

Ans: Square wave.

8. If output was taken from op-amp 1, what would be the shape?

Ans: Triangular.