Wireless & Mobile Communication

UNIT
1 Wireless
Communication
Fundamentals
CONTENTS
Evolution of Mobile Radio 1-3A to 1-3A
Part-l
Communication Fundamentals
1-3A to 1-5A
Part-2 : General Model of Wireless.....
Communication Link
1-5A to 1-7A
Part-3: Types of Signals
Part-4 : Cellular Infrastructure, 1-7A to 1-12A
Frequency Reuse
Part-5 : Cellular System Components 1-12A to 1-14A
Antennas for Cellular Systems 1-14A to 1-15A

Part-6 :
1-15A to 1-16A
Part-7 : Operation of Cellular Systems....
1-16A to 1-17A
Part-8 : Channel Assignment Strategies ......
1-17A to 1-19A
Part-9 : Handoff Strategies
1-19A to 1-21A
Part-10 : Cellular Interferences
Sectorization 1-22A to 1-24A

Part-11:
Wireless Channel and Radio 1-24A to 1-26A

Part-12 : ........
Communication
....... 1-26A to 1-29A
Part-13: Free Space Propagation Model
1-1A (EC-Sem-7)
1-2A (EC-Sem-7) Wireless Communication Fundamentals
Part-14: Channel Noise and Losses 1-29A to 1-32A
Part-15 : Fading in Land Mobile System,.......1-33A to 1-38A

Multipath Fading, Fading Effects
on Signal and Frequency
Part-16 : Shadowing 1-38A to 1-38A
1-38A to 1-40A
Part-17 : Wireless Channel Modelling :
AWGN Channel
Part-18: Rayleigh Fading Channel Model.......140A to 1-41A

Part-19: Rician Fading Channel Model ..........141A to 1-42A
Part-20: Nakagami Fading Channel Model.....143A to 1-43A
Part-21: Okumura and Hata 1-43A to 1-45A

Path LoSs Model
Part-22 : Channel Modeling : Stochastic......45A to 1-47A

Part-23 : Flat Channel Modeling 1-47A to 1-49A
Part-24: Wideband Time-Dispersive 1-49A to 1-49A

Channel Modeling
Wireless & Mobile Communication 1-3A (EC-Sem-7)
PART- 1
Evolution of Mobile Communication Fundamentals.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. Explain the term evolution of mobile radio
communication fundamentals. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
1. In the year 1887 Heinrich Hertz proves existence of EM waves.
2. Gugliemo Marconi developed the world's first commercial radio service
in 1897.
3. The first use of mobile radio in an automobile was in 1921. Early radio
telephone systems were too bulky.
4 The key technological breakthrough came in 1935, when Edwin
Armstrong introduced frequency modulation (FM) to improve radio
broadcasting.
5. This technology reduced the required bulk of radio equipment and
improved transmission quality.
6 In 1946, Bell telephone labs inaugurated the first mobile system for
public. The system was known as mobile telephone service (MTS).
7 In 1965, Bell system introduced inproved version of MTS known as
improved mobile telephone service (IMTS), which was the first automatic
mobile system and full duplex in nature.
8. The ability to provide wireless communication to an entire population
was made possible by Bell laboratories with the development of cellular
concept in 1960s and 1970s.
9. With the development of highly reliable, miniature, solid state radio
frequency hardware in the 1970s, the wireless communication era was
born.
PART-2
General Model of Wireless Communication Link.

14A(EC-Sem-7) Wireless Communication Fundamentals
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions8
Que 1.2, Draw and explain the general model for wireless digital
communication link.
Answer
1. Fig. 1.2.1 provides a block diagram ofa digital communications link.
Information Source Channel
Encryptor Modulator
Source encoder encoder
RF
upconversion
Wireless
channel
RF down
conversion
Information Source Channel

sink decoder Decryptor decoder Demodulator
Fig. 1.2.1. Basic model of wireless digital communication link.
Source coding/decoding stage :
1. The first step is to convert a continuous analog signal into a discrete of
digital bit stream. This process is called digitization.
2. The next step is to add information coding for data compression.
3. The information to be transmitted from the source may be human
originated (speech) or machine-originated (data or image).
4. The source encoder with compression eliminates the inherent
redundancy in the information (thus compressing) to maximize the
transmission rate and the encrypter ensures secrecy of data.
Channel codingldecoding stage :
1 Data must be protected against perturbations introduced by the noisy
channel, which could lead to misinterpretation of the transmitted
message at the receiving end.
2 Line coding techniques are used for inserting systematic amplitude
variations, power levels, and synchronization points, whereas channel
coding techniques are used to insert structured sequences. Both
techniques help in combating channel errors.
Modulatorldemodulator stage :
1. The modulation method to be used should be selected based on the
channel characteristics.
2. Corrections should take place before demodulation to reduce the
probability of errors.
3 The modulator block generates a signal suitable for the transmission
channel.
4 The block in the reverse path does the opposite of those in the forward
path.
Intermediate frequency/radio frequency stage :
1 After the modulator, we have a typical RF or microwave transmitter.
2 The signal is converted up to an IF and then further upconverted to a
higher RF. Any undesirable signal produced by the upconversion is
filtered out.
3 Depending upon the requirements, the power amplifier is selected for
amplifying the power to cover the required transmission distance.
4 The receiver RF section provides efficient coupling between the antenna
and the rest of the hardware, which utilizes the energy abstracted from
the radio wave.
PART-3
Types of Signals.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.3. What do you mean by signal ? And explain types of

signals.
Answer
A Signal : It is a physical quantity that varies with time, space or any
other independent variable or variables. It gives the information about
behaviour or nature of the phenomenon.
B. Types of signals :
i Analog and digital signals :
1 Asignal whose amplitude takes all the values in the specified range over
the measuring interval or time, and is continuous in time is called an
analog signal. Here, the signal can take an infinite number of values.
Example : sine wave.
1-6 A (EC-Sem-7) Wireless Communication Fundamentals
2. Adigital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete

values. Example : binary signal.
ii. Continuous-time and diserete-time signals:
1 Asignal that is specified for every value of time is called continuous
time signal and is denoted by x(t).
2. Asignal that is specified at discrete value of time only is called discrete
time sigmal and is denoted by x[n], where, n is an integer.
i. Deterministic and random signals :
1. Deterministic signals can be completely specified in time. The pattern of
this signal is regular and can be characterized mathematically. So, its
future value at any instant can be determined easily. For example,
y(t) = ax(t).
2 Random signals take random values at any given time. The pattern of
this signal is irregular and it cannot be defined mathematically. So,
future value of these signals at any instant cannot be predicted.
For example, noise.
iv. Even and odd signals :
1. A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred toas symmetric or even signal if
x(-t) = lt) or x[- n] = x[n]
and referred to as non-symmetric or odd signal if
x(- t) = - x(t) or x[-n] = -n]
V. Periodic and non-periodic signals :
1. A periodic signal repeats its pattern over a time period.
For continuous-time, x(t + T)= xt); where, T is period of xt)
For discrete-time, x[n +NM =xn]; N is period of x(n]
2. A signal which does not satisfy the periodicity condition is referred to
non-periodic signal.
vi. Energy and power signals :
1. A power signal is defined as a signal having finite average power and
infinite energy i.e., 0 <P<0 and E=0
T
1
For continuous-time signal, x(t), P= T’o
lim 2T |x)|P dt
-T
N
For diserete-time signal, x(n], P= N’0

lim 2N +1
n=-N
2
The energy signal is one that has a finite energy ard zero average
power i.e., 0 <E<o andP= 0.
For continuous-time signal, x(t); E=

For discrete-time signal, x[n]; E =

n=-o
PART-4
Cellular Infrastructure, Frequency Reuse.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.4. Write a short note on the following :

i. Cell ii. Cluster iii. Cell splitting
Answer
i. Cell :
1. Acell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system. The size of a cell
depends on the density of subscribers in area. On the basis of their size
cells may be categorized as macrocells, microcells, picocells and femtocells.
2. Cell wise, one base station provides transmission over a small geographic
area, smaller cells use low-power transceivers to cover smaller regions;
hence frequency reuse can be increased without interference.
ii. Cluster : Agroup of cells form a cluster, the size of which is denoted as
N. Each cluster is allocated a set of frequencies.
iii. Cell splitting :
1 Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller
cells, each with its own base station and a corresponding reduction in
antenna height and transmitter power.
2. Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular, since it increases the
number of times that channels are reused.
Que 1.5. Explain the principle of frequency reuse in a cellular

network. Show that the frequency reuse factor is given by K/S where
K is the average number of channels per cell and S is the total
number of channels available.
Answer
1. The design process of selecting and allocating channels groups for all of
the cellular base stations within a system is called frequency reuse or
frequency planning.
2. The cellular frequency reuse concept is shown in Fig. 1.5.1. Cells with
the same letter use the same set of frequencies. Acell cluster is outlined
in bold and replicated over the coverage area.
3. In this example, the cluster size N is equal to 7 and the frequency reuse
factor is L/7, since each cell contains one-seventh of the total number of
available channels.
G
A
B G
G A
A D
F E
Fig.1.5.1. Frequency reuse concept.

4 To understand the frequency reuse concept, consider system which has
a total of Sduplex channels available for use.
5. If each cell is allocated a group of Kchannels (such that K <S), and if the
S channels are divided among N cells into unique and disjoint channel
groups which each have the same number of channels, the total number
of available radio channels can be represented as
S = KN
6 The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available
frequencies is called as a cluster. Ifcluster is replicated M times within
the system, the total number of duplex channels, C can be used as a
measure of capacity and is given by
C= M KN= MS
7. So the capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the number
of times a cluster is replicated in a fixed service area. The factor N is
called the cluster size and is typically equal to 4, 7 or 12.
8 The frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is given /N, since each
cell within cluster is only assigned 1/N of the total available channels in
the system.
WN= KIS
Que 1.6. What are the limitations of mobille telephone systems ?

Verify the cluster size N=i+j+ij, where i andj are the integers
used to determine the co-channel cells. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Wireless & Mobile Communication 1-9 A (EC-Sem-7)
Answer
A Limitations of mobile telephone systems :
1. Limited service capability,
2. Poor service performance,
3. Ineficient frequency spectrum utilization.
B. Verification of co-channel cell of cluster size N= / +j+ij:
1. Acandidate cell has 6 nearest co-channel cells. By joining the centers of
the 6 nearest neighbouring co-channel cells, we form a large hexagon
as shown in Fig. 1.6.1. This large hexagon has radius equal to D, which
is alsothe co-channel cell separation.
Small
hexagon
Large
hexagon R
D
Fig. 1.6.1.
2. With the cell radius R, we have
D= 3RD. - y3(1 +j +j) R

norm
3. In general the area of a hexagon is proportional to the square of its

radius. Letp be the proportional constant. Then the area oflarge hexagon
with radius D is
Alarge = BLD = B[3( +ij+R)
and the area of a cell (the smnall hexagon) with radius R will be
Asmal) = BR?
4 The number of cell in the large hexagon is then
Aarg = 3(;2 ++ij) ...(1.6.1)
5.
A,mal
On other hand, from the geometry, it can be seen that, in general, the
large hexagcn enclose the center cluster of A-cellsplus 1/3 the number
of cells associated with six other peripheral large hexagons. Therefore
the total number of cells enclosed by the large hexagon is given by
N. =3N .(1.6.2)
6. From eq. (1.6.1) and eg. (1.6.2) we get

N=i2+j+
Hence proved.
Que 1.7. A cellular architecture is configured with regular
hexagon cell geometry. The total service area is divided into cell
clusters with frequency reuse. Prove that the distance (D) between
the centers of two closest channel cell is given by
D
=Ry3(i +j + ij) ;where R is the cell radius, having same units
as D; and i,j are non-negative integers which describe the geometry
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
relation between adjacent cells.
Answer
1 One hexagon is equivalent to six triangles with equal sides. The radius
of the hexagon is R. Hence, all sides of the triangles are also R.
So, (i/2)2 = R2- (R/2)2
or i= V3 xR(center-to-center distance)
2. Using cosine law and hexagonal geometry,
Total distance i, = V3 Ri and j,= V3 Rj
In addition, 0 = 120°.
So, D² = i'+jj'-2i,j, cos

= 3R?;2 +3R2;2-2 x 3R²ij cos(120°)
= 3R²;2 +3R2;2 x 3R'ij xV2
= 3R² (¡2+ij+)
Hence, the required relationship is proved.
Que 1.8. Calculate the total available channels for a cellular
system having a total bandwidth of 60 MHz which uses two 50 kHz
simplex channel to provide full duplex voice and control channels.
Assume that the system uses nine cell reuse pattern and 1 MHz of
the total bandwidth is allocated for control channels. Also calculate
the number of control channels or voice channels per cell.
AKTU2015-16, Marks 05
Answer
Given:Total bandwidth = 60 MHz, N = 9, Channel bandwidth

= 50 kHz x 2 simplex channels = 100 kHz/duplex channels
To Find:Total available channels, number of control channels, voice
channels per cell.
1. Total available channels = Total bandwidth
Channel bandwidth
60 x 10°
10 x 103 = 6000 channels
l06
2. Number of control channels = Allocated spectrum
Channel bandwidth 10 x 103
= 100 control channels
3 For N=9
Number of voice channels per cell = 6000 - 100 60
99
Que 1.9. A FDD cellular communication system uses a total of

945 radio channels available for handling traffic. The total area of
the entire system is 2450 sq.km with the 7 sg.km as the area ofa cell.
i. Calculate the system capacity if the cluster size is 7.
ii. Caleulate the system capacity if the cluster size is 4.
Answer
Given: Total number of available channels, S=945, Area of cellular

system, A,=2450 km², Area of cell, A =7 km?
To Find : System capacity.
i. For cluster size, N=7
The number of channels per cell is given by
S
K=
N
945
K= = 135 channels/cell
7
We know that the coverage area of a cluster is given by
=NxA,ll =7x7= 49 km?
Acluster
The number of times that the cluster has to be replicated to cover the
entire system will be
2450
M= Ay 49
= 50
A,luster
Then the system capacity Cwill be

C = MKN
C= 50 x 135 x 7 = 47250 channels
ii. For cluster size N = 4
Acluster =4x7=28 km2
A, 2450 =87.5 = 87
Hence, M=
Aqcluster 28
Then total number of channels per cell is given by
S 945
K= = 236.5
N 4
So, system capacity is C= MKN
C= 87 x 236 x 4 = 82128 channels
PART-5
Cellular System Components.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.10. Explain in brief the components of analog circuit

switched cellular system.
Answer
An analog circuit-switched cellular system has three subsystems :
a. Mobile unit:
Amobile unit is also called amobile subseriber unit (MSU). An MSUis a
control unit consisting of a battery, a transceiver, and an antenna system
that transmits and receives radio transmission to and from a cell site.
b. Cell site (Base station):
1 It is used to refer to the physical location of the radio equipment that
provides coverage within a cell in which the transceiver is installed.
2 The cell site provides the interface between the MTSO and the mobile
units.
3. The hardware located at a cell site includes the control unit, interface
equipment, RF transmitters and receivers, antennas, power plant, and
data terminals.
C. Mobile telecommunication switching office (MTSO) :

1. The processor of the MTSO provides central coordination and cellular
administration for all cell sites.
2. The MTSO consists of the cellular processor and the cellular switch. It
interfaces with the zone offices of the telephone company, performs
field monitoring, controls call processing, provides operation and
maintenance and handles billing activities.
3 Radio and high-speed data links connect these three subsystems of the
analog circuits switched cellular system. The MTSO is the heart of the
analog cellular mobile system.
Que 1.11. Explain in brief the components of digital circuit
switched cellular system
OR
Write a short note on packet-switched cellular system.
Answer
A. Digital circuit-switched cellular system:A digital circuit-switched
cellular system has four subsystems :
a. Mobile station: Amobile station (MS) consists of two parts: the mobile
equipment (with battery) and the subscriber identity module (SIM),
which contains all the subscriber specific data stored at the MS side.
b. Base station or base transceiver station: Besides having the same
function as the analog base station or base transceiver station (BTS)
this has the transcoder/rate adapter unit (TRAU), which carries out
coding and decoding as well as rate adaptation in case the data rate
varies.
C. Base station controller (BSC) :
1. The BSC performs the radio resource (RR) management for the cells
under its control.
2. In addition to managing the databases of all the sites, it also handles
power management, time and frequency synchronization, and frequency
reallocation among BTSs.
d. Switching subsystems :
1 The MSC is the main element that coordinates the setup of calls between
two MS users as well as between MS and public-switched telephone
network (PSTN- landline) users.
2.
Gateway mobile switching center (GMSC) handles the mobile-to-landline
or landlines to mobile calls.
3. Visitor location register (VLR), home location register (HLR),
authentication center (AUC), equipment identity register (EIR), and
operation and maintenance center (OMC) are the other elements in the
switching subsystem.
1-14 A EC-Sem-7) Wireless Communication Fundamentals
B. Packet-switched cellular system :

1. A packet-switched cellular system is a system typically designed and
developed for internet access.
2, It interworks with a digital circuit-switched cellular system and uses the
same infrastructure.
3
It has six elements: MS (user equipment), base station, radio network
controller (RNC), service support node (SSN), gateway support node
(GSN), and charging gateway function (CGF).
PART-6
Antennas for Cellular Systems.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.12. Discuss the types of antennas for cellular systems.

Answer
Types of antennas for cellular systems :
a. For coverage use-omnidirectional antennas :
1. Omnidirectional antennas are nothing but the dipoles and they radiate
in all lateral directions.
2. An omnidirectional antenna on a tower radiates equally in 360°, whereas
a directional antenna for directional radiation with certain radiation
angle.
3. There are standard 6-dB and 9-dB gain omnidirectional antennas.
b. For interference reduction use-directional antennas :
1. A directional antenna shapes and projects beam of radio energy in a
specific direction and receive radio energy only from a specific direction,
employing various horizontal beamwidths.
2. Here, the term beamwidth refers to the deviation of a radiated beam in
degrees with respect to the point of radiation of the directional antenna
and the intended direction.
3 Directional antennas are effectively omniantennas that use a reflecting
element for directing or focusing the RF signal (energy) over a specified
beamwidth.
4 There are many types of directional antennas used by wireless carriers
log periodic, yagi, phased-array and panel antennas.
Wireless & Mobile Communication 1-15A EC-Sem-7)
C. Downtilt antenna :
1 To compensate for coverage shadows, antenna manufacturers have
developed electrical downtilt antennas and mechanical downtilt kits
specifically for the wireless industry.
2 The radiation pattern ofa downtilt antenna is electrically or mechanically
tilted downwards at a specified number of degrees.
3. Downtilting of antennas decreases distance coverage horizontally, but
increases signal coverage closer to the cell site.
4 Acommon place to install adowntilt antenna is at a cell site that is on a
very tall tower, on a hillor near a large body of water.
PART-7
Operation of Cellular Systems.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.13. Explain the term evolution of mobile radio

communication fundamentals and describe the operation of cellular
system. AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
A Evolution of mobile radio communication fundamentals :
Refer Q. 1.1, Page 1-2A, Unit-1.
B. Operation of cellular systems : The operation of cellular systems
can be divided into several parts and a handoff procedure :
i. Mobile unit initialization :
1 When a user activates the receiver of the mobile unit, the receiver
selects the strongest channel and locks on for a certain time. Since each
site is assigned a different set up channel, locking onto the strongest set
up channel usually means selecting the nearest cellsite.
2 This self-location scheme is used in the idle stage and is user independent.
It has a great advantage because it eliminates the load on the transmission
at the cell site for locating the mobile unit.
ii. Mobile originated call :
1 The user places the called number into an originating register in the
mobile unit, checks to see that the number is correct, and pushes the
"send" button.
1-16 A (EC-Sem-7)
Wireless Communication Fundamentals
2.
Arequest for service is sent on a selected set-up channel obtained form
a self-location scheme.
3. The cell site receives it, and in directional cell
directive antenna for the voice channel to use. sites, selects the best
4. At the same time the cell site sends a
request to the
switching office (MTSO) via a high-speed data link. mobile telephone
5. The MTSOselects an appropriate voice channel for the call, and the
site acts on it through the best directive antenna to link the mobile
cell
unit.
iii. Call termination : When the mobile user
turns off the transmitter, a
particular signal (signaling tone) transmits to the cell site, and both sides
free the voice channel. The mobile unit resumes
monitoring pages
through the strongest set-up channel.
iv. Handoff procedure:
1. During the call, two parties are on a voice channel. When the mobile
unit moves out of the coverage area of a particular cell site, the reception
becomes weak. The present cell site requests a handoff.
2. The system switches the call to a new frequency channel in a new cell
site without either interrupting the call or altering the user.
PART-8
Channel Assignment Strategies.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.14. Explain different types of channel assignment
strategies. AKTU2016-17, Marks10
Answer
We can divide the channel assignment strategies into two parts:
i. Fixed channel assignment strategy:
1. Fixed channel assignment strategy depicts that a fixed set of frequencies
(voice channels) is allocated to each cell.
2. Maximum number of calls that can be attempted depend on the number
of voice channels.
3 If allthe channels in acell are found occupied then the callis blocked
and no service will be delivered to the subscriber. In this strategy, an
approach is sometimes adopted that is known as borrowing approach.
Borrowing approach: In this approach, one cell is allowed to borrow

some voice channels from its neighboring cell under the control of mobile
switching center (MSC). Main point to note in this approach is that
neighboring cell should not be disturbed or interfered in any way by
borrower cell.
ii. Dynamic channel assignment strategy :
1. No fixed set of voice channel is present in this strategy.
2. When request of a call is made through a cell then this request is passed
to the MSC via BSC. The MSC then allocates a voice channel to the
requesting cell.
3. The main advantage of this strategy is that blocking probability of a call
is reduced in this case which increases the trunking capacity of the
system.
PART-9
Handoff Strategies.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.15.What is frequency reuse concept ? Anddeseribe the hand

off strategies in wireless communication.
AKTU 2018-19,Marks 10
OR
What do you mean by handoff ?
Answer
A. Frequency reuse concept : Refer Q. 1.5, Page 1-8A, Unit-1.
B. Handoff :
1 The handoff operation not only involves identifying a new base station,
channels
but also requires that the voice and control signals be allocated to
associated with the new base station.
2. Many handoff strategies prioritize handoff requests over call initiation
requests when allocating unused channels in a cell site. I andoffs must
be performed successfully and as infrequently as possible, and be
imperceptible to the users. In order to meet these requirements, system
designers must specify an optimum signal
3. In order tomeet these requirements, system designers must specify an
optimum signal level at which to initiate a handoff.
4. Once a particular signal level is specified as the minimum usable signal
for acceptable voice quality at the base station receiver, a slightly stronger
signal level is used as a threshold at which handoff is made.
5. This margin given by
A=Phandof - D
rminimum usable
cannot be too large or too small.
6 If Ais larger unnecessary handoffs which burden the MSC may occur,
and if Ais too small, there may be insufficient time to complete a handoff
before a call is lost due toweak signal conditions.
C. Handoff strategies :
i. Forced handoff :
1 When there is a drop in the measured signal level due to momentary
fading and not due to the actual moving mobile away from the base
station, in that situation if the handoff of a call takes place then such
handof is known as forced handoff.
ii. MAHO:
1 In mobile assisted handoff (MAHO), every mobile station measures the
received power from surrounding base stations and continually reports
the result of these measurements of signals to the serving base station.
2 A
handoff is initiated when the power received from the base station of
a neighbouring cell begins to exceed the power received from the current
base station by a certain value or for a certain period of time.
3 The MAHOmethod enables the call to be handed over at a much faster
rate than in first generation analog systems.
iii. Soft handoff :
1. The soft handoffis applied to CDMA system. In CDMA systems, all cells
can use the same radio carrier. Therefore, the frequency reuse factor K
approaches one.
2. Since the operating radio carriers of all cells are the same, there is no
need to change from one frequency to another frequency but to change
from one code to another code. Thus there is no hard handoff. We call
this kind of handoff a soft handoff.
Que l.16. How prioritizinghandoffs technique is used to decrease
the probability of forced termination of a call due to lack of available
channels ? AKTU2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
1 Queuing of handoffs requests is a method to decrease the probability of
forced termination of a call due to lack of available channel.
2 Queuing of handoffs is possible due to the fact that there is a finite time
interval between the time the received signal level drops below the
handoff threshold and the time the call is terminated due to insufficient
signal level.
3. The delay time and size of the queue is determined from the traffic
pattern of the particular service.
4. Queuing does not guarantee azero probability of forced termination, as
large delay will cause the received signal level to drop below the minimum
acceptable and hence lead to forced termination.
Que 1.17. Discuss umbrella cell approach with diagram to enhance
the connectivity in mobile communication.
AKTU2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
1 In practical cellular systems, several problems arise when attempting to
design fora wide range of mobile velocities.
2 This problem is solved by using different antenna heights over same
tower and different power levels. This technique is called umbrella cell
approach and is used to provide large area coverage to high speed users,
while providing small area coverage to low speed users.
3 This minimizes the high speed user's handoff and reduces the burden of
MSC. This approach is shown in Fig. 1.17.1.
Large "Umbrella"
cell for high -Small microcells
speed traffic for low speed traffice
Fig. 1.17.1. Umbrella cell approach.

