Dr.

Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru

Chapter 3 Aircraft Warning Systems

Air temperature sensing
The measurement of static air temperature (SAT) by direct means is not possible for all types
of aircraft for the reason that measurements can be affected by the adiabatic compression of
air resulting from increases in airspeed.
At speeds 0.2 Mach, the air temperature is very close to static conditions, but at higher speeds
the temperature is raised to a value appreciably higher than SAT. This increase is referred to
as ram rise.
For use in aircraft capable of high Mach speeds, and for efficient control and management of
the overall performance of their engines, it is customary to sense and measure the maximum
temperature rise possible. This parameter is referred to as total air temperature (TAT) and is
derived when the air is brought to rest without any addition or removal of heat.

Direct reading air temperature indicator.

The simplest type and one which is used in some types of small low speed aircraft for the
indication of SAT is a direct reading indicator which operates on the principle of expansion
and contraction of a bimetallic element when subjected to temperature changes.
The element is arranged in the form of a helix anchored at one end of a metal