PART-10
Cellular Interferences.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
Questions
Que 1.18.|How many types of cellular

interferences are there ?
Explain any one.
Answer
There are two types of cellular interferences.
i. Adjacent channel interference
i. Co-channel interference :
1. Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area there is several
cells that use the same set of frequencies. These cells are called
co-channel cells and the interference between signals from these cells is
called co-channel interference.
2 Co-channel interference cannot be compensated by simply increasing
the carrier power of transmitter. This is because an increase in carrier
transmit power increases the interference to neighbouring co-channel
cells.
3 To reduceco-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically
separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to
propagation.
4. When the size of each cell and transmitted base station power are same,
then co-channel interference ratio is independent of the transmitted
power and becomes a function of the radius of the cell (R) and the
distance between centers of the nearest co-channel cells (D).
5. By increasing the ratio of D/R, the separation between co-channel cells
relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased.
6. The parameter Q called the co-channel reuse ratio is related to the
cluster size. For a hexagonal geometry
D
Q=3N
R
Que 1.19. Explain adjacent channel interference in a cellular

system.
Answer
1. Ifthere is interference from the signals that are adjacent in frequency
to the desired signal, it is called adjacent channel interference.
2. It results from not having enough separation between the adjacent
channels or having an imperfect receiver filter that allows nearby
frequencies to enter into the passband as shown in Fig. 1.19.1(b).
20 x
User B
User A Base
Desired
station
mobile B
Interfering
mobile A
(a)
Channel 1 Channel 1
f
Desired mobile B Interfering mobile A
with low power with high power overwhelming
the desired frequency
Dotted line indicates when both mobiles
are equidistant from base station
(b)
Fig. 1.19.1. Adjacent channel interference (a)Interference created by
near-far problem (b) Interference shown on frequency axis with
relative powers of both channels for mobiles A and B.
3 This problem becomes serious when an adjacent or interfering channel

user transmits in a range that is very close to a subscriber's receiver,
while the receiver attempts to receive a base station on the desired
channel..
4 The base station may have difficulty in discriminating the desired mobile
user from the nearer adjacent channel mobile user.
5 If the frequency reuse factor is large or Nis small, the separation between
the adjacent channels may not be sufficient to keep the adjacent channel
interference level within tolerable limits.
6. Adjacent channel interference can be reduced considerably by

maintaining a large frequency separation between each channel in a
given cell.
PART-11|
Sectorization.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.20. Explain cell sectoring and show how co-channel

interference is reduced in this?
Answer
1 Cell sectoring is a method to increase system capacity. It keeps the
radius of the cell constant and decreases the co-channel reuse ratio DIR
to reduce the cluster size N.
2. Cell sectoring is a method of decreasing the co-channel interference
and enhancing system performance by using a directional antenna.
3. The size of clusters in a particular service area can be reduced because
the cell sectoring increases the signal to interference ratio (SIR).
4. The reduction in the co-channel interference is dependent on the amount
of sectoring used.
5. Cell sectoring process generally divides a cell into three 120° sectors and
six 60° sectors.
6. The signal tonoise ratio improvement allows the cellular provider to
decreases the cluster size N in order to improve the frequency reuse
and thus, the system capacity.
o
2
120° and 60° sectoring

Fig. 1.20.1.
Que 1.21.Acellular service provider decides to use a digital TDMA

scheme which can tolerate a signal tointerference ratio of 15 dB in
the worst case. Find the optimal value of N for
1. Omnidirectional antenna,
2. 120° sectoring, and
3. 60° sectoring.
Should sectoring be used ? If so, which case should be used ? Assume
a path loss exponent of n = 4 and consider trunking efficiency.
Answer
We have dB = 15 dB = 10 log
So, =31.62, n=4

1. For omnidirectional antenna,
V3N
6
Or 31.62 x 6= (V3N
3N =13.77 or N=4.59
We have to select to next possible integer value as the worst-case SIR is
given. By selecting a higher value of N, we can reduce interference.
Moreover, Nshould be a value that satisfies equation, N=i+j +j'.
Hence, N=7.
2. For 120° sectoring, S
= 3x
(V3NY
31.62 x 2 = (V3N)
3N= 7.9 or N= 2.650
Hence, N=3.
3 For 60° sectoring,

S
=6x
(V3NY
6
or 31.62 x 2= (V3N)
Or 3N= 5.6 or N= 1.8
Hence, N=3.
4. Sectoring will reduce interference because the antennas will be more
directional and will have more coverage angle, which reduces the area.
5. Irrespective of whether we opt for 60° or 120° sectoring, the cluster size
requirement is the same. However, 120° sectoring saves three antennas,
and therefore, it is a better choice.
1-24 A (EC-Sem-7) Wireless (Communication Fundamentals
Que 1.22.Name the techniques used to increase the capacity of a

cellular system and compare them. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
OR
What do you understand by coverage and capacity in cellular
systems ?Name the techniques used to increase the capacity of a
cellular system and compare them. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Coverage : Coverage is defined as the maximum distance that a given
user of interest can be from the base station and still have reliable
received signal strength at the base station.
B. Capacity: Capacity of system is defined as the maximum of the product
of the number of users per cell times the user spectral eficiency for a
given maximum outage probability.
C. Techniques used to increase the capacity of a cellular system :
i. Cell splitting: Refer Q. 1.4, Page 1-7A, Unit-1.
ii. Cell sectoring:Refer Q. 1.20, Page 1-22A, Unit-1.
ii. Microcell zone concept.
iv. Increasing number of repeaters.
D. Comparision :
SNo. Parameters Cell splitting Sectoring Microcell zone concept
1. Process Each cellis divided into sectors

Each cellofisequal
dividedareas
into Each cellis formed using
many zones.
smaller radius cells.
having centered at mid of
main cell.
Base stationEach smaller cell No more base stations are Each cell has only one
2.
requires new base station. required. base station.
3.
Interference Interference gets Co-channel interference Interference is reduced.
increased due to nearer is reduced.
co-channel cells.
4 System System capacity incre ases System capacity System capacity
capacity
due to increase in the increases by increase in increases without any
number of clusters. the SIR. degradation in trunking
efficiency.
Radius of cell decreases. Radius of cell remains Radius of cell incre ases.
5 Radius of
cell unchanged.
Cost increases due to new Cost increases due to Cost decreases due to
base stations. more antennas. less base stations.
6 Cost
PART- 12
Wireless Channel and Radio Communication.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.23. Write short note on wireless channels.
Answer
1. Awireless channel is a dielectric unguided medium that
can be analysed
in the following different ways:
By using the fundamentals of electromagnetic (EM) wave
as phase velocity, phase propagation constant, theory, such
and phase. amplitude, frequency,
By using ray theory, refractive index dependence, reflection, refraction
and diffraction of EM waves (rays).
ii. By using the fundamentals of digital signal
processing (DSP) such as
channel transfer function, spectrum, channel impulse response (CIR)
and convolution with transmitting signal.
2 The channel can act as a low-pass or band-pass filter in certain
conditions.
3 The channel characteristic is of a random nature and depends upon the
situation; hence, probability theory and the concept of probability
distribution function (PDF)can be applied to wireless channels.
Que 1.24. Discuss in brief the radio wave propagation.
Answer
1 The mechanisms behind electromagneticwave propagation can
be attributed to reflection, diffraction and scattering.
generally
2. Most cellular radio systems operate in urban areas where there is no
direct line-of-sight path between the transmitter and receiver, and where
the presence of high-rise buildings causes severe diffraction loss.
3. Due to multiple reflections from various objects, the electromagnetic
waves travel along different paths of varying lengths.
4. The interaction between these waves causes multipath fading at a specific
location and the strengths of the waves decreases as the distance
between the transmitter and receiver increases.
5 Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary
transmitter receiver (T-R) separation distance are useful in estimating
the radio coverage area of transmitter and are called large scale
propagation models,since they characterize signal strength over large
T-R separation distances.
6. On the other hand, propagation models that characterize the rapid

fluctuations of the received signal strength over very short travel
distances (a few wavelength) or short time durations (of the order of
seconds) are called small scale or fading models.
Que 1.25. What are the basic propagation mechanisms used in
mobile communication systems ?
Answer
Basic propagation mechanisms :
1. Line-of-sight : The line-of-sight (LOS) propagation is the wave
propagation in which the EM ray follows a straight line from the
transmitter to the receiver.
2 Non-line-of-sight : The non-line-of-sight (NLOS) propagation
mechanism is based on and is the resultant of the following mechanisms:
i. Reflection : Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic
wave impinges on an object that is larger than its wavelength.
ii. Diffraction : Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the
transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp
irregularities edges.
iii. Scattering: Scattering occurs when the propagating wave is obstructed
by objects that are smaller than its wavelength. Examples of such objects
are lamp posts, foliage and particle in air.
iv. Refraction : Due to variations in the refractive index of the atmospheric
layers, the EM wave bends.
PART- 13
Free Space Propagation Model.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.26. Explain free space propagation model. Also describe

Fraunhofer region.
OR
Write a short note on far-field region.
Answer
A Free space propagation model :
1. The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal
strength when transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed
line-of-sight path between them.
2. The free space model predicts that received power decays as a function
of the T-R separation distance raised to some power (i.e., a power law
function).
3. The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated
from radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the Friüs
free space equation.
P(d) = PGGA? ...(1.26.1)

(4r)' d'L
where, P, = Transmitted power.
P(d) = Received power as a function of T-R separation.
G, - Transmitter antenna gain.
G, = Receiver antenna gain.
d= T-R separation distance in meter.
L= System loss factor not related to propagation (L>1).
and A= Wavelength in meters.
B. Far-field or Fraunhofer region:
1 The far-field or Fraunhofer region of a transmitting antenna is defined
as the region beyond the far-field distance d,, which is related to the
largest linear dimension of the transmitter antenna aperture and the
carrier wavelength.
2 The Fraunhofer distance is given by
2D?
d,=
where, D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna.
3. To be in the far-field region, d, must satisfy
d,>> D
and
d,>>à
4 Ea. (1.26.1) does not hold for d =0. For this reason, large scale propagation
models use a close-in distance do, as a known received power reference
point. The received power P,(d) at any distance d> d, may be related to
P, at d
5. The value P(d,) may be predicted from eg. (1.26.1) or may be measured
in the radio environment by taking the average received power at many
points located at a close-in radial distance d, from the transmitter.
6. The reference distance must be chosen such that it lies in the far-field
region, that is d, >d, and d, is chosen to be smaller than any practical
distance used in the mobile communication system. Thus using

eq. (1.26.1), the received power in free space at a distance greater than
d, is given as
2
Pd) =P(d,)
7. IfP is in units of dBm, the received power is given by
P.(d,)
P(d) dBm =10 log 0.001W + 20 log :dzd, 2d,
where P(d) is in units of watts.
Que 1.27.A transmitter has a power output of 150 watt at a carrier
frequency of 32.5 MHz. It is connected to an antenna with gain of
12 dBi. The receiving antenna is 10 km away and has gain of 5dBi.
Caleulate the power delivered tothe receiver, assuming free space
propagation. Assume also that there are no losses or mismatches in
the system. AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
Given: Transmitter power, P, = 150 W, Carrier frequency,
f=32.5 MHz, Transmitter antenna gain, G, = 12 dBi= 15.85
Receiving antenna gain, G, =5 dBi = 3.16, d = 10 km
To Find: Power delivered to receiver P.(d).
P(d) = 10 log
(4n d?
= 10 log
150 x15.85 x 3.16 x(3 x 102
(4n) x (10 x10°} x(32.5 x 105
= 10log 4.06 x 10-5
P(d) = 43.9 dBW
Que 1.28. Assume a receiver is located 10 km from a 50 W

transmitter. The carrier frequency is 900 MHz, free space propagation
is assumed, G,=1, and G, =2, find
a. the power at the receiver,
b. the magnitude of the E-field at the receiver antenna.
Answer
Given : Transmitter power, P, =50 W, Carrier frequency,

f, =900 MHz, Transmitter antenna gain, G, = 1,
Receiver antenna gain, G, =2
To Find : Power at receiver, magnitude of the received E-field.
a. The power received at distance d = 10 km is
P(d) = 10 log PG,GA)

(4n)'d²
= 10 log 50×1 x 2x (1/3))

(4n) 100002
= -91.5 dBW = -61.5 dBm
b. The magnitude of the received E-field is
P(d)120n P(d)120r
|E|= A, G,A'/4n
7x 101x 120r
= = 0.0039 V/m
2x 0.33 /(4n)
PART- 14
Channel Noise and Losses.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.29. Explain different types of noise present in

communication system.
Answer
1. Types of noises:
i External noise: This is caused by the surroundings of the transmitter
and the receiver.
i. Atmospheric noise :
1 This noise is the result of spurious radio waves that include voltages in
the antenna as it picks them up.
2 The atmospheric noise is generally called static and it is caused by the

natural disturbances occurring in the atmosphere.
3 It originates in the form of amplitude-modulated impulses, and because
such processes are random in nature, it is spread over most of the RF
spectrum normally used for broadcasting. It is additive in nature.
4 As atmospheric noise has an infinite spectrum, just like white light, it is
alsocalled white noise.
iii. Extraterrestrial noise: This is of two types:
a. Solar noise : The solar noise radiates over a very broad frequency
spectrum, which includes the frequencies we use for communication.
b. Cosmic noise: Since distant stars are also at high temperatures, they
radiate RF noise in the same manner as the sun. Though they are far
from the earth, they are many in number and hence in combination
become significant. Galaxies are also responsible for cosmic noise.
iv. Industrial noise : Automobiles and aireraft ignition, electric motors
and switching equipment, leakage from high voltage lines, a multitude
of other heavy electric machines, and many such factors cause this type
of noise.
V. Internal noise : This is caused by the components and connections
used in the hardware of transmitters and receivers.
vi. Thermal agitation noise :
1. The noise generated in the resistance or the resistive component is
random and is referred to as the thermal, agitation, white or Johnson
noise.
2 It is due to random and rapid motion of the molecules, atoms and
electrons inside the component.
vii. Shot noise :
1. The most important of all the other sources is the shot effect. It leads to
shot noise in allamplifying devices and virtually allactive devices such
as transistors.
2. It is caused by the random variations in the arrival of electrons (or
holes) at the output electrode of an amplifying device and appears as a
randomly varying noise current superimposed on the output.
3. When amplified, it sounds as though a shower of lead shots were falling
on a metal sheet, hence the name shot noise.
Que 1.30. What are losses in communication system ? Explain
them.
Answer
i Free space loss:
1. The free space loss occurs as the signal travels through space without
any other effects attenuating the signal it will still diminish as it spreads
out.
2. This can be thought of as the radio communications signal spreading out
as an ever increasing sphere.
3. As the signal has to cover a wider area, conservation of energy tells us
that the energy in any given area will reduce as the area covered becomes
larger.
ii. Ground reflection loss:
1. In multi-hop refraction each time the radio wave is reflected from the
earth, RF energy is lost.
2. The amount of RF energy lost depends upon the angle of incidence,
frequency of the wave, surface irregularities and electrical characteristics
of earth.
iüi. Diffraction loss:
1. If direct LOS is obstructed by a single knife-edge type of obstacle, with
height h mas shown in Fig. 1.30.1, then the diffraction parameter v can
be defined as,
V= ...(1.30.1)
where d, and d, are the terminal distances from the knife-edge.
hm
T7
Fig. 1.30.1. Path profile model for (single) knife-edge diffraction

2 The diffraction loss,additional to the free space loss and expressed in
dB,can be closely approximated by the following :
PditaB =0 ifv<0
P,
difrdB) = 6+ 9v+ 1.27v if0 <v<0<2.4
PdifndB) = 13 + 20log y² if v> 2.4
3 From the example, the attenuation over rounded obstacles is usually
higher than the value of PitR
Que 1.31. Prove that in the two ray ground reflection model,
A= d"-d' = 2h,h Jd.
Show when this holds as a good approximation.
Answer
1. The two ray ground reflection model shown in Fig. 1.31.1 is a useful
propagation model that is based on geometric optics, and considers both
the direct path and a ground reflected propagation path between

transmitter and receiver.
T (transmitter)
Eos
Enor =ELos +Eg
R (receiver)
h,
E, =E h,
Fig. 1.31.1. Two-ray ground reflection model.

2 Using the method of images,which is demonstrated by the geometry of
Fig. 1.31.2, the path difference A, between the line-of-sight and the
ground reflected path can be expressed as
A= d"-d' =Jh, +h,) +d² -yh, -h,' +d² ...(1.31,1)
3. When the T-R separation distance d is very large compared to h, + h,,

eq. (1.31.1) can be simplified using a Taylor series approximation.
A= d"-d'& 2h,h, ..(1.31.2)
d
ELoS d
h,- h,
h,
h,
h, - h,
h.
Fig. 1.31.2. The method of images used to find the path difference
between the line-of-sight and the ground reflected paths.
PART- 15
Fading in Land Mobile System, Multipath Fading, Fading Efects
on Signal and Frequency.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.32. What do you mean by fading in land mobile system ?

OR
Explain the different type of fading in wireless communication.
Answer
A Fading :
1.
The phenomenon of time variation of the received signal power caused
by changes in the transmission medium or path is generally referred to
as fading.
2. It is essentially caused by the reception of multiple reflections of the
transmitted signal.
3 Fading is a key inherent problem of wireless channels.
down into the
B. Types : The mechanism of fading is normally broken relative to
following two categories based on the position of the receiver
the transmitter :
a. Large-scale fading:
1. Large-scale fading occurs due to the following major reasons :
Attenuation in free space : Power degrades with the increase in
i.
distance.
ii. Shadows : Signals are blocked by obstructing structures.
attenuation of
2. Large-scale fading essentially represents the average
wireless signal as it travels a long distance.
3. Mathematically, large-scale fading can be realized by a log-normally
distributed fluctuation superimposed on a mean path loss that is distance
dependent.
b. Small-scale fading:
1.
Small-scale fading occurs due to the following major reasons :
i. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different

multipath signals.
Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation delays due to
nearly objects.
ii. Movement of surrounding objects.
2 Time spread or delay spread and time variance or Doppler effect are the
two main effects observed on the signal due to small-scale fading.
3. Small-scale fading is less predictable and potentially more destructive
than large-scale fading.
Que 1.33.What is small scale multipath propagation ? Discuss
the factors influencing small scale fading.
AKTU2015-16,Marks 05
Answer
A Small scale fading : Refer Q. 1.32, Page 1-32A, Unit-1.
B. Many physical factors in the radio propagation channel influence small
scale fading. These include the following:
i. Multipath propagation :
1. The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers in the channel creates
aconstantly changing environment that dissipates the signal energy in
amplitude, phase and time.
2 These effects result in multiple versions of the transmitted signal that
arrive at the receiving antenna, displaced with respect to one another in
time and spatial orientation.
3 The random phase and amplitudes of the different multipath components
cause fluctuations in signal strength, thereby inducing small-scale fading,
signal distortion, or both.
4 Multipath propagation often lengthens the time required for the
baseband portion of the signal to reach the receiver which can cause
signal smearing due tointer symbol interference.
ii. Speed of the mobile: The relative motion between the base station
and the mobile results in random frequency modulation due to different
Doppler shifts on each of the multipath components. Doppler shift will
be positive or negative depending on whether the mobile receiver is
moving toward or away from the base station.
iüi. Speed of surrounding objects :
1. If objects in the radio channel are in motion., they induce a time varying
Doppler shift on multipath components.
2. If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the mobile, then
this effect dominates the smal-scale fading. Otherwise, motion of
surrounding objects may be ignored, and only the speed of the mobile
need be considered.
iv. The transmission bandwidth of the signal :

1 If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than the "bandwidth"
of the multipath channel,the received signal will be distorted, but the
received signal strength will not fade much over a local area.
2 If the transmitted signal has a narrow bandwidth as compared to the
channel, the amplitude of the signal will change rapidly, but the signal
will not be distorted in time.
Que 1.34. Discuss various types of small scale fading based on

multipath tÉme delay spread.
OR
Explain fading effects on signal and frequency.
Answer
Types of small scale fading based on multipath time delay
spread :
i Flat fading:
1 Ifthe mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response
over a bandwidth which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal, then the received signal willundergo flat fading.
2. In flat fading, the multipath structure of the channel is such that the
spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are preserved at the
receiver.
3 However, the strength of the received signal changes with time, due to
fluctuation in the gain of the channel caused by multipath. The
characteristics of a flat fading channel are illustrated in Fig. 1.34.1.
4. Flat fading channel are also known as amplitude varying channels and
are sometimes referred to as narrowband channels, since the bandwidth
of the applied signal is narrow as compared to the channel flat fading
bandwidth.
s(t) r(t)
h(t ,t)
s(t) h(t ,r) r(t)
T,
t
T.S +t
t<<T,
S() H) R()
-f
Fig. 1.34.1. Flat fading channel characteristics.

5. To summarize, a signal undergoes flat fading if
B, << B.
and T, >> 0,
where, T is the reciprocal bandwidth (e. g., symbol period)
B, is the bandwidth of the transmitted modulation
o, the rms delay spread and
B. is the coherence bandwidth of the channel.
ii. Frequency selective fading:
1. Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the transmitted
symbols within the channel. Thus the channel induces intersymbol
irterference (ISI).
2. Fig.1.34.2, illustrates the characteristics of a frequency selective fading
channel.
3. For frequency selective fading, the spectrum S() of the transmitted
signal has a bandwidth which is greater than the coherence bandwidth
B, of the channel.
4. Frequency selective fading is caused by multipath delays which approach
or exceed the symbol period of the transmitted symbol.
s(t) r(t)
h(t ,t)
s(t) h(t ,t) r(t)
t
T,
T
0 T, T, +
S() H) R()
f -f
f
Fig. 1.34.2. Frequency selective fading channel characteristics.

5. Frequency selective fading channels are also known as wideband
channels since the bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the
bandwidth of the channel impulse response.
6. To summarize, a signal undergoes frequency selective fading if it has,
B, > B.
and
7. Acommon thumb rule is that a channel is flat fading if T,>10g, and a
channel is frequency selective ifT, <10a, although is dependent on the
specific type of modulation used.
Que 1.35. Discuss various types of small scale fading based on
multipath time delay spread. Distinguish between flat fading and
frequency selective fading. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
1-37A (EC-Sem-7)
Wireless & Mobile Communication
Answer
multipath time delay
A Types of small scale fading based on
spread: Refer Q. 1.34, Page 1-34A, Unit-1.
B. Difference :
Frequency selective fading
S.No. Flat fading
bandwidth of
1. The coherence bandwidth of The coherence
smaller than the
channel is
channel is larger than the bandwidth ofthe signal.
bandwidth of the signal.
Different frequency
2 All frequency components of componentsof signal
signal experience the same
experience decorrelated fading.
magnitude of fading.
3. The channel gain is equal for The channel gain may vary for
different frequencies of
all frequency components of the transmitted signal.
transmitted signal.
power delay
Que 1.36. Explain various important parameters of
profile of multipath channel.
Answer
excess delay spread
1 The mean excess delay, rms delay spread, and
be determined from
(X dB) are multipath channel parameters that can characterize the
are used to
a power delay profile. These parameters
channel in time domain.
profile
2. The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay
and is defined as:
T=
...(1.36. 1)
EP()
moment of
3. The rms delay spread is the square root of the second central
the power delay profile and is defined to be
...(1.36.2)
where
k ...(1.36.3)
P(r,)
4. The maximum excess delay (X dB) of the power delay profile is defined
tobe the time delay during which multipath energy falls to XdB below
the maximum.
5. The maximum excess delay is defined as , - To, where t, is the first

arriving signal and , is the minimum delay at which a multipath
component is within X dB of the strongest arriving multipath signal.
PART- 16
Shadowing.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.37. Write a short note on shadowing.
Answer
1 Shadowing is the effect that causes the received signal power to fluctuate
because of the objects obstructing the propagation path between the
transmitter and receiver.
2 These fluctuations are experienced on local mean power that is short
term average of fluctuations due to multipath fading.
3 Shadowing complicates practical cell planning. To fully predict local
shadow attenuation, up-to-date and highly detailed terrain databases
are needed.
4. If one extends the distinction between large area and small area
shadowing, the definition of shadowing covers any statistical fluctuation
of the received local mean power about a certain area mean power, with
the latter determined by large-scale mechanisms.
5. Multipath propagation is separated from shadow fluctuations by
considering the local mean powers.
6. With shadowing, the interference power accumulates more rapidly than
"roportional to the number of signals. The accumulation of multiple
signals with shadowing is a relevant factor in the planning of cellular
networks.
PART- 17
Wireless Channel Modelling, AWGN Channel.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answ r Type Questions
Que 1.38. Write a short note on AWGN channel.
Answer
1. The simplest mathematical model of the radio channel is the additive
white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel. It is a very good model for
physical reality as long as the thermal noise at the receiver is the only
source of disturbance.
2. The AWGN channel model can be characterized as follows :
The noise is additive:
1. The received signal equals the transmit signal plus some noise, where
the noise is statistically independent of the signal.
2. The noise w(t) is an additive random disturbance of the useful signal
s(t); that is, the received signal is given by
r(t) = s(t) + wt)
ii. The noise is white :
1. It has constant PSD. Therefore, the autocorrelation of the noise in time
domain is zero for any non-zero time offset.
2. The one-sided PSD is usually denoted by N,. Thus, N/2 is the two-sided
PSD and WN, is the noise inside the noise bandwidth W.
3. The unit ofN, is W/IHz,. Usually, N, is written as dBm/Hz.
iii. The noise samples have a Gaussian distribution.
1 The Gaussian PDF with variance o² is given by
1 -p-i-m)'/22
px) =
Py(f)
W KW Gaussian or 'normal'
distribution
N2
-fo (a)
P,) A
-36-26 -o 0X 2o 3o
(b) (c)
Fig. 1.38.1. Noise representation (a) Two-sided PSD (b) Equivalent

one-sided PSD (c) Typical gaussian distribution with zero mean and
o standard deviation.
140 A (EC-Sem-7) Wireless Communication Fundamentals
2. The output of every(linear) noise measurement is a zero-mean Gaussian

random variable that does not depend on the time instant when the
measurement is done.
3. The AWGN model is a mathematical function, because it implies that
the total power (i.e., the PSD integrated over all frequencies) is infinite.
Thus, a time sample of white noise has infinite average power, which is
certainly not a physically reasonable property.
PART-18|
Rayleigh Fading Channel Model.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.39. Discuss in detail Rayleigh fading channel model.
Answer
1 The basic model of Rayleigh fading assurnes a received multipath signal
to consist of a large number of reflected waves with independent and
identically distributed (ILID) in phase and quadrature amplitudes.
2 Rayleigh distribution is a good model for channel propagation there is
no strong LOS path from the transmitter to the receiver and where the
base station is hidden behind a building several blocks away and the
arriving signal is bouncing off many scattering objects in the local area.
3 In the time domain, Rayleigh fading looks like periodic peaks of 10 dB or
less interspersed between deep troughs of 40 dB or more. These deep
fades (nulls in signal power) will typically occur at separations of half a
wavelength.
Non-fade period Non-fade period
Signal
amplitude
Threshold
Fade period Fade period

Time
Fig.1.39.1. Rayleigh fading.
Wireless & Mobile Communication 141A(EC-Sem-7)
5. The Rayleigh distribution is plotted in Fig. 1.39.2. The median of the
distribution is R = R which implies that there is constructive
interference (R> R) for 50 % of locations and destructive interference
(R< Rm) for 50 % of locations.
rms
6 The mean value of Rayleigh distribution is given by

Ela] = a = 1.2533 o
V2
amplitude
Cumulative
R)
< -0.1
(r 0.1
probability
0.01 0.01
LIE.3
1E.3
1E.4 -1E.4
40 30 -20 -10 0 10
Amplitude (20 logjo(RRme))

Fig. 1.39.2. Rayleigh amplitude distribution (R/Rms
7. The variance of Rayleigh distribution is given by
g'= Ela)- E[al =0.4292 6²
PART- 19
Rician Fading Channel Model.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.40. Describe Rician fading channel model.

Answer
1. The presence of a direct path is usually required to close the link in
satellite communications. In this case, the reflected paths tend to be
weaker than the direct path, and we model the complex envelope as
E = Eo+E,e0,
n =1
142A(EC-Sem-7) Wireless Communication Fundamentals
where ,the constant term represents the direct path and the summation
represents the collection of reflected paths. This model is referred to as
a Rician fading model.
2 The analysis proceeds in a manner similar to that of the Rayleigh fading
case, but with the addition of a constant term.
3. Akey factor in the analysis is the ratio of the power in the direct path to
the power in the reflected paths. This ratio is referred to as the Rician
K-factor, defined as
K= N
n=1
where s2 = |E|2. The Rician K-factor is often expressed in dB.

4. The calculation of the amplitude density function in the Rician fading
case is more involved than with Rayleigh fading, so we merely give the
result here. We have
fpr) =
ge-bts'/2d, 20
5 The amplitude distributions of the Rician fading channel for diferent K

factors are shown in Fig. 1.40.1. Deep fades are clearly less probable
than with the Rayleigh channel, and the probability of their occurrence
decreases as the K factor increases.
R
<
((r/s)
Pr 0.1
distribution
K-5 dB
0.01
Amplitude K= 10 dB
K= 13 dB
1E.3
1E.4LLT
-20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 6 4 0 2 4 6
Normalized amplitude r/s (dB)

Fig. 1.40.1. Amplitude distribution for the rician channel.
Wireless & Mobile Communication 143 A (EC-Sem-7)
PART-20
Nakagami Fading Channel Model.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.41. Write a short note on Nakagami fading channel model.
Answer
1 Besides Rayleigh and Rician fading, a refined model suggested for the
PDF of signal amplitude exposed to mobile fading is the Nakagami fading
model. The distribution of the amplitude and signal power can be used to
findthe probabilities on signal outages.
2 In wireless communication the main role of the Nakagamimodel can be
summarized as follows:
It describes the amplitude of the received signal after maximum ratio
diversity combining.
The sum of multiple I.I.D. Rayleigh fading signals has a Nakagami
distributed signal amplitude.
ii. Nakagamidistribution matches some empirical data better than the
other models.
iv. Nakagami fading occurs for multipath scattering with relatively large
delay time spreads and with different clusters of reflected waves.
V. The Rician and Nakagami models behave approximately equivalently
near their mean value.
PART-21
Okumura and Hata Path L08s Model.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.42. Explain the outdoor modelsgiven below :

1. Durkin's model
2. Okumura model.
OR
Explain the different outdoor models are given below:
Hata path loss model.
ii. Okumura model.
Answer
a. Okumura's model :
1. This model is widely used for signal prediction in urban areas.
2 It is applicable in the frequency range from 150 MHz to 1920 MHz.
3 It can be used for distances from 1km to 100 km from transmitter to
receiver.
4. It can be applied for base station antenna heights ranging from 30 meter
to 1000 meter.
5. Todetermine the path loss using Okumura's model, the equation can be
expressed as:
LsoldB) = Lp+ Amu f, d) Gh,) - Gh,) -G REA
where, Lso = 50h percentile (i.e. median)value of propagation path
loss.
Lp= Free space propagation loss.

A.
mu
= Median attenuation relative to free space.
Glh,)= Base station antenna height gain factor.
Gh,)= Mobile antenna height gain factor.
6. This model is completely based on measured data and does not provide
any analytical explanation.
7 This model is considered as best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction
in cluttered environments.
b. Hata model :
1. Hata model does not account for any of the path specific corrections
used in Okumura's model.
2 Hata's model is an experimental formulation of the geographical path
loss data provided by Okumura.
3. This model is valid from 150 MHz to1500 MHz.
4 Hata's model is applicable in urban, suburban and open areas.
Wireless & Mobile Communication 145A (EC-Sem-7)
5. This model is well suited for large cell mobile systems, but not for personal
communications systems (PCS) which have cells of the order of 1 km
radius.
6. This model predicts the median path loss in three types of environment:
urban, suburban and rural areas. The median path loss in dB for these
three environments are given by,
L =A +B log,d (dB) Urban
Ls =A +B log, d-C (dB) Suburban
L =A+ B log,od-D (dB) Open
where d is the range in kilometers from BS to MS.
C. Durkin's model :
1. This model was developed by Durkin and Edward.
2. This model consists of acomputer simulator, for predicting field strength
over irregular terrain.
3. This was adopted by joint radio committee (JRC) in the U.K for the
estimation of mobile coverage area.
4. The simulator predicts large scale phenomena (i.e., path loss) and the
losses caused by obstacles in a radio path.
5. The execution of path loss simulator consists two parts :
i. The first part accesses the topographic data base of a proposed service
area and reconstructs the ground profile information.
ii. The second part calculates the expected path loss along the radial.
PART-22
Channel Modeling :Stochastic.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.43. What do you understand by channel modeling ?
Answer
1 A channel can be modeled by two approaches: physical and statistical.
Reflection, multipath, attenuation, and so on are considered in the
physical approach, whereas input-output elements and transaction
probabilities are considered in the statistical approach.
146A (EC-Sem-7) Wireless Communication Fundamentals
2. Perfect channel modelling is required to study or analyse a wireless

system. This involves the identification of variouschannel properties, of
which one or more must be considered at a time for modeling the channel.
3. Some important properties of a channel are :
i. Channels may be time varying or static. The effect of mobility is that the
channel varies with the users location and time, which results in rapid
fluctuations of the received power.
Channels may be time dispersive or non-dispersive. Due to dispersion,
pulse spreading will be observed, which will result in the intersymbol
interference (ISI) effect.
iüi. Channels may be linear or non-linear.
iv. Allchannels act as low-pass filter under certain conditions as they show
the pulse spreading effect.
V Channels may be fast fading or slow fading, and may be frequency
selective or flat fading.
4. Channel models are primarily divided into two main categories:
i. Outdoor channel model (e. g., Longley-Rice model, Okumura-Hata
model, Nakagami model, and Rician model)
i. Indoor channel model (e. g., Rayleigh model)
Que 1.44. Explain in brief stochasticradio channel modeling.

Answer
1. Transceiver characteristics contributing to the stochastic radio channel
modeling (SRCM) are the parameters that describe the mobile terminal
(MT)movement and the antenna configuration with its radiation pattern
and diversity properties.
2. The deterioration of the transmission quality is also strongly dependent
on the signal processing, that is modulation, coding detection and so on.
3 The various parameters extracted for SRCM are complex amplitude,
delay, incidence direction and Doppler shift of the impinging wave
components.
4. A stochastic radio channel model has been developed in order to simulate
realistic channel impulse responses according to awide range of possible
physical situations within a given category of environments.
5. Ifthe channel is estimated on the basis of channel statistics, it is called
the blind method of channel estimation. The complexity of this method
is very high.
Wireless & Mobile Communication 147A(EC-Sem-7)
6. The transceiver characteristics as well as nearly all dispersion effects
that are the different phenomena of multipath propagation and short
and long term fluctuations are implemented in the SRCM.
PART-23
Flat Channel Modeling.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.45. Discuss in detail flat fading channel modeling.

Answer
1. In aflat fading channel, the received signal r(t) is obtained by the addition
of the transmitted signal s(t) multiplied by a time-varying attenuation
a(t) and the noise contribution w(t):
r(t) = a (t) s(t) + w(t)
2. a is usually follows a Rayleigh distribution
pdf (a) = x exp for 0 < a<o

2 62)
where o² is the variance of Gaussian process.
3. If there is one dominant contribution, the distribution of a is a Rice
distributed variable characterized by
pdf (a) =(lo?) xexp[- (a² +A) 2oxI,(2A/s)
for 0<a<o
where, L(«) is the modified Bessel function of the first kind and zero
order. The parameterA is the amplitude of the dominant component.
The Rice parameter K is defined as
262
4. If the amplitude fading is Rician, the joint PDF of amplitude and phase Y
pdf,y = xexp (-(a'+A'-2aA cos y)/2o]

148 A (EC-Sem-7) Wireless Communication Fundamentals
5. Nakagami-M distribution is given by
a Zm - I
m
pdf, (a) = exp
T(m) 2
for a > 0 and m>1/2.

Here m is the shape factor. For m = 1, this distribution reduces to the
Rayleigh distribution.
6 The parameter S2 is the mean square value 2 = a' and the parameter m
is given by
m=
(a'-9
7. Nakagami and Rice distribution are quite similar and each can be
approximately converted to the other for m>1:
(K +1)² m- m
m= and K=
(2 K+1) m -m'-m
8. The movement of the mobile station leads to a frequency shift of the
arriving waves (Doppler effect). If the sinusoidal wave of frequency f, is
transmitted, the spectrum of the received signal is
1
Y()« pdf, () G() +pdf, (- y)G(-)
--f
Here, f is the variable for the frequency, f.
C
is the extreme new
frequency due to Doppler effect as other than f, and it varies in the
range - f.<f <fe
C C
and 0 elsewhere, v isthe velocity or speed of
movement, y is the angle between the directions of incidence of the
move and the direction of movement, and G (y) is the antenna pattern.
9 For the case when the waves are all incident horizontally and are
uniformly distributed in azimuth and the antenna has a uniform pattern
in azimuth, we get
1
vlf)
-(f- f
10. The Rayleigh or Rice fading is small-scale fading since it describes the
variation of the amplitude within an area of about ten wavelengths.
PART-24
Wideband Time-Dispersive Channel Modeling.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.46.|Write ashort note on wideband Time-dispersive channel

modeling.
Answer
1 Most of the latest communication systems are digital and wideband,
such as code division multiple access (CDMA)and orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM).
2 At the same time, wireless channel is a dielectric medium, and hence,
the refractive index of the channel, phase velocity, and wave and media
propagation constants are the key parameters.
3. Therefore, over a wide range of frequencies in the transmission
bandwidth, frequency-dependent performance is obtained.
4 Wideband measurements are much more complicated than simple field
strength (i.e., narrowband) measurement.
5 From the measurements, the channel models are derived, which should
fulfill the following twocriteria:
i They must be simple enough to allow an analytical computation of basic
system performance.
They must be very close to the physical reality; in other words,
performance computed by these models must be close to the performance
measured in actually existing mobile radio channels.
6. These requirements are contradictory.
7 Models based on multipath delay and hence phase addition is not applied
directly to CDMA system, because in CDMA, the rake re :eiver handles
multipath.
2 UNIT
Spread Spectrum
and Diversity
CONTENTS
.2-2A to 2-3A
Part-1 : Theory of Vocoders
...... 2-3A to 2-5A
Part-2 : Types of Vocoders
Part-3: Spread Spectrum Modulation 2-5A to 2-6A
Part-4 : Pseudo-Noise Codes with Properties .....2-6A to 2-8A

and Code Generation Mechanisms
DSSS and FHSS Systems .2-8A to 2-13A

Part-5 :
Part-6 : Time Hopping and Hybrid ...........

.2-13A to 2-15A
Spread System
Part-7 : Multi-carrier Modulation 2-15A to 2-16A

Techniques,
.2-16A to 2-20A
Part-8 : Zero Intersymbol Interference
Communication Techniques,
Part-9 : Detection Strategies 2-21A to 2-22A
Part-10 : Diversity Combining .2-22A to 2-27A

Techniques : Selection Combining,
Threshold Combining, Equal Gain
Combining, Maximum Ratio Combining
Part-11: Spatial Diversity and 2-27A to 2-28A

Multiplexing in MIMOSystems
Part-12: Channel Estimation 2-28A to 2-29A
2-1 A (EC-Sem-7)
2-2 A (EC-Sem-7) Spread Spectrum and Diversity
PART-1
Theory of Vocoders.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.1. What is the basic principle of vocoders ?
Answer
Vocoders are a class of speech coding systems that analyze the voice
signal at the transmitter, transmit parameters derived from the analysis,
and then synthesize the voice at the receiver using those parameters.
Speech generation model:
1. Fig. 2.1.1 shows the speech generation model that is the basis of all
vocoding systems.
2.
The sound generating mechanism forms the source and the vocal tract
filter forms the system.
Second source
Noise source Vocal
Speech
Tract output
Filter
Pulse source
Speech
input |Analyzer
Transmission
Fig. 2.1.1. Speech generation model.

voiced and unvoiced.
2. The speech signal is assumed to be of two types:
pitch, the pole
3 The parameters associated with this model are the voice
frequencies of the modulating filter, and the corresponding amplitude
parameters.
voltage
4 When the signal is voiced, the output of the filter provides a
the pitch
which is proportional to the voice frequency. This frequency is
of the voice.
5. When the speech is unvoiced, the output of the filter is asmaller voltage
than we encounter for voiced speech. Using a detector we can then
determine by noting the output of filter at detector side whether the
speech is voiced or unvoiced.
6. At the vocoder receiver, the signal is demultiplexed and decoded and
converted back into analog form. Corresponding to each filter-rectifier
combination at the encoder,abalanced amplitude modulator and band
pass filter is provided at the decoder.
PART-2
Types of Vocoders.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.2.. Explain the different type of vocoders in wireless
communication. AKTU2016-17, Marks 15

Answer
Types of vocoder:
i. Channel vocoder :
1 The channel vocoder was the first system to analyze speech.
2. Channel vocoders are frequency domain vocoders that determine the
envelope of the speech signal for a number offrequency bands and then
sample, encode, and multiplex these samples with the encoded outputs
of the other filters.
3. The sampling is done at every 10 ms to 30 ms.
4. Along with the energy information about each band, the voiced/unvoiced
decision, and the pitch frequency for voiced speech are also transmitted.
ii. Formant vocoder :
1. The formant vocoder can operate at lower bit rates than the channel
vocoder because it uses fewer control signals.
2. Instead of sending samples of the power spectrum envelope, the formant
vocoder attempts to transmit the positions of the peaks (formants) of
the spectral envelope.
3. The formant vocoder must be able to identify at least three formants for
representing the speech sounds, and it must also control the intensities
of the formants.
24A (EC-Sem-7) Spread Spectrum and Diversity
4. Formant vocoders can reproduce speech at bit rates lower than 1200
bits/s.
5. Formant vocoder faces some difficulties to compute the accurate location
of formants and formant transitions from human
not been very successful.
speech, so they have
iüi. Cepstrum vocoder:
1. The Cepstrum
vocoder separates the excitation and vocal tract spectrum
by inverse Fourier transformation. This
separation is done to produce
the cepstrum signal.
2. The low frequency coefficient:s in the cepstrum correspond to the vocal
tract spectral envelope, with the high frequency excitation coefficients
forming a periodic pulse train at multiples of the sampling period.
3 Linear filtering is performed to separate the vocal tract cepstral
coefficients from the excitation coefficients.
4 In the receiver, the vocal
tract cepstral coefficients are Fourier
transformed to produce the vocal tract impulse response. By convolving
this impulse response with a synthetic excitation signal, the original
speech is reconstructed.
iv. Voice excited vocoder:
1 Voice-excited vocoders eliminate the need for pitch extraction and voicing
detection operations.
2. This system uses ahybrid combination of PCM transmission for the low
frequency band of speech, combined with channel vocoding of higher
frequency bands.
3 A pitch signal is generated at the synthesizer by rectifying, bandpass
filtering, and clipping the baseband signal.
4. Voice excited vocoders have been designed for operation at 7200 bits/s to
9600 bits/s, and their quality is typically superior to that obtained by the
pitch excited vocoders.
Que 2.3. Draw the block diagram of LPC system and explain it.
Answer
1 It belongs tothe time domain class of vocoder.
2 These vocoders take the advantage of lower bit rate.
3 It is possible to transmit good quality speech at 4.8 Kpbs and poor quality
speech at even lower rate.
4 Fig. 2.3.1 shows the block diagram of aLPC coding system.
5. As show in Fig. 2.3.1 the LPC, system transmits only selected
characteristics of errorsignal.
LPC Encoder Decoder Synthesizer

Channel Voiced/
Unvoiced
Voiced/ decision
Input Buffer UnvoicedEncoder Decoder
decision
Pitch
analysis
Encoder Decoder
Excitation
Fig. 2.3.1. Block diagram of a LPC coding system.

6 These characteristic are the gain factor, pitch information, and the voiced/
unvoiced decision information. AIl these allow approximation of the
correct error signal.
7. At the receiver, the information is decoded and given to a synthesizer
filter.
8 Synthesizer filter is designed using the received predictor coefficients.
9. The linear predictive coding system models are vocal tract as an all pole
linear filter with a transfer function described by
G
H(z) = M
1+)b,2t
k=1
PART-3
Spread Spectrum Modulation.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.4. Write a short note on spread spectrum modulation

(SSM).
Answer
1. Spread spectrum techniques were based on signalling schemes (code or
sequence) that greatly expand the transmitted spectrum relative to the
data rate.
2-6A (EC-Sem-7) Spread Spectrum and Diversity
2. Objectives of spread spectrum are :

1. Operation with a low energy spectral density.
ii. Multiple access capability without external control.
iii. Security.
iv. Antijamming capability.
V. Multipath protection.
vi. Ranging.
3. The spread spectrum technique is a wideband modulation technique.
The two major techniques used in spread spectrum systems are direct
sequence (DS) and frequency hopping (FH).
4. The following are the other spread spectrum modulation (SSM)
techniques :
Time hoping spread spectrum (THSS).
ii. Hybrid methods.
iii. Chirped spread spectrum (CSS).
PART-4
Pseudo-Noise Codes with Properties and Code

Generation Mechanisms.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Ånswer Type Questions
Que 2.5. What is PN sequence ? Draw suitable PN sequence

generator and prove the properties of PN sequence.
Answer
A. PN sequence (code) :
In a DS spread spectrum (DSSS) system, a unique code is used to spread
and despread the signal. This unique code in the DS is known as the
pseudo-noise (PN) sequence code. The PN sequence code, while
concatenated, appears as a random sequence to an unauthentic user.
B. PN sequence generator:
1 In the case of FH or TH, the PN sequence is used to generate the
hopping frequency or the hopping time slots.
Output
Fig. 2.5.1. Six-stage generator of a maximum length PN sequence.
2 APN code is periodic. Adigital shift register cireuit with output feedback
can generate a sequence with long period and low susceptibility to
structural identification by an outsider.
3 The bit rate of aPN code is called the chip rate (1/t,ehip2, the smallest time
increment in the sequences of certain period or duration is thip and is
known as a time chip. The total period consists of N,timechips.
4 The most widely known binary PN sequences are the maximum length
shift register sequences (m-sequences). Such a sequence which can be
generated by an m-stage shift register with suitable feedback connection,
has a length L=2m 1bits, Fig. 2.5.1 shows a shift register for m=6and
L=63.
C. Properties of PN code :
i. Autocorrelation :
1 The autocorrelation should be maximal for the DS or PN codes so that
correct PN signal can be identified at the receiver from the numerous
coexisting signals. The autocorrelation function of a typical PN sequence
is shown in Fig. 2.5.2.
R,(t)
Nçtehip
1/N,
Autocorrelation of PN code
-tehip chip
Fig, 2.5.2. Autocorrelation function (normalized)
for the codes with respect to time.
2 The autocorrelation of the spreading waveform (PN signal) c(t) is
represented mathematically as
R,(t) = Tode ctlclt + ) dt ...(2.5.1)

0
where, l code = N, tohin is the code period and t represents a time shift
variable.
ii. Cross-correlation :
1 Signals of different users have different spreading co des. The
cross-correlation between the signals of two codes i andj is given by
1
R(t) =
Toode
which is equal to the autocorrelation, if i=j.
2. Itis desirable to have poor cross-correlation betweentwo ifferent codes
so that the unwanted code can be rejected easily by the receiver of the
CDMA system.
PART-5
DSSS and FHSS Systems.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.6. What are the different types of vocoders and describe
direct sequence spread spectrum. AKTU2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Different types of vocoders : Refer Q. 2.2, Page 2-3A, Unit-2.
B. Direct sequence spread spectrum system : In a DSSS system, the
user signal is multiplied by a PN code sequence of high bandwidth. The
resulting coded signal is transmitted over the radio channel. DS is
responsible for the spreading of the bandwidth.
Transmitter :
1. In the transmitter (Fig. 2.6.1) of aDSSS system, a MOD 2adder is used
for biphase modulation.
m(t)
(data stream) MOD 2
Spreaded
Balanced
signal output
adder modulator RF s(t)
PN code Carrier fo
Fig. 2.6.1. Transmitter simplified diagram for biphase modulation.
2. While using quadriphase modulation, two MOD 2adders are used with
two alternate chips available from the PN code generator.
3 Two balanced modulators are fed with 90 phase shifted carriers. Adding
both the signals, the SSM RF output is obtained.
Receiver:
1 The diagram of a receiver is shown in Fig. 2.6.2. The receiver for a
spread signal must perform three distinct functions: detection of the
presence of a signal, carrier removal and despreading or demodulation
using a PN sequence.
2 Detection of signal and despreading operations can be either active or
passive.
RF Matched filter Narrowband

Demodulation
Demodulations) or correlator filter m'(t)
Detection
process
PN code Lock clock
generator reconstruction
Fig. 2.6.2. Receiver carrier demodulation and despreading

of SSM signal toget original data.
Que 2.7. With the help of block diagram and suitable expressions
explain the generation and reception of direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS) signal using BPSK modulation.
Answer
1 Adirect sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) system spreads the baseband
data by directly multiplying the baseband data pulses with a
pseudo-noise sequence that is produced by a pseudo-noise code
generator.
2. Asingle pulse or symbol of the PN waveform is called a chip.
3 Fig. 2.7.1 shows a functional block diagram of a DS system with binary
phase modulation.
4. Synchronized data symbols, which may be information bits or binary
channel code symbols, are added in modulo-2 fashion to the chips before
being phase modulated.
5 A coherent or differentially coherent phase-shift keying (PSK)
demodulation may be used in the receiver.
6. The received spread spectrum signal for a single user can be represented
as
S(t) = m(t)plt) cos (2r f, t +0)

where m(t) is the data sequence, p(t) is the PN spreading sequence, f is
the carrier frequency, and 0 is the carrier phase angle at t= 0.
Baseband S(t)
Message Transmitted
BPF signal
Oscillator
PN code
generator
Chip clock
(a)
Coherent Phase
Shift Keying or Received
Received Differential Phase data
Direct Sequence IF Wideband Shift Keying
Spread Spectrum Filter Demodulator
Signal at IF
IF Narrowband
Signal s, (t) Synchronization
System
PN Code
Generator
(b)
Fig. 2.7.1. Block diagram of DS-SS system with binary phase

modulation : (a) transmitter and (b) receiver.
7. Each symbol in m(t) represents a data symbol and has duration T.

Each pulse in p(t) represents a chip, is usually rectangular with an
amplitude equal to+l or 1, and has a duration of T,.
8. Fig. 2.7.1(b) illustrates a DS receiver. Assuming that code synchronization
has been achieved at the receiver, the received signal passes through
the wideband filter and is multiplied by a local replica of the PN code
sequence p(t).
9. Ifp(t) =+1, then p°(t) = 1, and this multiplication yields the despread
signal s,(t) given by,
s,() = 2E, m(t) cos(2 f. t +0)

at the input of the demodulator. Because s, (t) has the form of a BPSK
signal, the corresponding demodulation extracts m(t).
Que 2.8. Write short note Near-far problem.
Answer
1 Near-far problem in a spread spectrum system relates to the problem of
very strong signals at the receiver swamping out the effects of weaker
signals.
2 Consider one transmitter is near the receiver; the other is far away
from the receiver. If both the transmitters transmit simultaneously
with equal powers, then the receiver will receive more power from the
nearer transmitter. This creates a difficulty in detecting the signal from
the farther transmitter.
3 As one transmission's signal is the other's noise, the SNR for the farther
transmitter must be much higher.
4 If the nearer transmitter transmits a signal that is orders of magnitude
higher than the farther transmitter, then the SNR for the farther
transmitter may be below the required value, making the signal
undetectable and the farther transmitter may just as well not transmit.
This effectively jams the communication channel.
5. The near-far problem is one of detecting and receiving a weaker signal
among the stronger signals. In order to maintain the strength of the
received signal level at the base station, power control is employed in
CDMA systems.
Que 2.9. Explain in detail frequency hopping spread spectrum

(FHSS) system.
Answer
1 In frequency hopping systems, the transmitter changes the carrier
frequency according to a certain hopping pattern, meaning that the
frequency isconstant in each time chip but changes from chip to chip.
2. There are two types of frequency hopping:
i. Slow frequency hopping (SFH):
is
1. In SFH, one or more data bits are transmitted within one hop: that
the hoping rate is less than the message bit rate.
2. An advantage is that coherent data detection is possible.
3 Systems using slow hopping often also employ (burst)error-control
coding to restore loss of (multiple) bits in one hope.
4 SFH isa popular technique for wireless local area networks (LANs).
i. Fast frequency hopping (FFH):

1 In FFH, one data bit is divided over multiple hops, that is, FH rate is
greater than the message bit rate.
2.In fast hopping, coherent signal detection is difficult, and seldom used.
3 FFH is adopted in bluetooth.
FHSS generator :
1 Consider afast hop system in which there are k frequency hops in
every message bit duration t,. Thus, the chip duration is
tchip m =1,2, 3, ...
2 The number of frequencies is in a power of two because it is generated
by a PN sequence generator control, and PN sequences are related to
powers of two. The ML sequence that is, c chips, will produce M= 2
frequencies for each distinct combination of these digits.
Local oscillator
m(t) 1bit Digital frequency Frequency

Channel coding synthesizer multiplier K
modulator
C- 1 bits
PN code
generator
Clock
Fig. 2.9.1. FHSS generator diagram.
3 As shown in Fig. 2.9.1, one bit comes from the message andc-1 bit
come from the PN code generator. The c - 1 bit from the PN code
generator then hop this FSK signal over the range of possible
frequencies.
4 There is a frequency multiplier K at the output of the system. It is to
increase the bandwidth and thereby increase the processing gain.
5. Considering again the fast hopping case, if Mfrequencies are separated
by f, = tin = k/t, then the signal bandwidth is given by
KM
B, =KM{, = tchip
6. Hence, the processing gain is calculated as
PG = B, KMI thip kKM Im
kKM
Bm 1/tm 1/tm
Que 2.10. Differentiate between DSSS and FHSS systems.

Answer
S.No. DSSS FHSS

1. Adirect sequence spread Frequency hopping involves a
spectrum (DSSS) system periodic change of transmission
spreads the baseband data frequency. Afrequency hopping
by directly multiplying the modulated
signal obtained by a sequence of
data bursts with time
baseband data pulses with a
pseudo-noise (PN) sequence varying, pseudo-random carrier
that is produced by apseudo-frequencies (called hopset).
noise code generator.
2. Spreading process is Spreading process is simple.
complex.
3. DSSS systems always use FHSS systems use only a portion
the total bandwidth of the total band at any time.
available.
4. More resistant to fading and Less resistant to fading and

multipath effects. multipath effects.
5. Rejection capabilities to Interference rejection capability
cancel out interferences and is poor.
noise are good.
PART-6
Time Hopping and Hybrid Spread System.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.11.Explain time hopping spreadspectrum (THSS)system.

Answer
1. The TH concepts can be understood with the help of Fig. 2.11.1.
1 frame
duration =ktm
Time
-M slots =2 intervals
c= length of PN code Transmitted bursts in which k
message bits are transmitted
Fig. 2.11.1. TH Concept.
2. The time axis is divided into intervals known as frames, and each frame
is subdivided into Mtime slots as shown in Fig. 2.11.1. The slots and
length of the m-sequence are related to each other by the relation
M= 2°.
3. During each frame, one and only one time slot is modulated with a
message by any reasonable modulation method.
4. The particular time slot chosen fora given frame is selected by means of
a PN code generator. Allthe message bits accumulated in the previous
frame are transmitted in a burst during the selected time slot.
5. The frame duration T, the number of message bits k, and the message
bit duration t, are related to each other by
T,=ktm
6. The width of each time slot in a frame is T,/M and the width of each bit
in the time slot is T/kM or simply t /M.
Processing gain :
PG = B, / B,, = 2t, /(tm / M) = 2M ; for biphase modulation
tm tm M) = M ; for quadriphase modulation
7. This indicates that the transmitted signal bandwidth is 2M times the
message bandwidth, and hence, the processing gain ofthe TH system is
twice the number of time slots in each frame when biphase modulation
is used and half this when quadriphase modulation is used.
8. Interference among simultaneous users in a TH system can be minimized
by coordinating the times at which each user can transmit a signal. This
also avoids the near-far problem. The acquisition time is similar to that
of DS systems for a given bandwidth. Implementation is simpler than in
an FH system.
Que 2.12. Write short note on hybrid spread spectrum systems.
Answer
1. The use of hybrid techniques attempt to capitalize upon the advantages
of a particular method while avoiding the disadvantages.
2. DS, on one hand, suffers heavily from the near-far effect, which makes
this technique hard to apply to systems without the ability of power
control. On the other hand, its implementation is inexpensive.
3. The PN code generators are easy to implement and the spreading
operation itself can be simply performed by XOR ports.
4. FH effectively suppresses the near-far effect and reduces the need for
power control. However, implementation ofthe (fast) hopping frequency
synthesizer required for a reasonable spreading gain is more problematic
in terms of higher silicon cost and increased power consumption.
5. Applying both techniques allows for combining their advantages while
reducing the disadvantages. This results in a reasonable near-far
resistance at an acceptable hardware cost.
6.
Many different hybrid combinations are possible, some of which are
PN/FH, PN/TH, FH/TH and PN/FH/TH.
7. While designing a hybrid system, the designer should decide FFH or
SFH is to be applied. FFH increases the cost of the frequency synthesizer
but provides more protection against the near-far effect.
8 SFH combines a less expensive synthesizer with a poor near-far rejection
and the need for a more powerful error-correction scheme (several
symbols are lost during a hit jamming).
PART-7
Multi-carrier Modulation Techniques.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.13. Discuss in brief multi-carrier modulation (MCM).

Answer
1. In multi-carrier modulation, multiple orthogonal carriers are used to
send the information signal. The main attraction of MCM is its good ISI
mitigation property. Higher bit rates are more vulnerable to ISI.
2 MCM splits the high bit rate stream intomany lower bit rate streams,
each stream being sent using an independent carrier frequency, if for
example, n symbols/s have to be transmitted, each subcarrier transmits
nle symbols/s with c being the number of subcarriers.
3. In amulti-carrier modulation, symbols are assigned to multiple orthogonal
carriers and all the carriers are transmitted in a combined manner;
hence, the carriers are called subcarriers.
4. After symbol assigmment, these subcarriers are combined by the inverse
fast Fourier transform (IFFT) technique. This combined signal is known
as the OFDM baseband.
5. Fig. 2.13.1 shows the superposition of orthogonal frequencies. The
maximum of one subcarrier frequency appears exactly at a frequency
where all other subcarriers equal zero.
Amplitude -subcarrier
sinc function = sin (x)
X
Fig. 2.13.1. Superposition of orthogonal frequencies.

6 Using this scheme, frequency selective fading only influences some
subcarriers, and not the whole signal-an additional benefit of MCM.
7. Typically, MCM transmits symbols with guard spaces between single
symbols or groups of symbols. This helps the receiver to handile multi
path propagation.
8 OFDM is special method of implementing MCM using orthogonal carriers.
Computationally, this is avery efficient algorithm based on fast Fourier
transform (FFT) for modulation/demodulation.
9. If additional error-control coding across the symbols in different
subcarriers is applied, the system is referred to as COFDM (coded OFDM).
s,(t) = cos (2r kAft) 0<1<T, k=1, 2, 3,...N, ...(2.13.1)
(otherwise)
1
where, Af=
T,
i_ the subcarrier spacing, T, is the symbol duration, N, is the number of
subcarriers, and (N, + 1)Af is the transmission bandwidth ofthe OFDM
baseband signal.
PART-8
Zero Intersymbol Interference Communication Techniques.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Qustions
Que 2.14.Explain Nyquist criterion for ISI cancellation.

Answer
1 Nyquist was the first to solve the problem of overcoming intersymbol
interference while keeping the transmission bandwidth low.
2 He observed that the effect of ISI could be completely nullified if the
overall response of the communication system is designed so that at
every sampling instant at the receiver, the response due to all symbols
except the current symbol is equal to zero.
3. Consider the impulse response
hkt) = sin (nt /T,) ...(2.14.1)
(rt ) /T.
This impulse response satisfies the Nyquist condition for ISI cancellation.
4 Therefore if the overall communication system can be modelled as a
filter with the impulse response of eq.(2.14.1), it is possible to eliminate
the effect of ISI.
5. The transfer function of the filter is given by
1 ..(2.14.2)
H,) = rect
This transfer function corresponds to a rectangular "brick-wall" filter

with absolute bandwidth f /2, wheref, is the symbol rate.
XNYo(t)
-T 0 2T 3T 4T
-4T 31 -2T
Fig. 2.14.1. Nyquist ideal pulse shape for zero intersymbol interference.
6. Nyquist also proved that any filter with a transfer function having a
rectangular filter of bandwidth fo 1/s , convolved with any arbitrary
passband of the
even function Z(f) with zero magnitude outside the
rectangular filter, satisfies the zero ISI condition.
7 Mathematically,the transfer function of the filter which satisfies the
zero ISI condition can be expressed as
H = rect
fo
where,Z) =Z-D and Z(f) =0 for ffo 1/2T,.
8. Expressed in terms of the impulse response, the Nyquist criterion states
that any filter with an impulse response
sin (Tt /T) -z(t)
h_t) = t
can achieve ISI cancellation. Filters which satisfy the Nyquist criterion
are called Nyquist filters.
Hyolf)
(1+a)2T-2T --a)2T (1-a)/2T 12T (1+a)/2T

Frequency
Fig. 2.14.2. Transfer function of a Nyquist pulse-shaping filter at baseband.
Que 2.15. Write a short note on raised cosine rolloff filter.
Answer
1 The most popular pulse shaping filter used in mobile communications is
the raised cosine filter.
2. A raised cosine filter belongs to the class of filters which satisfy the
Nyquist criterion.
3 The transfer function of a raised cosine filter is given by
1 0s|f| s (1- a)
27,
1 |f27T, -1+ (1-a) (1+ a)
HRe= 1+ cos s|f|s
2 2a 2T, 21,
(1+ a)
2
2T
where, a is the rolloff factor which ranges between 0 and 1.
4. When a =0, the raised cosine rolloff filter corresponds to a rectangular
flter of minimum bandwidth. The corresponding impulse response of
the filter is given by
TLat
sin sin
T
hnclt) = Tt 4at
1
5. The impulse response of the cosine rolloff filter at baseband is plotted
in Fig. 2. 15.1, for various values of a.
6. As seen from Fig. 2.15.1 as the rolloff factor a increases, the bandwidth
of the filter also increases, and the time sidelobe levels decrease in
adjacent symbol slots. This implies that increasing a decreases the
sensitivity to timingjitter, but increases the occupied bandwidth.
7 The symbol rate R, that can be passed through a baseband raised cosine
rolloff filter is given by
1 2B
R, =
1+
where, B is the absolute filter bandwidth.
8 For RF systems, the RF passband bandwidth doubles and
B
R,= 1+
hRc(1)
-0 = 0
a= 0.5
a =1
-4T -3T -2T T T 2T 3T 4T

Fig. 2.15.1. Impulse response of a raised cosine rolloff filter at baseband.
Que 2.16. Explain various pulse shaping techniques for zero

intersymbol interference.
Answer
Various pulse shaping techniques for zero ISI:
i. Nyquist criterion for ISI cancellation : Refer Q. 2. 14,
Page 2-16A, Unit-2.
ii. Raised cosine rolloff filter: Refer Q. 2.15, Page
2-18A, Unit-2.
iii. Gaussian pulse shaping filter:
1
It is also possible to use non-Nyquist techniques for pulse shaping. Unlike
Nyquist filters which have zero crossings at adjacent symbol peaks and
a truncated transfer function, the Gaussian filter has a smooth transfer
function with no zero-crossings.
2 The impulse response of the Gaussian filter gives rise to a transfer
function that is highly dependent upon the 3-dB bandwidth.
3 The Gaussian lowpass filter has a transfer function given by
Hf) = exp (-a?f)
4 The parameter a is related to B, the 3-dB bandwidth of the baseband
Gaussian shaping filter.
VIn2 0.5887
V2B B
5 As a increases, the spectral occupancy of the Gaussian filter decreases
and time dispersion of the applied signal increases. The impulse response
of the Gaussian filter isgiven by
het) = exp
6 Fig. 2.16.1 shows the impulse response of the baseband Gaussian filter
for various values of 3-dB bandwidth-symbol time product (BT).
a = 0.5
a = 0.75
a = 1.0
a = 2.0
-3T/2 -TÊ2 T2 3T/2 time

Fig. 2.16.1. Impulse response of a Gaussian pulse-shaping filter.
7. Since the Gaussian pulse-shaping filter does not satisfy the Nyquist
criterion for ISI cancellation, reducing the spectral occupancy creates
degradation in performance due to increased ISI. Thus, a tradeoff is
made between the desired RF bandwidth and the irreducible error due
to ISI of adjacent symbols when Gaussian pulse shaping is used.
8 Gaussian pulses are used when cost and power efficiency are major
factors and the bit error rates due to ISI are deemed to be lower than
what is nominally required.
PART-9
Detection Strategies.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Iype Questions
Que 2.17. Write a short note on detection strategies for a signal.
Answer
1. The expected signal must be detected from among the various coexisting
signals at the receiving end.
2. Detection theory, or signal detection theory, is well established and is a
bearing
means to quantify the ability to differentiate between information
as noise) that distract
energy patterns and random energy patterns (such
from the information.
3. The basis for the signal detection theory is that nearly all reasoning and
decision-making takes place in the presence of some uncertainty.
4. Mostly, the threshold-based detection method is used but according to
of how a
the theory of detection, there are a number of determiners
level will
detecting system will detect a signal and where its threshold
be.Changing the threshold level will affect the ability todiscern between
useful and non-useful signal.
a
5 The aim of the detection problem is to determine whether there exists
signal or not.
6. Suppose there are two states H,and H, at detection hypothetically,
the required signal
level, only two states are possible-the presence ofmathematically this
within noise or only noise with no desired signal;
can be represented as follows :
k=0, 1,... N-1
H,:=s, +n, ; k= 0, 1, ...N-1
noise (AWGN)
where, the noise is assumed to be additive white Gaussian
at
with known or unknown variance, r, is the received signal sample
time instant k, n, is the noise process sample, and s, is the known signal
wavefornm.
arrival
7. The signal can be deterministic with unknown parameters such asT of the
function
time, phase and amplitude. Detection is based on some threshold is
received samples, which is compared to a threshold y. Ifthe
exceeded, it is decided that H, is true.
Signal
Present Absent
Yes Hit False alarm
Response
No Miss Correct rejection
Fig. 2.17.1.Possible states in signal detection

and probabilities that may occur.
8 Let r denote the received samples as a column vector. The probability of
a false alarm Ppa is the probability that H, is selected even when H, is
actually true; that is Ppa =P(Tr)>y, H
9. The probability of miss, Py is the probability that H, is selected when H,
is true.
10. The probability of detection is P, =1-Py and is the probability that H,
is selected when it is actually true; that is P, = P(T(r)) > y, H,). The
concept is shown in Fig. 2.17.1.
PART- 10
Diversity Combining Techniques : Selection Combining Threshold
Combining, Equal Gain Combining, Maximum Ratio Combining.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.18. Explain the different type of diversitytechniques used

in wireless communication system.
AKTU2016-17, 2018-19; Marks 10|
Answer
Types of diversity techniques :
i. Space diversity:
1. This can be a microscopic or macroscopic diversity technique and is used
at the transm tter or the receiver. The signal is transferred over several
different propagation paths.
2. In wired transmission, this can be achieved by transmitting via multiple
wires.
2-23 A (EC-Sem-7)
Wireless & Mobile Communication
diversity using
3. In wireless transmission, it can be achieved by antennaand/or multiple
multiple transmitter antennas (transmit diversity)
receiving antennas (receive diversity).
4. Ifthe receiver has multiple antennas, the distance between the receiving
fading. This
antennas is made large enough to ensure independent
arrangement is called space diversity.
ii. Polarization diversity :
differently
1 This technique exploits the fact that obstacles scatter waves
depending on their polarization.
2 Antennas can transmit either a horizontal or a vertical polarized wave.
signals will
3. When both waves are transmitted simultaneously, received considered as
exhibit uncorrelated fading statistics. This scheme can be
antennas are used.
a special case of space diversity because separate
iii. Angle diversity:
fraction of all the
1. In this technique, directional antennas receive only a
scattered energy.
2. As the received signals arrive at the antenna via several paths,
each
with a different angle of arrival, the signal component can be isolated by
using directional antennas.
3. Each directional antenna will isolate a different angular component.
4. Hence, the signals received from different directional antennas pointing
at different angles are uncorrelated.
iv. Frequency diversity :
1. In this technique, information is transmitted on more than one carrier
frequency, because the frequencies separated by more than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel will not experience the same fading.
2. This is often employed in microwave line-of-sight (LOS) links, which
carry several channels in a frequency division multiplexing (FDM) mode.
V. Time diversity :
1.
Inthis technique, multiple versions of the same signal are transmitted
at different time instants.
2. Alternatively, a redundant forward error-correction code is added, and

the message is spread in time by means of bit interleaving before it is
transmitted.
3. Thus, error bursts are avoided, which simplifies the error correction.
When the same data is sent at diferent time instants, the received
signals can be uncorrelated if the time separations are large enough.
4. Data can be repeatedly transmitted at time spacing that exceeds the
coherence time of the channel; hence, multiple repetitions of the signal
will be received with independent fading conditions, thereby providing
diversity.
Que 2.19.Explain diversity combining techniques in detail.

Answer
1. Space diversity reception or combining methods can be classified into
four categories :
a
Selection combining:
1 Selection combining is the simplest combining technique. Ablock diagram
of this method is shown in Fig. 2.19.1 where mdemodulators are used to
provide m diversity branches whose gains are adjusted to provide the
same average SNR for each branch.
1
2 Switching logic
Or
-Output
demodulators
m
Antenna
Variable gain
Fig. 2.19.1. Selection combining.
2 The receiver branch having the highest instantaneous SNR is connected
to the demodulator.
3. The antenna signals themselves could be sampled and the best one sent
to a single demodulator. In practice, the branch with the largest
(S +/Nis used, since it is difficult to measure SNR alone.
b. Feedback or scanning or threshold combining :
1. Ablock diagram of threshold combining method is shown in Fig. 2.19.2.
Antenna
Contro! Preset
Comparator threshold
Short-Term
Receiver
average
Fig. 2.19.2. Threshold combining.

2 Threshold combining is very similar to selection diversity except that
instead of always using the best of Msignals, Msignals are scanned in a
fixed sequence until one is found to be above a predetermined threshold.
3. This signal is then received until it falls below threshold and the scanning
process is again initiated.
4. The resulting fading statistics are somewhat inferior to those obtained

by the other methods, but the advantage with this method is that it is
very simple to implement only one receiver is required.
C. Maximum ratio combining :
1. In this method, the signals from all of the M branches are weighted
according to their individual signal voltage to noise power ratios and
then summed. Fig. 2.19.3 shows a block diagram of the technique.
1
1
G
12 YM
Co-phase Detector >Output
G and sum
Ym
Gm
Antenna
Adaptive control
Fig. 2.19.3. Maxim um ratio combiner.
2 All the individual signals must be co-phased before being summed which
generally requires an individual receiver and phasing circuit for each
antenna element.
3. Maximum ratio combining produces an output SNR equal to the sum of
the individual SNRs. Thus, it has the advantage of producing an output
with an acceptable SNR even when none of the individual signals are
themselves acceptable.
4 This technique gives the best statistical reduction of fading of any known
linear diversity combiner.
d. Equal gain combining :
1 Equal gain combining (EGC) is better than selection diversity and is
almost as good as maximum ratio combining (MRC), but is less complex
in terms of the signal processing and feedback part.
2 In EGC, the branch weights are all set to unity that is, the adaptively
controlled amplifiers or attenuators are not needed.
3. The signals from each branch are co-phased to provide equal gain
combining. This allows the receiver to exploit signals that are
simultaneously received on each branch.
4. Thus, EGC is simpler to implement than MRC.
Que 2.20. Derive an expression for selection diversity improvement

in terms of probability of receiving signal using single branch or
using M branches. |AKTU 2015-16, 2017-18; Marks 10
Answer
1 Consider Mindependent Rayleigh fading channels available at a receiver.
Each channel is called a diversity branch. Further, assume that each
branch has the same average SNR given by
SNR= T= ..(2.20.1)
N,
where we assume a =1.
2 If each branch has an instantaneous SNR = Y,, then the pdf of y, is
p(y) = ...(2.20.2)
where is the mean SNR of each branch.
3 The probability that a single branch has an instantaneous SNR less than
some threshold y is
Prly, sl =fpÓy,) dy, -j=e dy, -1-ei

0 0
..(2.20.3)
4 Now, the probability that all Mindependent diversity branches receive

signals which are simultaneously less than some specific SNR threshold
Yis
Prly, . . ,Yy Sy = (1-e-M = Pyly) ...2.20.4)
5. Py) in eq. (2.20.4) is the probability of all branches failing to achieve an
instantaneous SNR =y. If asingle branch achieves SNR > y, then the
probability that SNR >y for one or more branches is given by
Prly, >y =1-Py) =1- (1 -e- yM ..2.20.5)
Eq. (2.20.5) is an expression for the probability of exceeding a threshold
when selection diversity is used.
6. For selection diversity, the average SNR is found by first computing the
derivative of the CDF Py) in order to find the pdfof y.The instantaneous
SNR when M branches are used.
Py)= Py(y) =M (1-e-yM-1e- ..(2.20.6)

dy
7. Then, the mean SNR, T , may be expressed as
...(2.20.7)
where x =y/T. Note that I' is the average SNR for a single branch (when
no diversity is used).
8. Eq. (2.20.7) is evaluated to yield the average SNR improvement offered

by selection diversity
M1
Y = ...(.2.20.8)
PART-11
Spatial Diversity and Multiplexing in MIMO Systems.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.21. Write a short note on spatial diversity in MIM0 systems.

Answer
1 In space diversity, a signal is transferred over several different
propagation paths. In wireless transmission, it can be achieved by antenna
diversity using multiple transmitter antennas (transmit diversity) and/
or multiple receiving antennas (receiver diversity).
2. Four different types of multi-antenna systems can be categorized based
on diversity.
a. Single input, single output (SISO)no diversity.
b Single input, multiple outputs (SIMO) receive diversity.
C. Multiple inputs, single output (MIS0) - transmit diversity.
d. Multiple inputs, multiple outputs (MIMO) -transmit-receive diversity.
3. The SISO0 system is very simple and deals with the communication
between a transmitter and a receiver. In SISO, error probability is
critically damaged by fading.
4. In a SIMO channel,the concept of MRC(maximumratio combining) is
offered as a way to exploit the receive diversity. The error probability
achieved by MRC is to be much smaller than that corresponding to a
SISO channel.
5. To perform MRC, the receiver has to know the fading, or in other
words, the receiver has to have access to the CSI (channel state
information). This is usually done by sending some known signal through
the channel.
6. When there are l antenna elements in a mobile terminal and one base
station antenna element, it makes a MISO channel. In this case, the CIR
is an lxl matrix.
7 When there are lmobile terminals transmitting at a time and K base
station antenna elements to receive them all, it makes a MIMO channel.
8 In this case, the CIR is an l x k matrix that associates a transmission
coefficient between each pair of antennas for each multipath component.
Que 2.22. Explain the multiplexing in MIMO system.
Answer
1
MIMO with spatial multiplexing is aparadigm shift, dramatically changing
the perceptions of and responses to multipath propagation as shown in
Fig. 2.22.1.
Tx 1 Rx 1
Transmitter Receiver
Tx 2 Rx 2
Fig. 2.22.1. MIMO using multiple transmitting and
receiving antennas to send multiple signals over
the same channel, multiplying spectral efficiency.
2 The information transmitted by both the antennas is different.
3. The underlying mathematical nature of spatial multiplexed MIMO, where
data is transmitted over a matrix rather than a vector channel, creates
new and enormous opportunities beyond just the added diversity or
array gain benefits the spectrum efficiency.
4 As such, this type of MIMO systems can be viewed as an extension of the
smart antennas.
5 Astrong analogy can be made with CDMA transmission in which multiple
user's share the same time offrequency channel, which are mixed upon
transmission and recovered through their unique codes.
PART- 12
Channel Estimation.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.23. What do you mean by channel estimation ? Explain in

brief channel estimation techniques.
Answer
A Channel estimation :
1. Channel estimation is the estimation of the CIR at the receiver.
2. Channel estimators help in equalization at the receiver end.
B. Channel estimation techniques :
i. CSI-based channel estimation :
1 In this technique, pilots are sent with data symbols. The effects on the
pilot symbols represent the CSI indirectly.
2. Apilot is basically areference carriertone or areference signal/symbol
that is known at the receiver end in terms of position or sequence/
pattern.
3 It has undergone the most recent channel behaviour along with the
other carriers or symbols.
4. Hence, it provides the CSI and is therefore purposely and systematically
transmitted and used for channelestimation.
ii. Blind channel estimation:
1 Natural constraints are used in this technique. The likelihood function
should be the model to pursue a completely blind approach.
2. In most of these cases,Gaussian assumptions are used for the transmitted
data, channel, and received data.
3. Channel estimation is achieved by maximizing the likelihood function.
iii. Semi-blind channel estimation:
1. It is the combination of pilots and constraints. Time-variant and
frequency-selective fading channels present a severe challenge to the
designer of a wireless communication system.
2. Areceiver plays adual role to tackle this problem:phase correction by
channel estimation or equalization and demodulation of the signal.
3. Several choices are possible for the implementation of a receiver
depending on the modelling of the channel and the complexity invested
in each task.
4. The estimated samples may have an estimation error that depends on
the measurement noise, transmitted symbols, properties ofthe channel,
estimation algorithm, and deviation from a time-invariant channel in
the estimation interval.
3 UNIT
Equalization and
Multiple Access
CONTENTS
Part-1: Equalization Techniques : .3-2A to 3-11A
Transversal Filters,
Adaptive Equalizers, Zero
Forcing Equalizers, Decision
Feedback Equalizers and
Related algorithm
Part-2 : Multiplexing and Multiple .3-11Ato 3-17A
Access : FDMA, TDMA,
CDMA, OFDMA
Part-3 : SC-FDMA, IDMA Schemes and ........3-.17A to 3-20A

Hybrid Method of Multiple
Access Schemes
Part-4: Rake Receiver .3-20A to 3-22A
Part-5 : Multiple Access for Radio .3-22A to 3-24A

Packet Systems : Pure
ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA
Part-6 : CSMA and their Versions .3-24A to 3-26A
Part-7 : Packet and Pooling Reservation .3-26A to 3-27A

Based Multiple Access Schemes
3-1 A (EC-Sem-7)
3-2A (EC-Sem-7) Equalization and Multiple Access
PART- 1
Equalization Techniques : Transversal Filters, Adaptive

Equalizers, Zero Forcing Equalizers, Decision Feedback
Equalizers and Related algorithms.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. What do you mean by equalization ?

OR
Show that an equalizer is an inverse filter of the channel.
Answer
A. Equalization: Equalization or deconvolution is the process of recovery
of a signal that is distorted by a convolution process during its
transmission through a channel observed in additive noise.
B. Equalizer as inverse filter:
1 Ifx(t) is the original information signal, and flt) is the combined complex
baseband impulse response of the transmitter, channel, and the RF/TF
sections of the receiver, the signal received by the equalizer may be
expressed as
y(t) = x(t) f(t) + n,(t) ...(3.1.1)
where ft) denotes the complex conjugate of ft)
n,(t) is the baseband noise at the input of the equalizer
and 8 denotes the convolution operation.
2. If the impulse response of the equalizer is eqh(t), then the output of
equalizer is
dt) =x(t) of () 8 h (t) +n,(t) h (0) ...(3.1.2)
=x(t) Ogt) + n,(t) h (t)
where gt) is the combined impulse response of the transmitter, channel,
RF/IF sections of the receiver, and the equalizer at the receiver.
3 The complex baseband impulse response of a transversal filter equalizer
is given by
h0) = ,8 (t - nT) ...(3.1.3)
where, c, are the complex filter coefficients of the equalizer.

The desired output of the equalizer is x(t), the original source data.
Wireless & Mobile Communication 33A (EC-Sem-7)
4. Assume that n,(t) = 0. Then, in order toforce dt) =x(t) in eq. (3.1.2),
gt)must be equal to
g(t) =f (t) h (t) =8t) ...(3.1.4)
5. The goal of equalization is to satisfy eq. (3.1.4) so that the combination of
the transmitter, channel and receiver appear to be an all-pass channel.
6. In the frequency domain,eq. (3.1.4) can be expressed as
H)F* -) = 1 ...(3.1.5)
where, H() and F() are Fourier transforms of h(t) and f(t)
respectively.
7. Eq. (3.1.5) indicates that an equalizer is actually an inverse filter of the
channel.
Que 3.2. How equalization differs with diversity ?
Answer
S. No. Parameter Equalization Diversity
1. Compensation Equalization is used to Diversity is used to
factor compensate intersymbol compensate fading
interference (ISI) which which occurs due to
exists when modulation multi-path reception.
bandwidth exceeds the
coherence bandwidth.
2. Improvement Equalization improves Diversity improves the
in the received signal quality of a wireless
performance quality and link link without increasing
performance over small-the transmitted power
scale time and distances. or bandwidth.
3. Reduction Equalization is used to Diversity is used to
factor reduce the effects of time reduce the depth and
dispersion. duration of the fades.
4. Requirement An equalizer within a Diversity techniques
receiver compensates for are employed at both
the average range of|base station and mobile
expected channel resources.
amplitude and delay
|characteristics.
Que 3.3. Give the classification of equalization and explain it.
Answer
1. Equalization techniques can be subdivided into two general categories -
linear and non-linear equalization.
34 A (EC-Sem-7) Equalization and Multiple Access
2. These categories are determined from how the output of an adaptive
equalizer is used for subsequent control (feedback) of the equalizer.
3. In general, the analog signal ) is processed by the decision making
device in the receiver.
4. The decision maker determines the value of the digital data bit being
received and applies athresholding operation in order to determine the
value of dt).
5 If dt) is not used in the feedback path to adapt the equalizer, the
equalization is linear. On the other hand, if d(t) is feedback to change
the subsequent outputs of the equalizer, the equalization is non-linear.
Equalizer
Linear Non-linear
Types
DFE
ML symbol MLSE
detector
Structures
Transversal
Lattice Transversal Lattice
Transversal channel Est.
Gradient LMS Gradient LMS

Zero forcing
LMS RLS RLS RLS RLS
Fast RLS Fast RLS
RLS
Fast RLS Sq. Root RLS Sq. Root RLS
Sq. Root RLS Fig. 3.3.1, Classification of equalizers.
non-linear
6 Many filter structures are used to implement linear and
equalizers. Further, for each structure, there are numerous algorithms
used to adapt the equalizer.
Que 3.4. Discuss in brief transversal filters.
Answer
transversal equalizer
1 The most common equalizer structure is a linear
the transfer
(LTE). The simplest LTE uses only feed forward taps and
function of the equalizer filter is a polynomial in z-,
called a finite
2. This filter has many zeros but poles only at z=0, and is
impulse response (FIR) flter, or simply a transversal filter.
'k+N,-1 'k N, +1 Vk N,
Input 7-1
signals
Co eN,1
d,
Threshold
detector
Fig. 3.4.1. Structure of linear transversal equalizer.

3. In such an equalizer, the current and past values of the received sigmal
are linearly weighted by the filter coefficients and summed toproduce
the output as shown in Fig. 3.4.1.
4. These equalizers are simplest to construct.
5 The output of the transversal filter before a decision is made is,
...(3.4.1)
n=-N,
where, c.* = Complex filter coefficients or tap weights

d, = Output of equalizer at time index k
N, = Number of taps used in the forward portions ofthe equalizer
N, = Number of taps used in the reverse portions of the equalizer
6. The minimum mean squared error that a linear transversal equalizer
can achieve
r/T
T N, do ..(3.4.2)
El|e(n)|9 =
D+ N,
where, F (eo?) = Frequency response of the channel
and N, = Noise power spectral density
Que 3.5. Discuss in brief adaptive equalizer.
Answer
1 An adaptive equalizer is a time-varying filter which must constantly be
re-tuned. The basic structure of an adaptive equalizer is shown in
Fig. 3.5.1, where the subscript k is used to denote a discrete time index.
2. There is a single input y, into the equalizer at any time instant. The
value of y, depends upon the instantaneous state of the radio channel
and the specific value of the noise. As such y, is a random process.
3-6A (EC-Sem-7)
Equalization and Multiple Access
3. The adaptive equalizer structure is called a
case have N delay elements, N + 1taps, transversal filter, and in the
and N+1 tunable complex
multipliers, called weights.
4. The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error
5
signale,.
The adaptive algorithm usese, to minimize a cost function and
the equalizer weights in a updates
manner that iteratively reduces the cost
function.
Input signal
Yk-1 | Vk-2 Yk-N
Wok W1k W2k WNK.
d, output
of equalizer
error ek
Adaptive algorithm that updates each weight wnk d, is set to
X7 Or represents a known
property of the transmitted signal
Fig. 3.5.1. A basic linear equalizer during training.
6 The most commnon cost function is the mean square error (MSE) between
the desired signal and the output of the equalizer.
7 The MSE is denoted by E<e(k) e*(k)), and a
known training sequence
must be periodically transmitted whena replica of thetransmitted signal
is required at the output of the equalizer.
8 by detecting the training sequence, the adaptive algorithm in the receiver
is able to compute and minimize the cost function by driving the tap
weights until the next training sequence is sent.
9. The input signal to the equalizer as a vector y,
where, ...(3.5.1)
1C. The output of the adaptive equalizer is a scalar given by
N
d; =WnkYk -n ...(3.5.2)
n=0
a weight vector can be written as
W,= lWok Wk Wek ...(3.5.3)
Que 3.6. Explain zero forcing equalizer.

Wireless &Mobile Communication 3-7A (EC-Sem-7)
Answer
1. This kind of equalization can be accomplished by equalizers using the
transversal filter structure encountered earlier. Transversal filter
equalizers are easily adjustable to compensate against different channels
or even slowly time-varying channels.
2. The design goal is to force the equalizer output pulse to have zero ISI
values at the sampling (decision-making) instant.
3 In other words, the equalizer output pulses satisfy the Nyquist or the
controlled ISI criterion.
4 The time delay Tbetween successive taps is chosen to be T; the interval
between pulses.
5. For a single pulse p, at the input of the transversal filter with the tap
setting the filter output p,(t) will be exactly p,(t - NT,), that is, p,(t)
delayed by NT,.
6. For the Nyquist criterion, the output pulse p,(t) must have zero values
at all the multiples of T,.
7. The output p, (t) is the sum of pulsesof the form Cp, t-*T). Thus,
N
P,() = C,p, (t -nT,)n=-N
P,(t) Delay Delay Delay |Delay Delay Delay Delay

T, T, T T T T
C_N
Polt)
Fig. 3.6.I.
Que 3.7. Explain adaptive equalization and decision feedback

equalizer. AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
OR
Explain the diferent type of equalization techniques used in wireless
communication. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 15
Answer
A Types of equalization techniques :
i. Linear (transversal) equalization:Refer Q. 3.4, Page 3-4A,
Unit-3.
3-8A (EC-Sem-7)
Equalization and Multiple Access
Non-linear (Decision feedback) equalization :
1 The basic idea behind decision feedback (DFE)equalization is that once
an information symbol has been detected and decided upon, the ISI that
it induces on future symbol can be estimated and subtracted out before
detection of subsequent symbols.
2. The DFE can be realized in either the direct transversal form or as a
lattice filter. The direct form is shown in Fig.3.7.1.
'k+N,
Input Yk-N,
signals
C-N, C-N,+1 Co CN,-1 CN,

d
Feed forward
filter (FFF)
dg-1 d,
FN, F;
Feedback filter (FBF)

Fig. 3.7.1. Decision feedback equalizer (DFE).
3. It consists of a feed forward filter (FFF)and a feedback filter (FBF). The
FBF is driven by decisions on the output of the detector, and its
coefficients can be adjusted to cancel the ISI on the current symbol from
past detected symbols.
4. The equalizer has N, +N, + 1taps in the feed forward filter and N, taps
in the feedback filter, and its output can be expressed as
N,
...(3.7.1)
n=-N i=l
where c andy, are tap gains and the inputs respectively, to the forward
filter, F* are tap gains for the feedback filter, and d(i<k) is the previous
decisions made on the detected signal.
5 Once d, is obtained using eq. (3.7.1),d, is decided from it. Then d, along
with previous decisions d, ,, d, , ..are fed back into the equalizer and
d,., is obtained using eq. (3.7.1).
6 The minimum mean squared error a DFE can achieve, is

/T
T N,
El| e(n)|",= exp: 2 -n/T
In 2
do ...(3.7.2)
F(e+N,
B. Adaptive equalization : Refer Q. 3.5, Page 3-5A, Unit-3.
Que 3.8. Write a short note on zero forcing (ZF) algorithm.
Answer
1. In a zero forcing equalizer, the equalizer coefficients c, are chosen to
force the samples of the combined channel and equalizer impulse
response to zero at all but one of the NT spaced sample points in the
tapped delay line filter.
2. When each of the delay elements provide a time delay equal to the
symbol duration T, the frequency response H() of the equalizer is
periodic with a period equal to the symbol rate lVT.
3 According to Nyquist criterion, the combined response of the channel
with the equalizer must be
H,() H = 1 as |f| <12T ...(3.8.1)
Where, H,() is the folded frequency response of the channel.
4. So an infinite length, zero ISI equalizer is simply an inverse filter which
inverts the folded frequency of the channel.
Que 3.9. Write a short note on least squares (LS) algorithm.
Answer
1. Least squares (LS)means that the overall solution minimizes the sum
of the squares of the errors made in the results ofevery single equation.
2 The method of LS channel estimation is a standard approach to the
approximate solution of over-determined systems, that is, sets of
equations in which there are more equations than unknowns.
3. The LS regression process can be understood with the help of the
following mathematics.
4. Consider a noise-corrupted communication system through a fading
multipath channel h, after which the signal has memory of L symbols.
5. Moreover, n is the white Gaussian noise, which is sampled at the symbol
rate.
6. The demodulation problem here is todetect the transmitted bits x from
the received signal y, and hence; the estimation procedure is required.
For a general linear equation of the received signal,
y= hx +n
7. The complex CIR h during L training bits can be expressed as
3-10A EC-Sem-7) Equalization and Multiple Access
h= \h,h,..h,)"
8 Within each transmission burst, the transmitter sends aunique training
sequence, which is divided into a reference length of Pand guard period
of L bits and is denoted by
m=\m,m..M-'
having bipolar elements m, e (-1, +1).
9 For estimation during the training period, the equation for the received
signal can be rewritten as y =hm +n. The circulant training sequence
matrix can be formed as
m, m,
m
M=
mp mp-1
10. The vertical deviation can be calculated using the following formula :
d, =y,-y =y, - (hm, + n)
11. Ifthe square ofthe deviations is minimized, the best line can be calculated
as
di = (y, - y =(y, hm, + n

In other way,
H = arg, minly - Mh|
Que 3.10. Explain least mean square (LMS) algorithm.
Answer
1. Least mean squares (LMS) algorithms are a class of adaptive filters used
to mimic a desired filter by finding the filter coefficients that relate to
producing the LMS of the error signal.
2 It is astochastic gradient descent method in which the filter is adapted
based on the error at the current time.
3. Asimplified diagram explaining the algorithm is shown in Fig. 3.10.1.
Noise
Unknown w(n)
Input system channel
x(n) y(n)
h(n)
d(n)
h(n)
Adaptive filter
Output error en)

Fig. 3.10.1. LSM formulation diagram.
Wireless & Mobile Communication 3-1)A (EC-Sem-7)
4. The following equations represent formulation for the algorithm :
hH(n) = lh, (n), h; (n),.. .,,(n))
(Hermitian transpose or conjugate transpose)
y(n) = hH (n) x(n)
d(n) = y(n) + w(n)
eln) = don) - ý (n) =d(n) - h"(r)-x(n)
5 The basic idea behind the LMS filter is to approach the optimum filter
weights by updating the filter weights in a manner to converge to the
optimum value.
6. The algorithm starts by assuming a small weight (zero in most cases). At
each step, the weights are updated by finding the gradient of the mean
Square error (MSE).
7.
If the MSE gradient is positive, it implies that the error will keep
increasing positively if the same weight is used for further iterations;
hence, we need to reduce the weights.
8 In the same way, if the gradient is negative, we need to increase the
weights. Therefore, the basic weight update equation is
W, + 1= W, - uAe(n)
where [ represents the MSE and uis the step size or the gradient, W.
9.
A negative value indicates that we need to change the weights in a
direction opposite to that of the gradient slope.
10. The MSE as a function of filter weights is a quadratic function; this
means that it has only one extreme value that minimizes the MSE,
which is the optimum weight. Finally, we may write
hn +1) = h(n) + ue*(n)-x(n)
PART-2
Multiplexing and Multiple Access : FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, OFDMA.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.11. Discuss multiplexing schemes.

Answer
1 Multiplexing schemes are used when signals from multiple users are to
be combined and sent on asingle channel as a single input stream.
2. Multiplexing is used to enable several users share a medium with
minimum or no interference.
3. There are mainly four schemes for multiplexing:
i. Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) :
In FDM, individual users are provided individual channels, which will in
combination make the whole transmission bandwidth.
ii. Time division multiplexing (TDM) :
1. In TDM, each individual user is pre-assign a time slot in which he or she
can send the information, and once that slot over, the slot for the next
user willstart.
2 For n users, the bit rate of the TDM stream will increase n-fold. Time
synchronization is a very important issue in TDM. There are two methods
of TDM : synchronous and asynchronous.
iii. Code division multiplexing (CDM) :
1. In code division multiplexing, separation is achieved by assigning each
user channel its own code.
2. Guard spaces are realized by using codes with the necessary distance in
code space.
3. Good protection against unauthorized reception is the main advantage
of CDM.
iv. Space division multiplexing (SDM) :
In SDM, signals can be transmitted by different directional antennas, or
the signals received by a multidimensional antenna can be combined to
get all of them back.
Que 3.12. Discuss multiple access schemes.
Answer
1 Multiple access schemes allow many simultaneous users to share the
same available channel bandwidth or radio spectrum on an individual
basis.
2. Multiple access may be achieved by four different ways as follows :
a. Fixed assignment of resources in terms of carrier allotment, time slot
allocation, code allocation, or area allocation to specific users.
b. Demand assignment.
Random access, i.e., a dynamic assignment of spectrum resources in
C.
time or bandwidth to the users, according to their needs or on the basis
of demand.
Reservation-based access, where prior reservations intimate other users
d
about the request of a particular user.
3.
A detailed classification of the important multiple access schemes are
given in Fig. 3.12.1.
Wireless &Mobile Cormmunication 3-13A (EC-Sem-7)
4. Frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access

(TDMA), code division multiple access (CDMA), and space division multiple
access (SDMA)are the four major methods of multiple access by fixed
assignment of resources to the users.
FDMA
Fixed
TDMA
access
CDMA
OFDMA
Blind Pure ALOHA

access
Slotted ALOHA
Multiple
access
Random Carrier CSMA, busytone, or busy
control
access sensing channel MA CSMA/CD
protocols
Demand Collision Contention free

based resolution contention alert
assignment
of available
resouces
No Polling
requests token passing
Reser Collision less

Bitmap
vation request
Contention
requests
PRMA
Fig. 3.12.1.
5. Random access mainly deals with packet radio and mostly storage data
is utilized.
6 Reservation-based access deals with channel reservation in advance
whenever data transmission is needed.
7 Demand-based channel assignment deals with the allocation of free
channel at the time of request.
Que 3.13. Explain Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
Answer
1. Frequency division multiple access deals with radio frequency (RF)
carriers.
3-14 A (EC-Sem-7) Equalization and Multiple Access
2. It is a technique whereby the spectrum is equally divided into frequencies
and then assigned to different users, as shown in Fig. 3.13.1.
Available
bandwidth
Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch
1 2 4 5
Frequency
Fig. 3.13.1. Another way torepresent FDMA compared.
3. Thus, the available bandwidth is subdivided into a number of narrower
band channels.
4. In FDMA, at any given time, only a single subscriber is assigned to a
channel. The channel therefore is closed for other conversations.
5. To avoid interference, FDMA transmission requires two one-way
channels,one for transmitting and the other for receiving.
6. Aful-duplex or frequency division duplex (FDD) FDMA has been used
since first-generation analog systems.
7 Each user is allocated aunique frequency band in which to transmit and
receive. Noother can use the same frequency band.
8. The channel bandwidth used in most FDMA systems is typically low, as
each channel needs to support only a single user and the associated
baseband.
Que 3.14. Write a short note on TDMA.
Answer
1. Time division multiple access improves spectrum capacity by splitting
the spectrum's use into time slots.
2. It allows each user to access the entire RF channel for a short period.
Other users share the same frequency channel at different time slots.
3 Thus, TDMAdivides the available spectrum into multiple time slots, as
shown in ig. 3.14.1, by giving each user (or channel) a time slot in
which they can transmit or receive.
4 The Fig. 3.14.1 shows how the time slots are provided to users in a rond
robin manner making time frames, with each user being allotted one
time slot per frame.
5. The base station continually switches users on the channel. TDMA may
be asynchronous or synchronous, just like TDM. It is the dominant
technology in the second-generation mobile cellular network.
6. Time division multiple access systems transmit data in a buffer and

hence this is a bursty communication method. Thus, the transmission of
each channel is not-continuous.
Ch 1 Ch 2 Ch N Ch 1 Ch 2 Ch N
Time
Frame
Fig. 3.14.1. TDMA frame generation.
7. The input data to be transmitted is buffered over the previous frame
and burst transmitted at a higher rate during the time slot for the
channel.
8 As TDMA cannot send analog signals directly due to buffering
requirement, it is used for transmitting digital data.
Que 3.15. Consider a GSM system which is a TDMA/FDD system
that uses 20 MHz for forward link which is broken into radio
channels and if no guard band is assumed, find the number of
simultaneous users that can be accommodated in GSM.
Answer
The number of simultaneous users that can be accommodated in GSM
is given as
20MHz = 800
N=
(200 KHz) /8
Thus, GSM can accommodate 800 simultaneous users.
Que 3.16. Explain the different type of multiple access schemes

(TDMA, CDMA and FDMA). AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
OR
Explain the frequency hopped multiple access and code division
multiple access technology. AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
A. Types of multiple access scheme :
i. FDMA :Refer Q.3.13, Page 3-13A, Unit-3.
ii. TDMA : Refer Q.3.14, Page 3-14A, Unit-3.
üi. CDMA:
1 Code division multiple access (CDMA) is wideband spread spectrum
technology. A unique code is assigned to all speech bits (signals).
2. Signals for all calls are spread across a broad frequency spectrum, hence
the term 'spread spectrum'.
3. This technique allows numerous users to transmit simultaneously on
one radio frequency. As a result, CDMA systems increase the system
capacity by 10 to 30 times over conventional cellular systems.
4. In CDMA technology, during transmission process the sound of the
user's voice is converted into a digital code.
5.
This digital signal is correlated with a code known as pseudorandom
noise (PN) code (also called Walsh' code).
6. Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword which is approximately
orthogonal to all other code words.
Code
Channel1
Channel2
Channel3
Frequency
ChannelN
Time
Fig. 3.16.1. Representation of CDMA (N users having N different codes).
7. The output of the correlator is an encrypted signal which is then spread
over a very wide frequency spectrum (1.25 MHz).
8 At the receiving terminal, the spread spectrum signal is demodulated
back to a narrow bandwidth using 'decorrelator.
9 Decorrelator uses the same PN code for detection of the signal that was
used in transmission of the signal.
10. A signal correlated with a give PN code and decorrelated with the same
PN code returns the original signal.
B. Frequency hopped multiple access :
1. Frequency hopped multiple access (FHMA) is a digital multiple access
system in which the carrier frequencies of the individual users are
varied in a pseudorandom fashion within a wideband channel.
2 FHMA allows multiple users to simultaneously occupy the same spectrum
at the same time, where each user dwells at a specific narrowband
channel at a particular instance of time, based on the particular PN code
of the user.
3. The digital data of each user is broken into uniform sized bursts which
are transmitted on different channels within the allocated spectrum
band.
4 The instantaneous bandwidth of any one transmission burst is much
smaller than the total spread bandwidth.
5 The pseudorandom change of the channel frequencies of the user
randomizes the occupancy of a specific channel at any given time, thereby
allowing for multiple access over a wide range of frequencies.
Que 3.17. Write a short note on OFDMA.
Answer
1. Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA) is a hybrid
multiple access or multiplexing technique with multicarrier modulation,
which divides the available spectrum into many carriers, each one being
modulated by a low-rate data stream.
2. In OFDMA, information of different users is processed in combination
and then allocated to multiple carriers, whereas in OFDMA, out of the
total available bandwidth, each narrow channel can be accessed by
individual users.
3. Though OFDMA is similar to FDMA, it uses the spectrum much more
efficiently by spacing the channels much closer together.
4. This is achieved by making all the carriers orthogonal to one another,
thereby preventing interference between the closely spaced carriers.
PART-3
SC-FDMA, IDMA Schemes and Hybrid Method of Multiple
Access Schemes.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.18. Write a short note on SC-FDMA.
Answer
1. Single-carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) is a frequency-division multiple access
scheme. SC-FDMA utilises single-carrier modulation, DFT-spread
orthogonal frequency multiplexing, and frequency domain equalisation.
It has similar structure and performance to OFDMA.
2. SC-FDMA is adopted as the uplink multiple access scheme in 3GPP and
a variant of SC-FDMA using code spreading is used in 3GPP2 uplink.
3. SC-FDMA is also called as a linéarly precoded OFDMA scheme (LP.
OFDMA).
4. In SC-FDMA, guard intervals with cyclic repetition are introduced
between blocks of symbols in view toefficiently eliminate time spreading
among the blocks, similar to that available in OFDM.
5. In SC-FDE, both FFT and IFFT are appied on the receiver side, but not
on the transmitter side, whereas in SC-FDMA, both FFT and IFFT are
applied on the transmitter side as well as on the receiver side.
6. In SC-FDMA, multiple access is made possible by inserting silent Fourier
coefficients on the transmitter side before the IFFT, and removing them
on the receiver side before the IFFT. Different users are assigned to
different Fourier-coefficients (sub-carriers).
7. In SC-FDMA, equalization is achieved on the receiver side after the FFT
caleulation, by multiplying each Fourier coefficient by acomplex number.
This operation is identical to that of in OFDM as well as SC-FDE.
Que 3.19. Explain IDMA scheme.

Answer
1. Interleave-division multiple-access (IDMA) is a recently proposed multi
access scheme, in which users are distinguished by different interleaving
patterns.
2. An interleaver is used as a component of a channel encoder to enhance
the coding gain, or as achannel interleaver to combat the time/frequency
coherent fading by scrambling burst errors into random errors.
3. The block diagram of IDMA scheme is shown in Fig. 3.19.1 for Kusers.
The principle of iterative multi user detection (MUD) which is a promising
technique for multiple access problems (MAI) is also illustrated in the
lower part of Fig. 3.19.1.
4. The turbo processor involves elementary signal estimator block (ESEB)
and a bank of K decoders (SDECs). The ESEB partially resolves MAI
without considering FEC coding.
5. The outputs of the ESEB are then passed to the SDECs for further
refinement using the FEC coding constraint through de-interleaving
block.
6. The SDECs outputs are fed back to the ESEB to improve its estimates in
the next iteration with proper user specific interleaving. This iterative
procedure is repeated a preset number of times (or terminated if a
certain stopping criterion is fulfilled).
combiner
Signal
Encoder(C) Spreader Interleaverl
Usert
Multiple
access
Coder and multipath
spreader channel
Encoder(C) Spreader Interleaverk

User KL
De-interleaver1
Signal decoder
(SDEC)
Useri Interleaverl
Elementary
Signal
Turbo Processor Estimator
Block Block
De-interleaverK
(ESEB)
Signal Decoder
(SDEC)
User}k Interleaver K
Fig. 3.19.1. Transceiver structures ofIDMA scheme

with Ksimultaneous users.
7. After the final iteration, the SDECs produce hard decisions on the
information bits. The complexity involved (mainly for solving a size
KxK correlationmatrix) is 0(K') per user by the well-known iterative
minimum mean square error (MMSE) technique in CDMA, while in
IDMA,it is independent of user.
Que 3.20. Explain SC-FDMA, IDMA schemes and hybrid methodof
multiple access schemes. |AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. SC-FDMA : Refer Q. 3.18, Page 3-17A, Unit-3.
B. IDMA : Refer Q.3.19, Page 3-18A, Unit-3.
C. Hybrid Methods of MultipleAccess:
The following are a few combinations of multiple access technique :
1. FDMA-CDMA : The spectrum is divided into channels and each channel
is a narrowband CDMA system with processing gain lower than the
original CDMA system.
2. DSSS-FHSS: The direct sequence modulates the signal and hops centre
frequency using a pseudo-random hopping pattern. The method avoids
near-far effect.
3-20A EC-Sem-7) Equalization and Multiple Access
3. TDMA-CDMA : Diffrent spreading codes are assigned to different
cells. One user per cellis allotted a particular time slot. Only one CDMA
user transmits in each cell at any given time. The method avoids severe
fades on the channel.
4. TDMA-FHSS:It involves ahop to anew frequency at the start of anew
TDMA frame. The method avoids severe fades on the channel. Hopping
sequences are predefined and unique per cell. It avoids co-channel
interference if other base stations transmit on different frequencies at
different times.
PART-4
RAKE Receiver.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.21. Draw and explain the RAKE receiver in detail using
proper block diagram. AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
OR
Explain the structure of RAKE receiver with the help of neat
diagram. What is M branch RAKE receiver ?
OR
Draw and explain RAKE receiver using block diagram.
Answer
1. ARAKE receiver collects the time shifted versions ofthe original signal
by providing a separate correlation receiver for each of the multipath
signals.
2 The main function of the RAKE receiver at both ends (mobile and base
station transceivers) is to aggregate the diversity received signals.
3. The direct signal at the RAKE receiver is the strongest signal that is
combined with multipath reflected signal from the other two or three
RAKE receivers to form the composite signals that are used to process
the mobile call.
4 The multipath signals are additives to the direct signals to obtain the
cleanest, strongest signal possible.
5. Therefore, we can conclude that the signal to noise ratio (SNR) gets
improved by using RAKE receivers. The RAKE receiver circuitry is
shown in Fig. 3.21.1.
Correlator 1
T m'(t)
Signal from
multipath Corelator 2 )dt
reception r(t)
Correlator 3
Fig. 3.21.1. A M-branch rake receiver implementation.

6. ARAKE receiver performs its functions in following steps :
It collects the time shifted version of the original signal by providing a
separate correlation receiver for each of the multipath signals.
ii. The range of time delays that a particular correlator can search is called
a search window.
ii. A RAKE receiver having 'M correlators separately detect M' strongest
multipath components.
iv. The output of each correlator is then weighted to provide abetter estimate
of the transmitted signals. This is done in weighting network that provide
a linear combination of the correlator output.
V Decisions based on the combination of the 'M separate decision statistics
offered by the RAKE receiver provide a form of diversity which can
overcome fading and thereby improve CDMA reception.
Working detail of a M-branch RAKE receiver :
1 AM branch RAKE receiver is shown in Fig. 3.21.1.Here r(t) is the input
signal after multipath reception which is given to 'M correlators. The
output of 'M correlators are denoted by Z, Z,,...,Zy:
2. These output are weighted by a,, ay ..ay respectively.
The weighting coefficients are based on the power or the SNR from
each correlator output.
4. If SNR (or power) is small then it will be assigned a small weighting
factor. The overall signal Z(after combination and weightage) is given
by
M
....3.21,.1)
m=l1
where a, are weighting coefficients which are normalized to the output

signal power of the correlator in such a way that the coefficients sum
to unity.
ay = M
m
...3.21.2)
m=1
PART-5
Multiple Access for Radio Packet Systems : Pure

ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.22. Write a short note on packet radio system.

Answer
1 In packet radio (PR) access technique, many subscribers attempt to
access a single channel in an uncoordinated manner. Transmission is
done by using bursts of data.
2 Collisions from the simultaneous transmissions of multiple transmitters
are detected at the base station receiver, in which case an ACK or
NACK signal is broadcast by the base station to alert the desired user of
received transmission.
3 The ACK signal indicates an acknowledgement of a received burst from
a particular user by the base station, and a NACK (negative
acknowledgement) indicates that the previous burst was not received
correctly by the base station.
feedback,
4. By using ACK and NACK signals a PR system employs perfect
even though trafficdelay due to collisions may be high.
5. Packet radio multiple access is very easy to implement, but has low
a
spectral efficiency and may induce delays. The subscribers use
contention technique to transmit on a common channel.
and Slotted
Que 3.23. Define the term ALOHA. Explain Pure
ALOHA.
Answer
ALOHA:ALOHA is a multiple access protocol for transmission of data
A. station transmits
via a shared network channel. In ALOHA, each node or
transmission channel is
a frame without trying todetect whether the
idle or busy.
i. Pure ALOHA:
1. The pure ALOHA protocol is a random access protocol used for data
transfer. Auser accesses a channel as soon as a message is ready to be
transmitted.
2 After a transmission the user waits for an acknowledgement on either
the same channel or a separate feedback channel.
In case of collisions, (i.e., when aNACK 0s received), the terminalwaits
for a random period of time and retransmits the message.
4.. As the number of users increase, a greater delay occurs because the
probability of collision increases.
5. For the ALOHA protocol, the vulnerable period is double the packet
duration.
6 Thus, the probability of no collision during the interval of 2r is found by
evaluating Pr (n) given as
(2R)e-2R
Pr (n) = at n = 0 ...(3.23.1)
n!
7. The probability of nocollision is Pr (0) =e -2R, The throughput of the
ALOHA protocol is given as
T= Re -2R ...3.23.2)
8. The anaximum through put achieved by using the ALOHA protocol is
given by
dT =e-2h_2Re - 2R-0
dR
1
2
Kmax =1
9. Substituting R.m in eg. (3.23.2)

1
max
= e-l=0.1839 = 0.184
2
ii. Slotted ALOHA:
1. In slotted ALOHA, time is divided into equal time slots of length greater
than the packet duration .
2. The subscribers each have synchronized clocks and transmit a message
only at the beginning of a new time slot, thus resulting in a discrete
distribution of packets.
3. This prevents partial collisions, where one packet collides witha portion
of another.
4. As the number of user's increases, a greater delay will occur due to
complete collisions and the resulting repeated transmissions of those
packets originally lost.
5. The number of slots which a transmitter waits prior to retransmitting
also determines the delay characteristics of the traffic.
6. The vulnerable period for slotted ALOHA is only one packet duration,
since partial collisions are prevented through synchronization.
7. The probability that no other packets will be generated during the
vulnerable period is eR, The throughput for the case of slotted ALOHA
is thus given by
T= Re -R ...(3.23.3)
8. The maximum throughput achieved by using the slotted ALOHA protocol
is given by
dT
=e-k- Re-R=0
dR
9. SubstitutingRin eq. (3.23.3)
T max =e-l=0.3679 = 0.368
PART-6
CSMA and their Versions.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.24.| Give the basic principle of carrier sense multiple access
(CSMA) protocols.
Answer
1 To minimize the chance of collision, and therefore, increase the
performance, the CSMA method was developed.
2. The chance of collision can be reduced if a station senses the medium
before trying touse it.
3. Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) requires that each station first
listen to the medium (or check the state ofthe medium) before sending.
4 In other words, CSMA is based on the principle "sense before transmit"
or "listen before talk".
5. CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it cannot eliminate it.
The reason is due to possibility of collision still exists because of
propagation delay; when a station sends aframe, it stilltakes time for
the first bit to reach every station and for every station to sense it.
6. In another words, a station may sense the medium and find it idle, only
because the first bit sent by another station has not yet been received.
7 Then the two signals willcollide and both frames are destroyed.
Que 3.25. What are the persistence methods ?
OR
Explain various versions of CSMA.
Answer
Persistence Methods :
1. If there is any channel found to be busy or idle, the station control the
channel by the following methods: the l-persistent method, the non
persistent method, and the p-persistent method.
2. Fig. 3.24.1shows, the behavior of three persistence methods when a
station finds a channel busy.
Sense and transmit
Continuously sense
Busy Time t
(a) 1-persistent
Sense and transmit
Sense Sense
Wait Wait
Busy Time t
(b) Non-persistent
Probability outcome
does not allow transmission
Time Time .TimeTransmit
slot slot slot
Time t
Busy (c) p-persistent
Fig. 3.25.1.Shows the behaviour of three persistence methods.
There are several variations of the CSMA strategy.
i. l-persistent CSMA: The terminal listens to the channel and waits for
transmission until it finds the channel idle. As soon as the channel is
idle, the terminal transmits its message with probability one.
ii. Non-persistent CSMA:
1. In this type of CSMA strategy, after receiving a negative,
acknowledgement the terminal waits a random time before
retransmission of the packet.
2. This is popular for wireless LAN applications, where the packet
transmission interval is much greater than the propagation delay to the
farthermost user.
ii. p-persistent CSMA :P-persistent CSMA is applied to slotted channels.
When a channel is found to be idle, the packet is transmitted in the first
available slot with probability p or in the next slot with probability 1-p.
iv. CSMA/CD:
1. In CSMA with collision detection (CD), a user monitors its transmission
for collisions.
2. Iftwo or more terminals start a transmission at the same time, collision
is detected, and the transmission is immediately aborted in midstream.
3. This is handled by auser having both atransmitter and receiver which
is able to support listen-while talk operation.
4. For a single radio channel, this is done by interrupting the transmission
in order to sense the channel.
V. CSMA/CA:In CSMA with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA), an attempt
is made to improve the performance of CSMA. CSMA/CA by default
uses the carrier sensing mechanism with exponential back-off.
PART-7
Packet and Pooling Reservation Based Multiple Access Schemes.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.26. Discuss in detail reservation based multiple access

schemes.
Answer
for
In multiple access schemes based on reservation, there is a provision
then the
and
users to reserve their slot or resources in advance
transmission will be followed in that order. Such reservation times are
separately provided.
i. Packet reservation multiple access :

1. Packet reservation multiple access (PRMA) is an implicit reservation
scheme. Here, slots can be reserved implicitly as follows.
2. A certain number of slots form a frame, which is repeated in time just
like a TDM pattern.
3 A base station broadcasts the status of each slot to all mobile stations. All
stations receiving this vector will then know which slot is occupied and
which slot is currently free.
4. If all the slots in a vector are reserved except one, then more than one
station attempts to access this free slot.
5. Hence, a collision occurs, and a new status will be generated with the
same free slot, indicating that one slot is stillavailable for reservation.
6
Again, stations can compete for this slot and the procedure continues.
The actual transmission of packets in the network will follow the order
in the final reservation status.
ii. Polling and token passing :
1 Polling is a strictly centralized scheme with one master station and
several slave stations.
2 The master can poll the slaves according to many schemes: round robin
randomly according to the reservations, and so on.
3. The master can also establish a list of stations wishing to transmit during
a contention phase. After this phase, the station polls each station on
the list.
4 Token passing is mainly suitable for wired networks. IEEE 802.4 is a
token bus protocol on the LAN whereas IEEE 802.5 is a token ring
protocol. Here, the key part is the token, which is asmallbit pattern.
5. The station that is transmitting captures the token during the
transmission; after reception of the complete data, it releases the token,
again circulating it among varioususers.
6 Thus, a logical or physical ring configuration is necessary for the token
passing type of scheme.
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q.1. Show that an equalizer is an inverse filter of thechannel.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.1.
4 UNIT
Cellular Networks
CONTENTS
Part-1: GSM System for Mobile 4-2A to 4-7A
Telecommunication
Part-2 : General Packet Radio Service 4-7A to 4-11A
Part-3 : Edge Technology .4-11A to 4-11A
Part-4: CDMA Based Standards ..... 4-11A to 4-16A

IS 95 to CDMA 2000
Part-5 : Wireless Local Loop 4-16A to 4-17A
Part-6 : IMT 2000 and UMTS 4-17A to 4-20A
Part-7: Long Term Evolution (LTE) .4-20A to 4-24A
Part-8 : Mobile Satellite Communication .4-24A to 4-25A
4-1A(EC-Sem-7)
4-2A (EC-Sem-7) Cellular Networks
PART- 1
GSM System for Mobile Telecommunication.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.1. What is GSM ? Mention the GSM services and features.
Answer
A. GSM:
1. Global system for mobile (GSM) is a second generation cellular system
standard that was developed to solve the fragmentation problems of the
first generation cellular systems in Europe.
2. GSM was the world's first cellular system to specify digital modulation
and network level architectures and services, and is the world's most
popular 2G technology.
3. GSM was originally developed to serve as the pan-European cellular
service and promised a wide range of network services through the use
of ISDN.
B. GSM services: GSM services are classified as :
i. Teleservices: Teleservices include standard mobile telephony and mobile
originated or base originated traffic.
ii. Data services : Data services include computer-to-computer
communication and packet switched trafic. User services may be divided
into three major categories :
a. Telephonic services.
b. Bearer service or data services.
C. Supplementary ISDN services.
C. Features of GSM:
Improved spectrum efficiency.
International roaming.
ii. Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs).
iv. High-quality speech.
V Compatibility with Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN) and other
telephone company services.
Que 4.2. Draw the GSM architecture and also explain radio
subsystem in mobile radio communication.
OR
Explain the term GSM in detail in mobile radio communication using
system architecture. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
1. Fig.4.2.1 shows the block diagram ofthe GSM system architecture. The
mobile stations (MSs) communicate with the base station subsystem
(BSS)over the radio air interface.
BTS
BTS BSC
HLR VLR AUC
MS BTS
PSTN
BTS
B8Ç
BTS BSC MSC ISDN
BTS Data
Inetworks
I|OMC
Operation support
MS subsystem
Base station subsystem Network switching Public
subsystem networks
Fig. 4.2.1. GSM system architecture.
2. The GSM system architecture consists of three major interconnected
subsystems :
a. Base station subsystem (BSS) :
1. The BSS, also known as the radio subsystem, provides and manages
radio transmission paths between the mobile stations and the mobile
switching center (MSC).
2 The BSS also manages the radio interface between the mobile stations
and all other subsystems of GSM.
3. Each BSS consists of many base station controllers (BSCs) which connect
the MS to the NSS via the MSCs.
4 The BSS consists of many BSCs which connect to a single MSC, and
each BSC typically controls upto several hundred base transceiver
stations (BTSs).
5 Mobile handoffs between two BTSs under the control of the same BSC
are handled by the BSC and not the MSC. This greatly reduces the
switching burden of the MSC.
b. Network and switching subsystem (NSS):
1 The NSS manages the switching functions of the system and allows the
MSCs to communicate with other networks such as the PSTN and
ISDN.
2 The NSS handles the switching of GSM calls between external networks
and the BSCs in the radio subsystem and is also responsible for managing
and providing external access to several customer databases.
3 In the NSS, there are three different databases :
i. HLR (Home Location Register):
1 The HLR is a database which contains subscriber information and
location information for each user who resides in the same city as the
MSC.
ii. VLR (Visitor Location Register):
1. The VLR is a database which temporarily stores the IMSI and customer
information for each roaming subscriber who is visiting the coverage
area of a particular MSC.
2 Once a roaming mobile is logged in the VLR, the MSC sends the necessary
information to the visiting subscribers HLR so that calls to the roaming
mobile can be appropriately routed over the PSTN by the roaming user's
HLR.
iiüi. AUC:
1 The authentication center (AUC) is a strongly protected database which
handles the authentication and encryption keys for every single
subscriber in the HLR and VLR.
C. Operation support subsystem (0SS) :
1. The OSS supports the operation and maintenance of GSM and allows
system engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of
GSM system.
2 The OSS supports one or several Operation Maintenance Centers (OMC)
which is used tomonitor and maintain the performance of each MS, BS.
BSCand MSCwithin a GSM system.
3 The OSS has three main functions, which are:
i. To maintain all telecommunications hardware and network operations
with a particular market.
ii. Manage all charging and billing procedures, and
ii. Manage all mobile equipment in the system.
Wireless & Mobile Communication 4-5 A
(EC-Sem-7)
Que 4.3. Explain the GSM architecture and frame structure in

mobile radio communication system in detail.
Answer
A. GSM architecture: Refer Q. 4.2, Page 43A, Unit-5.
B. GSM frame structure:
1 A simplest GSM frame structure is shown in Fig. 4.3.1. Each frame
consists of 8 time slots and 156.25 bits/slot. Therefore, a frame contains
8x 156.25 = 1250 bits/frame.
2 Each frame has a period of 4.615 ms.
1Hyperframe = D 2047 2048 Superframes
6.12s
1Superframe = 50 51 Multiframes
12^ ms
1Multiframe = .25 26 Frames
4.615 ms
1Frame = 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 Time slots
576.92 us
1 Time slot 3 57 26 1 57 38.25| 156.25 bits
Fig. 4.3.1. GSM frame structure.

3. Each time slot contains tail bits, coded bits, stealing bits, midamble and
guard period which are used to provide the information like whether
the time slot (TS) contains voice data or control data, to
analyze the
radio channel characteristics before decoding the user data, to
the signal strength, to bear (carry) the information etc. measure
4. Each of the normal speech frames is grouped into larger
called multiframes, superframes and hyper frames. structures
5. One multiframe consists of 26 frames and has a period of
120 ms.
6. One superframe consists of 51 multiframes. The
superframe is 6.12 sec.
overall period of a
7. The 13th and 26th frame are not used for
8. A hyperframe
traffic but, for control purposes.
contains 2048 superframes (or 2,715, 648 frames). It is
sent about every 3 hours, 28 minutes and 54
seconds.
Que 4.4. Explain signal processing and GSM operations from

speech input to speech output with diagram.
OR
Explain signal processing and GSM operations from speech input
to speech output with diagram. Calculate the total available
channels for a cellular system having a total bandwidth of 60 MHz
which uses two 50 kHz simplex channel to provide full duplex voice
and control channels assume that the system uses nine cell reuse
pattern and 1 MHz of the total bandwidth is allocated for control
channels. Also calculate the number of control channels and voice
channels per cell. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. GSM operation :
Fig. 4.4.1 illustrates all of the GSM operations from transmitter to receiver.
Speech Speech
Digitizing and Source

source coding decoding
Channel Channel
coding decoding
Interleaving De-interleaving
Burst Burst
formatting formatting
Ciphering De-ciphering
Radio channel
Modulation Demodulation
Fig. 4.4.1. GSM operations from speech input to speech output.

1. Speech coding : The GSM speech coder is based on the residually

excited linear predictive coder (RELP), which is enhanced by including a
long-term predictor (LTP). The coder provides 260 bits for each 20 ms
blocks of speech, which yields a bit rate of 13 kbps.
2. Channel coding : The output bits of the speech coder are ordered into
groups for error protection, based upon their significance in contributing
to speech quality.
3 Interleaving : In order to minimize the effect of sudden fades on the
received data, the total of 456 encoded bits within each 20 ms speech
frame or control message frame are broken into eight 57 bit sub-blocks.
These eight sub-blocks which make up a single speech frame are spread
over eight consecutive TCH time slots.
4. Burst formatting : Burst formatting adds binary data to the ciphered
blocks, in order to help synchronization and equalization of the received
signal.
5. Ciphering: Ciphering modifies the contents of the eight interleaved
blocks through the use of encryption techniques known only to the
particular mobile station and base transceiver station. Two types of
ciphering algorithms calledA3 and A5 are used in GSM.
6. Modulation : The modulation scheme used by GSM is 0.3 GMSK,
where 0.3 describes the 3 dB bandwidth of the Gaussian pulse shaping
filter with relation to the bit rate (e.g., BT= 0.3).
7. Demodulation : The portion of the transmitted forward channel signal
which is of interest to a particular user is determined by the assigned TS
and ARFCN. The appropriate TS is demodulated with the aid of
synchronization data provided by the burst formatting. After
demodulation, the binary information is deciphered, de-interleaved,
channel decoded and speech decoded.
B. Numerical : Refer Q. 1.8, Page 1-9A, Unit-1.
PART-2
General Pachet Radio Service.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.5. Explain GPRS architecture.
Answer
1. The GSM technology was developed for voice services, but it did not
have the capability to provide data services.
2. To develop a higher data rate capability and to enhance the services the
GPRS protocol was developed on the GSM platform. The scenario and
GPRS architecture are shown in Fig. 4.5.1.
MSCVLR HLR
D
Gs G.
A G,
MS BSS
G
H
SGSN
Gn
GGSN
PDN
Um G;
Gp
SGSN GGSN
--Signalling interface Other networks

with GPRS
-Signalling and data transfer interfacel
A, G, G,, G, Dare interface for signalling.
Um G,G,, Gp and G; are interfaces for signalling and transmission.
GGSN-Gateway GPRS Support Node; SGSN-serving GPRS support node
PDN-packet data network.
Fig. 4.5.1. GPRS architecture with modifications inthe GSM,
including additional GPRS components.
3. GPRS could offer data rates upto 115 kbps, which allowed web browsing
and other services requiring data transfer.
4 GPRS uses packet-switehed data rather than cireuit-switched data, which
is much more efficient for using the available capacity. This is because
data transfer takes place in a bursty manner.
5 The transfer occurs in short peaks, followed by breaks when there is
little or no activity. Packet switching permits sharing the overall capacity
among several users.
6. The data is split into packets and then tags are inserted into each packet
to mark its destination address. Packets from several sources can then
be transmitted over the link. It is unlikely that the data burst for all the
users will occur at the same time, so sharing the overall resource in this
fashion makes the system efficient.
7. For GPRS, the data from the BSC is routed through the serving GPRS
support node (SGSN).
8. This forms the gateway to the services within the network and then a
gateway GPRS support node (GGSN), which forms the gateway to the
outside world.
Que 4.6. Write a short note on GPRS functional groups.
Answer
1. Network access : Network access supports standard point-to-point
data transfer and anonymous access (without authentication and
ciphering). The functions include the following :
i
Registration, which associates the MS identity with the PDPs.
AuthenticatiYn and authorization are for security purposes to avoid
anonymous access.
ii. Packet terminal adaptation, which adapts data transmission across the
GPRS network.
iv. Admission control, which determines the radio and network resources
tobe used for communication of MSs.
V.
Charging information collection for packet transmission in GPRS and
external networks.
2 Packet routing and transfer: Packet routing and transfer is used to
route the data between the MS and the destination through the SGSNS
and GGSNs. The functions include the following:
1. Relay function, which is used by the BSS to forward packets between
the MS and the SGSN and is also used by the SGSN to forward packets
E:
F: between the BSS and the SGSN or GGSN.
Routing which determines the destinations of packets.
ii. Address translation and mapping, which converts a GPRS network
address to an external data network address and vice-versa.
iv. Encapsulation and tunnelling, which encapsulate packets at the source
of a tunnel, deliver the packets through the tunnel, and decapsulate
them at the destination.
V.
Compression and ciphering, which reduce and protect the database.
3. Mobility management : Mobility management keeps track of the
current location of an MS which includes the following :
i. Cell update.
Routing area update.
ii. Combined routing area and location area update.
4 Logical link management :Logical link management maintains the
communication channel between the MS and the GSM network across
the radio interface, which includes the following:
i. Logical link establishment.
4-10 A (EC-Sem-7) Cellular Networks
Logical link maintenance.

ii. Logical link release.
5. Radio resource managemnent:Radio resource management allocates
and maintains radio communication paths, which includes the following:
Cell selection, which enables the MS to select the optimal cell for radio
communication.
:
Path management, which maintains the communication paths between
the BSSs and SGSNs.
6. Network management: Network management provides the
mechanisms to support operations, authentication and maintenance
(0AM) functions related to GPRS.
Que 4.7. Write a short note on GPRS device categories and its
modes.
Answer
A. GPRS device categories :
Class A: Mobile phones in this class can be connected to both GPRS and
GSM services at the same time.
Class B:Mobile phones in this class can be attached to both GPRS and
GSM services, but they can be used on only one service at a time.
Class C: Mobile phones in this class can be attached to either GPRS or
GSM services, but the user needs to switch manually between the two
different types.
B. Modes:
Initialization or idle:
1 When a mobile is turned ON, it must register with a network and
update the location register. It is referred to as location update.
2 When the mobile performs its location update, the network also performs
an authentication to ensure that it is allowed to access the network.
Like GSM, it accesses the HLR and VLR as necessary for the location
update and the AUCfor authentication.
3. The SGSN also maintains a record of the location of the mobile so that
data can be sent there if required.
ii. Stand by :
1. The mobile then enters a standby mode, periodically updating its position
as required.
2. It monitors to ensure that it has not changed BSs and also looks for
stronger BSCCHs. The mobile will also monitor the PPCH in case of an
incoming alert indicating that data is ready to be sent.
ii. Ready:
1. In the ready mode, the mobile is attached to the system and virtual
connection is made with the SGSN and GGSN.
2. This connection enables the network to know where to route the packets
when they are sent and received.
PART-3
Edge Technology.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Ans wer Type Questions
Que 4.8. Write a short note on EDGE technology.
Answer
1 The EDGE technologv is applied to GSM networks where the
enhancements provided by GPRS have already been added.
2 GSM provides voice services based on circuit switching whereas GPRS
provides data services based on packet switching. Hence, the
infrastructure for both is to be adopted by EDGE.
3 In terms of implementation, EDGE is intended to build on the
enhancements provided by the addition of GPRS where packet switching
is applied to a network.
4 It enables a threefold increase in the speed at which data can be
transferred by adoptinga different form of modulation.
5. EDGE changes the modulation to 8PSK, which is a form of phase shift
keying (PSK) where eight phase states are used.
6 By using 8PSK, data can be transferred at 48 kbps per channel rather
than 9.6 kbps, the rate that is possible using GMSK. By allowing the use
of multiple channels, the technology allows the transfer of data at rates
up to 384 kbps.
PART-4
CDMA Based Standards: 1S 95 to CDMA 2000.
Questions-Answers

Que 4.9. Explain forward link and reverse link in IS-95 system.
Answer
A. Forward link (BS- MS) :
1 The IS-95 system specifies 869-894 MHz band for the forward link.
2 It consists of upto 64 logical CDMAchannels each occupying the same
1228 KHz bandwidth. The forward link supports four types of channels :
i. Pilot (Channel 0) : This channel allows the mobile unit to acquire
timing information, provide phase reference for the demodulation, and
provides ameans ofsignal strength comparison for the purpose of handoff
determination. The pilot channel consists of all zeros transmitted at
higher power then user channels.
ii. Synchronization (Channel 32): A1200 bps channel used by the MS
to obtain identification information about the cellular system.
iii. Paging (Channel 1 -7) : These channels contain messages for one or
more mobile stations.
iv. Traffic channel (Channel 8 -31 and 33- 63) : The forward channel
supports 55traffic channels. The original specification supported data
rates upto 9.6 kbps. All these channel use the same bandwidth. The
chipping code is used to distinguish among the different channels. For
the forward channel, the chipping codes are the 64 orthogonal 64 bit
codes derived from a 64 x 64 Walsh matrix.
B. Reverse link (MS - BS) :
1. The IS-95 system specifies 824-849 MHz band for the reverse channel.
1.2288 KHz code
long
distinct 1.2288 KHz
0 Pilot channel 1 Access channel
1 Paging channel Access channel
code
Walsh 7 Paging channel 32| Access channel
8 Traffic channel - 1 User
specific 1 Traffic channel
long
code 2 Traffic channel
Traffic channel 24 3 Traffic channel
31
32 Synchronisation ch.
33 Traffic channel 25
\63 Traffic channel 55 (>62 Trafic channel

(a) Forward channel (b) Reverse channels.
Fig. 4.9.1,
2. The reverse link consists of upto 94 logical CDMA channels each

occupying the same 1228 KHz bandwidth.
3. The reverse link supports upto 32 access channels and upto 62 traffic
channels. The traffic channels in the reverse link are mobile unique.
4. Each station has a unique long code mask based on its electronic serial
number. The long code mask is a 42 bit number. There are 242 - 1
different masks.
5. The access channel is used by a mobile to initiate a call to respond to a
paging channel message from the base station and for a location update.
Que 4.10. Describe the forward CDMA channel and reverse CDMA
channel using proper block diagram.
Answer
IS-95 forward CDMA channel:
Power control I-Channel pilot
User data
bit Walsh PN sequence
from base station
Data
MUX code
Baseband
Convolutional 19.2 1.2288 filter
Encoder and Block kbps Scrambling Mcps
repetition Interleaver
r= 12, K= 9 Synbol
cover Baseband
9600 bps flter
4800 bps
2400 bps Decimator Decimator
1200 bps Q-channel
pilot PN
Long code Long code sequence
for n" user generator 800 Hz
1.2288 Mcps
Fig.4.10.1. Forward CDMA channel modulation process.
1. For lower data rates, the encoder O/P bits are replicated to yield
19.2 kbps rate.
2. The data are then interleaved in blocks to reduce the effects of errors by
spreading them out.
3 Following the interleaver, the data bits are scrambled. The purpose of
this is to serve as privacy mask and also to prevent sending of repetitive
patterns.
4 The serambling is accomplished by means of a long code that is generated
as apseudo random number from a42-bit long shift register.
5 The shift register is initialised with the user's electronic serial number.
The output of long code generator is at a rate of 1.2288 Mcps.
6 The decimator keeps only the first chip out of every 64 consecutive PN
chips. The O/P of decimator is at 19.2 kbps.
7. The data scrambling is performed by modulo-2 addition of the
interleaver O/P with the decimator O/P.
8. The next step in the processing inserts power control bits at a rate of
800bps by replacing some ofthe traffic channel bits, using the long code
generator to encode the bits.
9. The next step in the DSSS function spreads the 19.2 kbps to a rate of
1.2288 Mbps (Mcps) using one row of 64 x 64 Walsh matrix. One row of
the matrix is assigned to a MS during callset up.
10. After this bits are spread in quadrature. Two separate bit
stream
(I and Q), data are split in I and Q channels.
11. Data in each channel XORed with a unique short-code. The short
binary spreading sequence, period 215-1, chips is generated from a 15
bit long shift register. Thus, data is transmitted using QPSK modulation.
12. A pilot code on the forward link is also transmitted simultaneously and
at a higher power level thereby allowing all mobiles to use coherent
detection while estimating the channel conditions.
IS -95 reverse channel:
1.
First few steps are same as forward channel. Data rate tripled here to
28.8 kbps, then block interleaved. The next step is spreading of the data
using Walsh matrix. In the reverse channel, the data coming out of the
block interleaver are grouped into units of 6 bits.
2 Each 6 bit unit serves as a index to select a row of 64 x 64 Walsh matrix
(26 =64) and that row is substituted for the input. Thus, the data row is
expanded by a factor of 64/6 to 307.2 kbps.
3 The purpose of this encoding is to improve the reception at the BS,
because the 64 possible coding is orthogonal, the coding enhances
decision making at receiver.
4. We can view this Walsh modulation as a form of block error correcting
code with (n, k) = (64, 6) and di=32 (all distances are 32).
5 The data burst randomizer is used to help to reduce interference from
other mobile stations. The operation involves using the long code mask
to smooth the data out over each 20 ms frame.
6 The next step in the process is DSSS function in case of reverse channel,
the long code unique to mobile is XORed with the output of randomizer
toproduce 1.2288 Meps final data stream.
7. The digital bit stream is then modulated on to a corner using an offset
QPSK modulation.
8. The reason the modulators are different is that in forward channel, the
spreading codes are orthogonal, all coming from Walsh matrix, whereas
in reverse channel, orthgonality ofthe spreading code is not guaranteed.
Zero-offscet pilot PN
sequence I-channel
Long code Long 12288 Meps
mask for code
generator PN
user n
chip Base I(t
band
Information filter
bit Convolutional
encoder and Block 64-ary Data bust PN
repetition interleaver Orthogonal randomizer
modulator chip
r= V3, K-9
9600 bps Base
Walsh band
4800 bps
28.8 keps chip filter Qt)
2400 bps 307.2 kcps
1200 bps 112 PN chip dealy
- 406.9 ns
Zero-offset pilot PN
sequence Qchannel
Fig. 4.10.2. Reverse IS-95 channel modulation process fora single user.
Que 4.11. Discuss in detail the features of IS-95.

OR
How does CDMA technology work in principle ? Give detailed
features of GSM and CDMA mobile standards.
Answer
A. CDMA technology : Refer Q. 4.10, Page 4-13A, Unit-4.
B. Features of GSM: Refer Q. 4.1, Page 4-2A, Unit-4.
C. Features of CDMAmobile standard:
i. Soft handoff :
1. Generally, soft handoff refers to 'make before break' connection. In the
IS-95 standard, three types of soft handoffs are defined that are shown
in Fig. 4.11.1.
2 In the softer handoff case,shown in Fig. 4.11.1a), the handoffis between
two sectors of the same cell.
3 In the soft handoff case, as shown in Fig. 4.11.1(6), the handoff is between
two sectors of different cells.
(a) Softer (6) Soft (c) Soft-so fter
Fig. 4.11.1. Types of soft handoff.

4. In the soft:-softer handoff case, as shown in Fig. 4.11.1(c), the candidates

for handoff includes two sectors from the same cell and a third sector
from a different cell.
ii. Power control:
1. In order to avoid the near-far effect, it is important to implement good
power control. Also, in order to maintain a good link quality, effects such
as fading and shadowing need to be countered by increasing the transmit
power.
2 In IS-95, power control is very important especially on the reverse link
where non-coherent detection is employed.
3 Two types of power control are implemented-an open loop and a closed
loop. Aslow mobile assisted power control is employed on the forward
link.
iüi. Provide extensive path diversity.
iv. Improve performance in difficult propagation environment.
V. Improvement in system capacity and coverage.
PART-5
Wireless Local Loop.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.12. Write a short note on wireless local loop (WLL) system.
Answer
1. AWLL is defined in the last-mile system category. WLL services may be
defined as fixed wireless services intended to provide access to the
telephone network.
2 In general local loop means exchange-to-exchange closed loop.
Conventionally, telephone local loops are unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
or shielded twisted pair (STP) based cables.
3 If we remove the wires used for communication, that is, establish an RF
link, it becomes a wireless local loop.
4. Wireless local loop systems will generally divide a geographical region
intomany similar sized cells. Each cell will be serviced by a BS, which
will communicate with all the WLL customers within the cell, as shown
in Fig. 4. 12.1 and 4.12.2.
Wireless & Mobile Communication 4-17A(EC-Sem-7)
Radio base repeated

RS-Hub
Satellite uplink (up to 24 channels)
Local network Wireless

switch (PBX) local loop
or PSTN
Fax Telephone Modem
Remote
Telephone subseriber unit
central office Typical subscriber location
Fig. 4.12.1. WLL system.

WANU
WASU
Transceiver
Trunk WLL Air
Switch AM
PSTN controller interface
function unit
HLR
Phone
WLL
Fig. 4.12.2.WLL access unit and their functions.
5. The BS may be as simple as a small omnidirectional antenna and control
box hanging fromn the overhead electrical lines. Each customer willbe
equipped with a transceiver and a small patch antenna.
6. The WANU(Wireless Access Network Unit) the interface between the
underlying telephone network and the wireless link, consists of the
following:
i. BTS
Radio port control unit (RPCU).
PART-6
IMT 2000and UMTS.
Questions-Answers

Que 4.13. Write a short note on IMT-2000 and UMTS.

OR
Describe the following wireless standards :
i IS-95
i. IMT-2000 |AKTU2018-19,Marks 10
Answer
A. IS-95: Refer Q. 4.9, Page 4-12A, Unit-5.
B. IMT-2000:
1. The global standard for 3G wireless communications is IMT-2000, defined
by a set of interdependent international telecommunication union (ITU)
recommendations.
2. IMT-2000 provides a framework for worldwide access by linking the
diverse systems of terrestrial and/or satellite networks.
3. In IMT-2000, 2000 stands for the year it was introduced and also the
spectrum used (around 2000 MHz).
C. UMTS:
1. UMTS represents an evolution from 2Gto 3G. It uses WCDMA to carry the
radio transmissions, and the system is often referred to by the name WCDMA.
2. In order to create and manage a system as complicated as UMTS or
WCDMA, it is necessary to develop and maintain a large number of
documents and specifications.
3. For UMTS, these are now managed by a group known as the
3GPP-third-generation partnership programme.
Que 4.14. Describe the network architecture of UMTSwith suitable
diagram.
Answer
1 The universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS) is a system
that is capable of providing a variety of mobile services to a wide range
of global mobile communication standards.
2. To handle a mixed range of traffic, a mixed cell layout (shown in
Fig. 4.14.1), that would consist of macrocells overlaid on micro and picocells
is one of the architecture plans being considered.
3. This type of network distributes the traffic with the local traffic operating
on the micro and pico cells, while the highly mobile traffic is operated on
the macrocells, thus reducing the number of handoffs required for the
fast moving traffic.
4. Macrocells willalso be able to avoid the failures of the overlapped cells.
However the major disadvantage of the overlaid architecture is the
reduced spectrum efficiency.
5. The UMTS architecture will provide radio coverage with a network of

base stations interconnected to each other and to a fixed network
exchange.
Picocells
Macrocells
Macrocells
Macrocells
Fig. 4.14.1. Network architecture for UMTS.
Que 4.15. Describe the elements of UMTS or WCDMA system.
Answer
1 The network for UMTS can be split into three main constituents
as shown in Fig. 4. 15.1.
domain
kOE
USIM domain
-tCu
UE Mobile
equipment domain
. Uu Uu
UTRAN Access network

domain domain
Infrastructure
-t- Iu ---Iu
|Core
domaln
network
Serving network |Zu
CN
domain
UTRAN:UMTS terrestrial radio

access network --+Yyl
CN :Core network Home
UE:User equipment Transit network network
domain domain
along with defined interfaces.

Fig. 4.15.1. UMTS architecture and domain
i. User equipment (UE):

1. The UE for UMTS or WCDMA is equivalent to the mobile equipment
used on GSM networks.
2. It consists of a variety of elements including RF circuitry, processing,
antenna and battery.
3 The circuitry used within the UE can be broadly split into RF and
baseband processing areas.
a. The RF areas handle all elements of the signal, for both the receiver and
the transmitter.
b. Baseband signal processing consists mainly of digital circuitry.
4. The UE contains a SIM card, although in the case of UMTS,it is termed
as the universal identity module (USIM). It contains the IMSI and mobile
station international subscriber directory number (MSISDN).
5 It also holds information regarding the preferred language to enable the
correct language information to be displayed, especially when roaming
and a list ofpreferred and prohibited public land mobile networks (PLMN).
ii. Radio access network subsystem (RNS):
1 The RNS is the section of the UMTS or WCDMA network that acts as an
interface between the UE and the CN.
2. Under UMTS terminology, the radio transceiver or BTS equivalent (in
GSM) is known as the node B. This communicates with the various UE.
It also communicates with the radio network controller (RNC).
3 The overall radio access network is known as the UMTS terrestrial
radio access network (UTRAN). The RNCcomponent of the radio access
network (RAN) connects to the CN.
iii. Core Network (CN):
1. The CN used for UMTS is based upon a combination of the circuit
switched elements used for GSM and the packet-switched elements
used for GPRS and EDGE.
2. Thus, the CN is divided into circuit switched and packet switched
domains.
3. The ATM is specified for UMTS core transmission. The architecture of
the CN may change when new services and features are introduced.
4 Gateway Location Register (GLR) may be used to optimize subscriber
handling between network boundaries. The MSC, VLR, and SGSN can
merge to becomea UMTS MSC.
PART-7
Long Term Evolution (LTE).

Questions-Answers
Que 4.16. Explain the term long term evolution in wireless

communication. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
1. Long-term evolution transits from the existing UMTS circuit and packet
switching combined network to an all-IP flat architecture system.
Fig. 4.16.1 shows the simplicity of the LTE architecture.
2 The network side of the evolved UMTSterrestrial radio access network
(E-UTRAN) is composed only of evolved Node Bs (eNode Bs or eNBs),
hence the simplified architecture.
3 LTE supports cell sizes from tens of meters radius to l00 km radius
macrocells.
5. The new blocks specific to evolved UMTS evolution, LTE also known as
the evolved packet system (EPS) are the E-UTRAN and the evolved
packet core (EPC). The EPS is purely IP-based.
6. The LTE access network E-UTRAN is simply a network of BSs and
eNBs,generating aflat architecture. There is no centralized intelligent
controller and the eNBs are normally interconnected by the X2 interface
and towards the CN by the Sl interface.
MME/S-GW MME/S-GW
s1
x2 >E-utran
eNode B eNode B
eNode B
Fig. 4.16.1. Simplified LTE architecture- EPS.

Elements of LTE-EPS:
1. E-UTRAN : The E-UTRAN is an orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM)-based structure and is quite simple compared to
UTRAN. It is composed of only one network element the eNode B.
2. eNode B: The eNB interfaces with the UE. It supports all physical and
data link layer functions associated with the E-UTRAN OFDM physical
interface and eNBs are directly connected to network routers. It also
hosts radioresource control (RRC)functionality corresponding to the
control plane.
3. X2 interface: A new interface known as X2 has been defined between
eNode Bs, working in a meshed way to make them possible to be linked
together. The main purpose of this interface is to minimize packet loss
due to user mobility.
4. EPC: This is composed of several functional entities: the MME, the
home subscriber server (HSS), the serving gateway (8-GW), the packet
data network gateway (PDN-GW), and the policy and charging rules
function (PCRF) server.
5. MIME : The mobility management entity (MME) is charge of allthe
control plane functions related to subscriber and session management.
The MME supports the following :
i. Security procedures.
ii. Terminal to network session handling.
ii. Idle terminal location management.
6. HSS: The HSS is the concatenation of the HLR and the AUC-two
functions that are already present in GSM and UMTS networks. The
HLR part of the HSS is in charge of storing and updating when necessary.
The database containing allthe user subseription information, including
the following:
i User identification and addressing which corresponds to the IMSI and
MSISDN or mobile telephone number.
ii. User profile information which includes service subscription states and
user-subscribed QoS information.
7. S-GW:The S-GW is the termination point of the packet data interface
towards the E-UTRAN. The S-GW routes and forwards user data
packets.
8. PDN-GW: The PDN-GW is the termination point of the packet data
interface towards the packet data network (PDN). The PDN-GW provides
connectivity from the UE to external PDNs by being the point of exit
and entry of traffic for the UE.
9. PCRF server: It marages the service policy and sends the QoS setting
information for each user session and the accounting rule information.
Que 4.17. Explain the working of channels used in LTE.
Answer
Long-term evolution channels are of three types :
1. Physical channels : The LTE physical channels are again grouped
into uplink (SC-FDMA based) and downlink (OFDMA based) channels
as each has different requirements and operates in a different manner.
Downlink channels: There are four downlink physical channels for
correspondence from eNode B to UE.
i. Physical broadcast channel (PBCH): This channel carries system
information for the UE requiring access to the network. It carries only
the master information block (MIB) messages. The modulation scheme
is always QPSK, and the information bits are coded and rate matched.
ii. Physical control format indicator channel (PCFICH) : This
channel informs the UE about the format of the signal being received. It
indicates the number of OFDM symbols used for the physical downlink
control channels (PDCCHs).
iüi. Physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) :The main purpose
of this channel is to carry mainly scheduling information of different
types, downlink resource scheduling uplink power control instructions
uplink resource grant,the indication for paging or system information.
iv. Physical hybrid automatic repeat request indicator channel
(PHICH): This channel is used to report the HARQ status. It carries
the HAEQ ACKNACK signal indicating whether a transport block has
been correctly received.
Uplink channels: The following three different channels are specified
as uplink physical channels :
i. Physical uplink control channel (PUCCH):This channel provides
the various control signalling requirements.
ii. Physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH):This physical channel
found on the LTE uplink is the uplink counterpart of the PDSCH.
iüi. Physical random access channel (PRACH) : The channel is used
for random access functions. This is the only non synchronized
transmission that the UE can make within LTE.
2.
Logical channels : The logical channels cover the data carried over
the radio interface. Logical channels are again grouped into TCHs and
CCHs, like in the GSN system.
i.
Traffic channels :The LTE TCHs carry the user plane data.
iü. Dedicated trafficchannel : This channel is used for the transmission
of user data.
iii. Multicast traffic channel (MTCH) : This channel is used for the
transmission of multicast data.
iv. Control channels: The LTE CCHs carry the control plane information.
4-24 A (EC-Sem-7)
Cellular Networks
V. Broadcast control channel (BCCH):The channel provides
information to all mobile terminals connected tosystem
the
eNode B.
vi. Common control channel
(CCCH):This channel is used for random
access information needed for multicast reception.
vii. Multicast control channel (MCCH) : This channel is used for
information needed for multicast reception.
viii. Dedicated control channel (DCCH):This channel is used for
carrying
user-specific control information, for example, for controlling actions
such as power control and handover.
3. LTE transport channels :The LTE transport channels are also defined
for the uplink and the downlink, as each has different
and operates in a different manner. requirements
Downlink: Four downlink transport channels are specified as follows:
i. Broadcast channel: This channel maps to the BCCH.
ii. Downlink shared channel (DL-SCH): This channel is the main
channel for downlink data transfer. It is used by many logical channels.
iii. Paging channel:This channel is used toconvey the PCCH information.
iv. Multicast channel (MCH):This channel is used to transmit MCCH
information to set up multicast transmissions.
Uplink: The following twotransport channels are specified for uplink:
i. Uplink shared channel (UL-SCH): This channel is the main channel
for uplink data transfer. It is used by many logical channels.
ii. Random access channel (RACH) :This channel is used for random
access requirements.
PART-8
Mobile Satellite Communication.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.18. Write a short note on mobile satellite communication.

Answer
1. In mobile satelite communication, the satellite and mobile systems are
combined.
2 Antenna spot beams can be used for frequency reuse. The beam projection
areas are treated as cells,
3 Small satellite earth stations are used to send and receive the signals
from the satellite. These signals can be further routed to the MSC,
which will then take care of further routing of the signals.
4 The system offers communication services to mobile users operating
within a predefined service area. The users communicate with other
mobiles or with fixed users through one of the visible satellites.
5 Users in fixed network are accessed through large fixed stations called
gateways, which carry a large amount of traffic, whereas the mobiles
are small portable units that can support only a few channels.
6
There may be one or more space segments, which may consist of one
satellite or agroup of interlinked satellites. Depending on the service
area and application, the space segments can be utilized.
7. Telemetry and control ground stations, used for monitoring and
controlling satellites, constitute a part of the space segment.
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions

may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. Draw the GSM architecture and also explain radio

subsystem in mobile radio communication.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.2.
Q.2. Explain the GSM architecture and frame structure in mobile

radio communication system in detail.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.3.
Q.3. Explain signal processing and GSM operations fromspeech
input to speech output with diagram. Calculate the total
available channels for a cellular system having a total
bandwidth of 60 MHz which uses two 50 kHz simplex channel
to provide full duplex voice and control channels assume
that the system uses nine cell reuse pattern and 1 MHz of
the total bandwidth is allocated for control channels. Also
calculate the number of control channels and voice
channels per cell.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.4.
Q.4. Describe the forward CDMA channel and reverse CDMA
channel using proper block diagram.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.10.
5 UNIT
Wireless Networks
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction to Mobile 5-2A to 5-4A
Adhoc Networks
Part-2 : Bluetooth 5-4A to 5-6A
Part-3 : Wi-fi Standards 5-6A to 5-9A
Part-4 : WiMax Standards .5-9A to 5-11A
Part-5 : Li-Fi Communication .5-11A to 5-12A
Part-6 : Ultra-Wideband Communication 5-12A to 5-12A
Part-7: Mobile Data Networks .5-12A to 5-14A
Part-8 : Wireless Standards IMT 2000 .5-15A to 5-18A
Part-9 : Introduction to 4G and 5G and 5-18A to 5-25A

Concept of NGN
5-1 A (EC-Sem-7)
5-2 A (EC-Sem-7) Wireless Networks
PART- 1
Introduction to Mobile Adhoc Networks.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.1. What is basic concept of adhoc network ? Why and how
proper route is required to discuss in adhoc network ?
OR
Explain mobile adhoc network in wireless communication.
|AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
1. Mobile adhoc networks (MANETs) are collections of mobile nodes
dynamically establishing short-lived networks in the absence of fixed
infrastructure.
2. Each mobile node is equipped with a wireless transmitter and a receiver
with an appropriate antenna.
3 These mobile nodes are connected by wireless links and act as routers
for all other mobile nodes in the network.
4 Nodes in mobile adhoc networks are free to move and organize
themselves in an arbitrary manner.
5. These features make MANETs very practical and easy to deploy in
places where existing infrastructure is not capable enough to allow
communication, for instance in disaster zones or infeasible to deploy
locations.
Fig. 5.1.1. Mobile adhoc netwrork.

6. MANETs are the short term temporary spontaneously wireless networks
of mobile nodes communicating with each other without the intervention
of any fixed infrastructure or central control.
7. It is an autonomous system of mobile nodes, mobile terminals, or mobile
stations serving as routers interconnected by wireless links.
8. Depending on the locations, antenna coverage pattern, transmit power
levels and co-channel interference levels, a wireless connectivity exists
among participating mobile nodes at a given time, either in the form of
random multihop transmissions or adhocnetwork.
9 Network communication and management tasks are typically performed
in adistributed manner.
10. As the nodes moves or adjust their transmission and reception
parameters, MANET topology may change from time to time.
Que 5.2. Describe challenges and issues in Mobile AD-HOC
Networks (MANETS) in wireless communication.
|AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
1. Mobility in ad-hoc networks causes frequent link failure, which in turn
causes packet losses.
2 Transmission control protocol treats loss or delay of a package
acknowledgement as traffic congestion. It is considered as a complex
task in mobile ad-hoc networks.
3. Some of the most challenging issues are :
Limited wireless transmission rarige.
Broadcast nature of the wireless medium.
ii. MAC related issues such as hidden terminal and exposed terminal
problems.
iv. Routing problem due to change in route because of node mobility.
Packet losses due to transmission errors and mobility.
vi. Battery constraints.
vii. Security issues leading to ease of snooping.
vii. Design of the MACprotocols which define how the wireless medium is
shared by all nodes.
Que 5.3. Explain important features of mobile Ad-Hoc networks.
Answer
Features of MANET:
1. Mobile ad-hoc networks are formed dynamically by an autonomous
system of mobile nodes that are connected via wireless links.
54 A (EC-Sem-7) Wireless Networks
2. No existing fixed infrastructure or centralized administration and no

base station.
3. Mobile nodes are free to move randomly.
4. Network topology changes frequently.
5. Each node work as router.
6. Distributed operation and multi hop routing.
PART-2
Bluetooth.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.4. What is bluetooth ? Also write the features and

characteristics of bluetooth.
Answer
A. Bluetooth :
1 Bluetooth is a open wireless technology standard for exchanging data
over short distances from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal
area networks (PANs) with high levels of security.
2. Bluetooth represents a single-chip, low-cost radio-based wireless
technology. Bluetooth technology aims at adhoc piconets, with very
limited coverage (upto 100 m) and without the need for infrastructure.
B. Features of bluetooth:
i. Robustness.
Low complexity.
iü. Low power.
iv. Low cost.
C. Characteristics of bluetooth :
i. Bluetooth operates in unlicensed ISM band at 2.4 GHz .
: The range of bluetooth device is power class dependent : 1 meter, 10
meter, 100 meter.
ii. Devices connected using bluetooth frequency link forms a piconet.
Que 5.5.Explain bluetooth architecture.
Answer
Bluetooth architecture : The architecture of a bluetooth device is
described by the two terminology:
i. Piconet :
1. A piconet is a collection of bluetooth devices connected in an adhoc
fashion.
2. One device in the piconet act as master (M) and all other devices
connected to the master act as slaves (S).
3
Each piconet has exactly one master and upto seven simultaneous slaves,
i.e., a master bluetooth device can communicate with upto seven devices.
4 The master determines the hopping pattern in the piconet and the
slaves has to synchronize to this pattern.
5 Each piconet has a unique hopping pattern.
6 At any given time,data can be transferred between the master and one
other device, however, the device can switch roles and the slave can
become the master at any time.
M = Master
S - Slave
P =Parked
P
M SB= Standby
(SB)
(SB)
Fig. 5.5.1. Simple bluetooth piconet.

7. The master switches rapidly from one device to another in a round
robin fashion.
ii. Scatternet:
1 Group of piconets form a scatternet. Scatternet consists of two piconets
in which one device participates in two different piconets.
Piconets (each with a capacity of < 1 Mbit/s)
M= Master
S = Slave
P = Parked
SB = Standby
(SB
Fig. 5.5.2. Bluetooth scatternet.

2. Both piconets use a different hopping sequence and it is always
determined by the master of the piconet.
3. Collision occurs if two or more piconets use the same carrier frequency
at the same time.
5-6A (EC-Sem-7) Wireless Networks
4. If a device wants to participate in more than one piconet, it has to
synchronize to the hopping sequence of the piconet it wants to take part
in.
5. Ifa device acts asa slave in one piconet, it simply starts to

with the hopping sequence of the piconet it wants to join. synchronize
6. After synchronization, it acts as a slave in the new piconet and no longer
participates in the former piconet.
7. Before leaving one piconet, a slave informs the current master that it
will be unavailable for a certain amount of time.
PART-3
Wi-Fi Standards.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.6. Describe the system architecture of IEEE 802.11(wi-fi)

with suitable diagram.
Answer
1 There are two types of system architectures :
a. Infrastructure based IEEE 802.11:The architecture of infrastructure
based IEEE 802.1lnetwork is shown in Fig. 5.6.1.
802.11 LAN
802.x LAN
BSS
Access Portal
point
Distribution system
ESS Access
point
BSS.
STA,
STA3
Fig. 5.6.1. Architecture of an infrastructure-based IEEE 802.11.
Following are the components :

i. Station (STA) :Station (STA) is the most basic component of wireless
network. The nodes are referred to as station (STA). The stations are
connected to access point (AP) through radio transmission.
ii. Basic service set (BSS) :
1. The basic building block of IEEE 802.11WLAN is the BSS.The station
and the access point (AP) that is within the same radio coverage area
form a basic service set (BSS).
2. The BSS is a set of all stations that can communicate with each other. A
BSS that stand-alone and is not connected to another BSS is called an
independent basic service set (IBSS) or it is referred to as an adhoc
network with no access point.
iii. Access point :Station integrated intoWLAN and the distributed system.
iv. Extended service set (ESS): A ESS is a set of infrastructure BSSs,
where APs communicate among themselves to forward traffic from one
BSS to another and to facilitate the movement of mobile stations from
one BSS to another.
V. Portal: Bridge to other (wired) networks. It forms the interworking
unit to other LANs.
vi. Distribution system: The distribution system (DS) is the mechanism
by which one AP communicates with another to exchange frames for
stations in their BSSs, forward frames to follow mobile stations from
one BSS toanother and exchange frame with wired network.
b. Adhoc based IEEE 802.11:
1 The architecture of an adhoc network is shown in Fig.5.6.2.
802.11 LAN 802.11 LAN
STA, STA3 STA STAS
JBSS
d IBSS,
STAJ
Fig. 5.6.2. Architevture of IEEE 802.11 adhoc wireless LANs.
2 This type of network provides direct communication within a limited
range.
3. Here STA, can communicate with STA, and STA, but not with STA, and
STA, since these are in different IBSS.
Following are the components :
1. Station (STA) : Terminal with access mechanisms to wireless medium.
2. Independent basic service set (IBSS): It is a group ofstations using

the same radio frequency.
Que 5.7. What are the various IEEE 802.11 standards ?
Answer
The following are the various 802.11 standards along with their main
features:
1 802.1la : Wireless network bearer operating in the 5 GHz ISM band
with data rate up to 54 Mbps.
2. 802.11b :Wireless network bearer operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band
with data rates up to 11 Mbps
3 802.1le: QoS and prioritization (QoS extension).
4 802.11f: Handover.
5. 802.11g: Wireless network bearer operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band
with data rates up to 54 Mbps.
6 802.11h: Power control.
7. 802.1li: Authentication and encryption (enhanced security).
8 802.11j: Interworking.
9 802.11k : Measurement reporting.
10. 802.11n: Wireless network bearer operating in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
ISM bands with data rates up to 600 Mbps.
11. 802.11s :Mesh networking.
Que 5.8. Write a short note on Wi-Fi security aspects.
Answer
security
Wi-Fi security aspects: The requirements for Wi-Fi network
can be broken down into two primary components :
Authentication : Authentication is used to keep unauthorized users
off the network. This is of two types.
a.
User authentication :
user and verifying
1. User authentication is a process of identifying the
that heshe is allowed to access some service.
user are compared with the data
2 The username and password of the access to the service.
stored in the server before providing
b. Server authentication:
verified using a digital certificate.
1. The validity of aserver or website can be
automatically within the client
2. Validation of the digital certificate occurs
software.
ii. Privacy:
1. Privacy involves addressing the failures of the originalwired equivalent
privacy (WEP) algorithm with a robust security network (RSN) and
transition security network (TSN).
2. Other security techniques are service set identifier (SSID), 802. 1X access
control, Wi-Fiprotected access (WPA), and IEEE 802.11i.
PART-4
WiMax Standards.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.9. Describe the system architecture of IEEE 802.16

(WiMAX).
Answer
WiMAX:
1 WiMAX, which stands for worldwide interoperability for microwave
access, is a new broadband wireless data communications technology or
mobile internet based around the IEEE 802.16 standard that provides
high-speed data communications (70 Mbps) over a wide area.
2. It is a technology for P2MP wireless networking.
WiMAX is a standard for WMANs that has been developed by working
group number 16 of IEEE 802, specializing in broadband wireless access.
It is suitable for rural applications.
Architecture:
1 WiMAX has two important standards or usage models :
i. A
fixed usage model IEEE 802.16d-2004 for fixed wireless broadband
access (FWBA),
Aportable usage model IEEE 802. 16e-2005 for mobile wireless broadband
access (MWBA).
2. IEEE 802.16-2004 WiMAX is through LOS communications, which
incorporates a stationary transmitter and receiver and is less complicated,
but MWBA non-line-of-sight (NLOS) communication is much more
complicated.
3. For LOS, 802.16 protocol is used between two BSs (Base station). For
fixed wireless access Wi-Fi connection, 802.16d protocol is utilized,
whereas for mobile applications,802.16e is more suitable.
4 The IEEE 802.16 protocol architecture has four layers : convergence,

MAC,transmission, and physical.
Digital audio/ Digital IP Bridged LAN Back haul Virtual Frame
video multicast telephony ATM
L
point-to-point relay
Convergence
OSI data link layer
MAC
Transmission
OSIphysical layer Physical
Fig. 5.9.1. WiMAX protocol architecture with various possible applications.

5. The protocol architecture as shown in Fig. 5.9.1 represents mainly two
layers equivalent to open systems interconnection (0SI) :physical and
data link layers.
6 The WiMAX system can be converged with digital telephony, ATM, IP,
and so on.
7. The WiMAX MACsupports communication in all traffic conditions. It
uses the spectrum efficiently and has various QoS options.
8. For the different of fixed and mobile WiMAX,the MAC design includes
a convergence sublayer (CS). It is used to interface with various higher
layer protocols.
9. The CS is the component of the MAC that is responsible for mapping
between the MACservice and the internal connection oriented service
of the MAC common part sublayer (CPS) through classification and
encapsulation.
Que 5.10. What are the WiMax standards ? Explain.
Answer
WiMax has two important standards :
i. IEEE 802.16d:The following are the spectrum and modulation features
of the IEEE 802.16d standard:
1. WiMAX 802.16d RF signals use OFDM techniques. The signal
incorporates 256 carriers in the total signal bandwidth, which may range
from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz.
2, Of the 256 carriers, only 200 are actually used.
3 Of the 200 carriers, 192 are used for data payload and the remaining 8
are used as pilots. The pilot carriers are always BPSK modulated and
the data carriers are modulated with BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM, or 64QAM.
4. The IEEE 802.16 WiMAX standard allows data transmission using
multiple broadband frequency ranges.
ii.
: IEEE 802.16e: The following are the spectrum and modulation features
of the IEEE 802.16e standard:
Wireless & Mobile Communication 5-11A(EC-Sem-7)
1. The mobile WiMAX air interface adopts orthogonal frequency division
multiple access (OFDMA) for improved multipath performance in NLOS
environments.
2. Scalable OFDMA (SOFDMA) is introduced in the IEEE 802.16e
amendment to support scalable channel bandwidths from
1.25 MHz to20 MHz.
3. The 802. 16e supports TDD and full and half duplex frequency division
duplex (FDD) operations.
4. Hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) error control protocol and
fast channel feedback (CQICH) through channel quality index make
the system more reliable.
PART-5
Li-Fi Communication.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.11. Write a short note on Li-Fi communication.

Answer
1. Light Fidelity (Li-Fi) is a bidirectional, high-speed and fully networked
wireless communication technology similar to Wi-Fi.
2. Li-Fi is aform of visible light communication and a subset of optical
wireless communications (OWC) and could be a conmplement to RF
communication (Wi-Fi or cellular networks), or even a replacement in
contexts of data broadcasting.
3. It is wire and UV visible-light communication or infrared and near
ultraviolet instead ofradio-frequency spectrum, part of optical wireless
communications technology, which carries much more information and
has been proposed as a solution to the RF-bandwidth limitations.
4. Both Wi-Fi and Li-Fi transmit data over the electromagnetic spectrum,
but whereas Wi-Fiutilizes radio waves, Li-Fi uses visible light.
5. Li-Fiis expected to be ten times cheaper than Wi-Fi. Short range, low
reliability and high installation costs are the potential downsides.
6 Like Wi-Fi, Li-Fi is wireless and uses similar 802.11 protocols; but it uses
visible light communication (instead of radio frequency waves).
7. Standard defines three PHY layers with different rates:
1. The PHY Iwas established for outdoor application and works from
11.67 kbit/s to 267.6 kbit/s.
The PHY II layer permits reaching data rates from 1.25 Mbit/s to
96 Mbit/s.
iii. The PHY IIIis used for many emissions sources with a particular
modulation method called colour shift keying (CSK). PHY III can deliver
rates from 12 Mbit/s to 96 Mbit/s.
8 The modulation formats recognized for PHY I and PHY II are on-off
keying (OOK)and variable pulse position modulation (VPPM).
9 The Manchester coding used for the PHY Iand PHY IIlayers includes
the clock inside the transmitted data by representing a logic Owith an
0OK symbol 01" and a logic1 with an 00K symbol "10", all with a DC
component. The DC component avoids light extinction in case of an
extended run of logic O's.
PART-6
Ultra-Wideband Communication.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.12. Write a short note on ultra-wideband communication.
Answer
1. Ultra-wideband (UWB) is for indoor and short-range outdoor
communication.
2 It is a rapidly emerging wireless technology that promises data rates

well beyond those possible with currently deployed technologies such as
802.1la, b,g and WiMAX.
3 UWB can be used in both commercial and military applications.
4 The method of transmission employed by UWB is totally different to
that used by most other wireless technologies in use today.
5 Rather than using a specified frequency with a carrier, the technique
that is used by traditional transmissions, UWB uses what can be termed
time domain electromagnetic.
PART-7
Mobile Data Networks.

Questions-Answers
Que 5.13. What is mobile data network ? Give classification of

mobile data networks.
OR
What do you understand by Mobile Data Network ? Explain
important features of mobile Ad-Hoc networks.
Answer
A. Mobile Data Network:
1. By mobile data networks we refer to those services, technologies, and
standards that are related to data services over wide area coverage,
areasspanning more than the local area or campus.
2. In addition to traditional mobile data services, SMS services can also be
considered as a part of these systems.
3. As shown in Fig. 5.13.1 we can classify mobile data networks into three
categories :
Mobile data networks
Independent Shared Overlay
Licensed Unlicensed Example Overlay on Overlay on

bands bands CDPD traffic channels signaling channels
Examples ARDIS Examples Example GPRS Examples SMS

Mobitext Metricom, Ricochet
Fig. 5.13.1.Classification of mobile data networks.

i. Independent mobile data:
1. Independent networks have their own spectrum that is not coordinated
with any other service and their own infrastructure that is not shared
with any other service.
2. These networks are divided into two groups according to the status of
their operating frequency band.
Wireless Networks
5-14 A (EC-Sem-7)
3
licensed bands. Examples
The first group uses independent spectrum in historically they were the
of such networks are ARDIS and Mobitex and
first mobile data services that were introduced.
makes use of
4 The secondgroup of independent mobile data networks
unlicensed spectrum that is shared among a variety of applications and
users.
for
5 This service was deployed in airports and some metropolitan areas
wireless internet access.
ii. Shared mobile data:
1 These networks share the spectrum and part of the infrastructure with
operates
an already existing voice-oriented analog service. The servicehave their
in the same radio channels used for analog voice, but they
own air-interface and MAC protocols.
services
2 In addition to dedicated channels for data, these mobile data
can also use the available unused voice channels.
therefore the
3. These systems share an existing system infrastructure,
initial investment is not huge and it could be made as gradually as
possible.
subscriber
4. Initial deployment could be made in areas where there is
demand and subsequent penetration into other areas is considered as
the customer base enlarges.
5. The CDPD service, which shares spectrum and part of the infrastructure
with AMPS, is an example of such networks.
with
6 It does have an independent air-interface and MAC layer along
additional infrastructure required for operation of data services.
iii. Overlay mobile data:
1 The last group of mobile data networks in an overlay on existing networks
and services. This means that the data service willnot only make use
of
also the MAC frames and
the spectrum allocated for another service but
air-interface of an existing voice-oriented digital cellular system.
2
GPRS and GSM's SMS are examples of such overlays. They make use of
free time slots available within the trafficchannels and signaling channels
in GSM.
a
3 This way, the amount of new infrastructure required is reduced to
bare minimum. Most of the extra components required and implemented
in software, making it inexpensive and easy to deploy.
4 GPRS type of service uses computer keyboards tocommunicate longer
messages and SMS use the cellular phone dialing keypad to communicate
short messages.
B. Features of mobile Ad-Hoc networks: Refer Q. 5.3, Page 5-3A,
Unit-5.
PART-8
Wireless Standards IMT 2000.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.14. Write a short notes on wireless standard IMT 2000.
Answer
i Wireless standard IMT 2000:
1 The vision for an IMT-2000 system and its capabilities is summarized
which illustrates that IMT-2000 will provide capabilities constituting
significant improvements over the current mobile systems, especially in
terms of global mobility for the users and support of services like high
speed data, multimedia, and internet.
2. Since, however, it is generally accepted that these IMT-2000 capabilities
will to a large extent be achieved by evolving existing wireline and
wireless networks, IMT-2000 will be a family of systems rather than a
single,monolithic network.
Global
Satellite Suburban Urban In-building
Macrocell Microcell Picocell
Basic terminal
PDA terminal
audiovisual
terminal
A single world standard to support all wireless environments.

Fig. 5.14.1. Scope of mobile transmission technologies (RTTs) for IMT-2000.
3 IMT-2000 vision:
i Common spectrum worldwide (1.8 - 2.2 GHz band).
i. Multiple radio environments (cellular, cordless, satellite, LANS).
üi. Wide range of telecommunication services (voice, data, multimedia,
internet).
iv. Flexible radio bearers for increased spectrum efficiency.
V. Data rates up to 2 Mb/s (phase 1) for indoor environments.
Vi. Maximum use of IN capabilities (for service provision and transport).
v. Global seamless roaming.
viü. Enhanced security and performance.
ix. Integration of satellite and terrestrial system.
4. Aglobal standard to satisfy market demand for mobile services in the
21st century.
5. In scope, IMT-2000 service environments will address the full range of
mobile and personal communication applications shown in Fig. 5.14.1:
in building (picocell), urban (microcell), suburban (macrocell), and global
(satellite), as well as communications types that include voice, data and
image.
6. Support communication needs for developing countries in the form of
fixed wireless access (FWA) application is also included in the scope of
IMT-2000.
Que 5.15. Draw and explain the component of mobile network

structure of IMT-2000. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
Realization of IMT-2000 networks: To construct IMT-2000 networks
of the
from conventional networks, network venders can use either
following two network construction methods :
1 New installation of IMT-2000 networks.
2 Construction of IMT-2000 networks through effective use of existing
networks.
: An
Necessary nodes for construction of IMT-2000 networks
IMT-2000 network basically consists of the RAN, CN, IN, and other
elements as shown in Fig. 5.15.1.
user terminal
1 RAN: The RAN is a wireless network located between the
Node
and the CN. It is composed of Radio Network Controllers (RNCs),
Bs, OMC-Rs, and other components.
2. CN:
i.
The CN is a network located between the RAN and another network
(e.g., a Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
ii. It is composed of circuit switches,packet switches, subscriber databases,
address resolution servers for packet processing and the authentication
and security centers.
Intelligent network (IN) SCP

SMSC Core network (CN) 1. PDC network
VMS HLRJAuCC 2. GSM network

EIR
3. PLMN, PSTN,
MSC
VLR
GMSC N-ISDN
Radio access network (RAN) 4. IP networks

SGSN GGSN
5. PDSN
Backbone
network
Fig. 5.15.1. IMT-2000 network structure.

3. IN:
i The intelligent network is a node group for achieving enhanced services
(number portability, freephone, credit card calls, etc.).
i. It is composed of Service Control Points (SCPs).
4. Other devices : Some of the other IMT-2000 network components
are :
i. Voice Mail System (VMS) :This has voice recording and replay
functions such as an answer phone. There is also a component for
receiving and re-sending faxes.
i. Short Message Center (SMSC):This component is used for
transmitting and receiving character information.
ii. Group Call Register (GCR) :This is a database for group call services.
iv. Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) server: This is a server that
offers subscribers various information using the Wireless Application
Protocol.
Que 5.16. Describe the key features of IMT-2000.
Answer
IMT-2000 has the following key features :
1. Flexibility:
i With the large number of mergers and consolidations occurring in the
mobile industry, and the move intoforeign markets, operators wanted
5-18 A (EC-Sem-7)
Wireless Networks
to avoid having to support a wide range of different interfaces and
technologies. This would surely have hindered the growth of 3G
worldwide.
The IMT-2000 standard addresses this problem, by
providing a
flexible system, capable of supporting a wide range of serviceshighly
and
applications.
iii. The IMT-2000 standard accommodates five possible radio
interfaces
based on three different access technologies (FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA),
as shown in Fig. 5.16.1.
IMT-2000 terrestrial
radio interfaces
IM T
Paired spectrum
Unpaired spectrum
IMT-DS IMT-MC IMT-TC IMT-SC IMT-FT
W-CDMA CDMA2000 UTRA TDD UMO-136 DECT
(UTRA FDD) Multi TD-SCDMA Single Frequency
Direct spread carrier Time-code carrier time
CDMA TDMA FDMA
Fig. 5.16.1. Value-added services and worldwide applications development

on the basis of one single standard accommodating five possible radio
interfaces based on three technologies.
2 Affordability : There was agreement among industry that 3G systems

had to be affordable, in order to encourage their adoption by consumers
and operators.
3. Compatibility with existing systems: IMT-2000 services have to be
compatible with existing systems. 2G systems, such as the GSM standard
will continue to exist for some time and compatibility with these systems
must be assured through effective and seamless migration paths.
4. Modular design : The vision for IMT-2000 system is that they must be
easily expandable in order to allow for growth in users, coverage areas,
and new services, with minimum initial investment.
PART-9
Introduction to4G and 5G and Concept of NGN.
Questions-Answers

Que 5.17. Explain the principle technologies used by 4G

technology.
OR
Explain in brief 4G technologies and also compare with 1G, 2G and
3G technology. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
OR
Explain 4G technology in detail and also compare it with 1G, 2G, and
3G technology. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. 4G:
1 4G stands for the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. It is
a successor to 3G and 2G families of standards.
2 Speed requirements for 4G service set the peak download speed at
100 Mbit/s for high mobility devices (such as cellphones) and 1Gbit/s for
low mobility devices (such as stand-alone wireless modems).
3. A 4G system is expected to provide a comprehensive and secure all IP
based solution where facilities such as ultra-broadband internet access,
IP telephony, gaming services, and streamed multimedia may be provided
to users.
4. The wireless telecommunications industry as a whole has generally

adopted the term 4G as a short hand way to describe those advanced
wireless technologies that, among other things, are based on or employ
wide channel OFDM technology and all IP based architecture.
5. In 4G the user has freedom and flexibility to select any
desired service
with reasonable QOS and affordable price, anytime and
anywhere.
B. Principal technologies :
i Physical layer transmission techniques :
a. MIMO : To attain ultra high spectral efficiency by means of
processing including multi-antenna and multi-user MIMO. spatial
b. Frequency domain equalization : For
example, multi-carrier
modulation (OFDM) in the downlink or single carrier frequency domain
equalization (SC-FDE) in the uplink. To exploit the frequency selective
channel property without complex equalization.
C.
Frequency domain statistical multiplexing: For example OFDMA
or single carrier FDMA in the uplink.
Variable bit rate by assigning
different sub-channels to different users based on the channel
conditions.
d Turbo principle error-correcting codes: To
SNR at the reception side. minimize the required
ii. Channel dependent scheduling: To utilize the time-varying channel.

iii. Link adaptation : Adaptive modulation and error-correcting codes.
C. Comparison:
The following can be stated as the major differences in the generations:
1G Cellstructure, analog communication.
2G Cell structure, digital communication,convolution coding, power
control.
3G-Hierarchical cell structure, turbo coding, hybrid automatic repeat
request (HARQ).
4G-Smart antenna, adaptive systems over above scenario.
Que 5.18. What is 5G technology ? How does 5G works?
Answer
A 5G:
1 Fifth-generation wireless (5G) is the latest iteration of cellular technology,
toincrease the speed and responsiveness of wireless networks.
2 With 5G, data transmitted over wireless broadband connections can
travel at multigigabit speeds, with potential peak speeds as high as 20
gigabits per second (Gbps) by some estimates.
3. 5G will increase in the amount of data transmitted over wireless systems
due to more available bandwidth and advanced antenna technology.
B. Working :
1. Wireless networks are composed of cellsites divided into sectors that
send data through radio waves.
2. Fourth-generation (4G) Long-Term Evolution (LTE) wireless technology
provides the foundation for 5G.
3. Unlike 4G, which requires large, high-power cell towers to radiate signals
over longer distances, 5G wireless signals are transmitted through large
numbers of small cell stations located in places like light poles or building
roofs.
4. The use of multiple small cells is necessary because the millimeter wave
(MM wave) spectrum, the band of spectrum between 30 and 300 GHZ
that 5G relies on to generate high speeds can only travel over short
distances and is subject to interference from weather and physical
obstacles, like buildings or trees.
Que 5.19. Discuss a complete model of Next Generation Network

(NGN) systems for mobile communication. How it is useful for
network security. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
OR
Wireless & Moble Communication 5-21A (EC-Sem-7)
What is 4G system ? And explain the concept of Next Generation

Networks. AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
A 4G: Refer Q. 5.17, Page 5-19A, Unit-5.
B. NGN:
1 The IP telecommunication network architecture and software layer
architecture are shown in Fig. 5.19,1 in which bearer control layer and
logical bearer network perform network control together.
VOD control Access router

o Edge router
Application
control layer Resource
Soft switch Server MCU management
server
CM1 CM3
Bearer
control layer
CM2
. MA2, MA4'.
Logical
bearer MA3/
network
MAT
Physical EMA
MA2
network
E MA4,
Fig. 5.19.1. Shows NGN network architectures.
2. NGN layered architecture can be described from five function layers:

i. Application layer: It contains the typical middeware for authorization,
accounting, directory, search and navigation fo millions of users.
ii. Network control layer :
1. It aims at overcoming the bottleneck problems at edge nodes or servers
and it is composed ofa series of control agents for admission control, call
set up and end-to-end QoS control through available bandwidth detection,
local information control, class priority and i itelligent scheduling.
2. Multicast and anycast group managements will be implemented to

leverage the load for admission control or service /message distributions.
iii. Adaptation layer :
1. It supports different network configurations and network mobility. This
layer can provide soft switching between networks on different level
such as IPv4,IPv6, ATM, Ethernet, WLAN, WMAN and 3G networks.
2. It supports both packet and circuit switching and provides
interconnection between the two switching networks.
iv. Network transmission layer :
1 It provides the effective end-to-end QoS control for real-time requests
and flows through integration of parameterized QoS control and class
priority control.
2 This is particularly important toresolve the bottleneck problems such as
multipath routing that enables the multiple choices for the path and
anycast routing that enables the selection from different (replicated)
servers.
V.
Management layer : It provides web-based GUI browser and wireless
connection information such as the data access using XML and web
based visualization for data presentation, monitoring, modification and
decision making in NGN.
Que 5.20. Why next generation network is important ? Explain
the next generation network in detail.
Answer
A. NGN: Refer Q. 5.19, Page 5-21A, Unit-5.
B. Reason :
i. Very high-speed and high-quality transmission :
1. Next-generation mobile communication systems should be able to handle
a large volume of multimedia information like downloading an e-book
or sending a report file.
2 This would be possible by various means like transmitting data at 50-100
Mbps, having asymmetric speeds in up and down links with QoS
mechanisms (i.e., efficient encoding, error detection and correction
techniques, voice equalizer) at low, affordable and reasonable operating
costs.
ii. Open platform:

1. Next-generation networks should be open regarding mobile phone
platform,service nodes and mobile network mechanisms.
2 This means that the user can freely select protocols, applications and
networkS.
3 Location and charging information can be shared among networks and
applications.
iii. Flexible and variable service functions :
1 Next-generation networks should be seamless with regard to the
medium, whether it is wireless or optical fiber or satellite link with
regard to corresponding hosts or service providers as well as have
interconnectivity with other networks like GSM and CDMA.
Que 5.21. Describe all network elements in network architecture
of NGN.
Answer
NGN network architecture: The detailed network architecture for
next-generation networks is shown in Fig. 5.21.1.
Access
Intelligent network gateway
app. servers
Softswitch media
N7 gateway controller
H.248
signalling
PSTN IP/XX*
PBX
network
Trunking Access
gateway H.248 gateway
Access H.248
gateway
Fig. 5.21.1. Detailed network architecture of NGN.

Network elements : The network architecture of NGN shown in
Fig. 5.21.l involves many interconnected elements which are described
below :
1. Packet based networks:
Trend is to use IP based networks over various transport possibilities
(ATM, SDH, WDM...).
ii IP based networks must offer guarantee of quality of service (QoS)
regarding the real time characteristic of voice, vide0 and multimedia.
2 Access gateways:
i. Allows the connection of subscriber lines to the packet network.
Converts the traffic flows of analogue access (Pots) or 2 Mb/s access

devices into packets.
ii. Provides subscriber access to NGN network and services.
3. Trunking gateways :
i. Allows interworking between classical TDM telephony network and
packet-based NGN networks.
Converts TDM circuits/trunks (64 kbps) flows into data packets, and
vice versa.
4. Soft switch/MGC:
i. Referred to as the call agent or media gateway controller (MGC).
Provides the "service delivery control" within the network.
iüi. In charge of call control and handling of media gateways control (Access
and/or trunking) via H.248 protocol.
iv. Performs signaling gateway functionality or uses a signaling gateway
for interworking with PSTN N7 signaling network.
V. Provides connection to intelligent network/applications servers to offer
the same services as those available to TDM subseribers.
5. Application server (AS):
i Aunit that supports service execution, e.g., to control call servers and
NGN special resources (e.g., media server, message server).
6. H.248 Protocol :
i. Known also as MEGACO:standard protocol, defined by ITU-T, for
signaling and session management needed during a communication
between a media gateway,and the media gateway controller managing
it.
ii. H.248/MEGACO allows to set up, keep and terminate calls between
multiple endpoints as between telephone subseribers using the TDM.
7 SIP:
Session initiation protocol in order to handle call establishment,
maintenance and termination from packet mode terminals.
8. Signaling gateway (SG) :
A unit that provides signaling conversion between the NGN and the
other networks (e.g., STP in SS7).
9. ENUM:
Electronic numbering protocol that allows to establish a correspondence
between the traditional telephone numbering (E.164) and the network
address related to the packet mode networks.
10. MPLS:
Multiprotocol label switch or protocol that assigns labels to information
packets in order to allow the node routers to treat and route flows in the
network paths according to established priority for each category.
11. CAC:
Call acceptance control function in order to accept/reject traffic in the
network that allows guarantee of QoS for services witha service level
agreement.
12. BGP:
Border gateway protocol to negotiate flow routing
procedures and
capacities across different NGN network domains.
service of next
Que 5.22. Explain various applications and
generation network (NGN). |AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
A NGN application:
1 In Data Connectivity, it offers many value
added services such as
Connections (SVC),
bandwidth on demand, durable Switched Virtual
call admission control etc.
2
groupware and
In Multimedia, it enables collaborative computing andvoice,video, and/
supports interactivity among multiple parties sharing
or data.
3.
processing and
In Public Network Computing (PNC), it supports generic time reporting,
storage capabilities, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP),
and miscellaneous consumer applications.
4. In Home Networking, it supports intelligent appliances, home security
systems, energy systems, and entertainment systems.
5. In Interactive gaming, it establishes interactive gaming sessions among
multiple users.
6. In Virtual Private Network (VPN), it offers uniform dialing capabilities
for data VPNs.
for voice VPNs and added security and network features
7. In E-commerce, it enables e-transactions, verification of payment
information, trading, home banking and shopping etc.
B. Service of NGN:
1 Specialized resource services (e.g., provision and management of
transcoders.
2 Processing and storage services (e.g., file servers.
3 Middleware services (e.g., brokering, security, licensing, etc.)
4 Application-specific services (e.g., business applications,
e-commerce applications, interactive video games, etc.).
5. Content provision services that provide or broker information content
(e.g., electronic training, information push services etc.).
6 Interworking services for interactions with other type of applications,
services, networks, protocols or formats (e.g., EDI translation).

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UNIT

Part-5 : Cellular System Components 1-12A to 1-14A

Antennas for Cellular Systems 1-14A to 1-15A

Sectorization 1-22A to 1-24A

Wireless Channel and Radio 1-24A to 1-26A

Part-14: Channel Noise and Losses 1-29A to 1-32A

Part-15 : Fading in Land Mobile System,.......1-33A to 1-38A

Part-16 : Shadowing 1-38A to 1-38A

Part-18: Rayleigh Fading Channel Model.......140A to 1-41A

Part-20: Nakagami Fading Channel Model.....143A to 1-43A

Part-21: Okumura and Hata 1-43A to 1-45A

Part-22 : Channel Modeling : Stochastic......45A to 1-47A

Part-24: Wideband Time-Dispersive 1-49A to 1-49A

Evolution of Mobile Communication Fundamentals.

Que 1.1. Explain the term evolution of mobile radio

communication fundamentals. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

General Model of Wireless Communication Link.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions8

Information Source Channel

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.3. What do you mean by signal ? And explain types of

2. Adigital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete

For diserete-time signal, x(n], P= N’0

For continuous-time signal, x(t); E=

For discrete-time signal, x[n]; E =

Cellular Infrastructure, Frequency Reuse.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.4. Write a short note on the following :

Que 1.5. Explain the principle of frequency reuse in a cellular

Fig.1.5.1. Frequency reuse concept.

Que 1.6. What are the limitations of mobille telephone systems ?

D= 3RD. - y3(1 +j +j) R

3. In general the area of a hexagon is proportional to the square of its

6. From eq. (1.6.1) and eg. (1.6.2) we get

So, D² = i'+jj'-2i,j, cos

Given:Total bandwidth = 60 MHz, N = 9, Channel bandwidth

Que 1.9. A FDD cellular communication system uses a total of

Given: Total number of available channels, S=945, Area of cellular

Then the system capacity Cwill be

Cellular System Components.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.10. Explain in brief the components of analog circuit

C. Mobile telecommunication switching office (MTSO) :

B. Packet-switched cellular system :

Antennas for Cellular Systems.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.12. Discuss the types of antennas for cellular systems.

Operation of Cellular Systems.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.13. Explain the term evolution of mobile radio

Channel Assignment Strategies.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.14. Explain different types of channel assignment

strategies. AKTU2016-17, Marks10

Borrowing approach: In this approach, one cell is allowed to borrow

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.15.What is frequency reuse concept ? Anddeseribe the hand

Fig. 1.17.1. Umbrella cell approach.

Que 1.18.|How many types of cellular

Que 1.19. Explain adjacent channel interference in a cellular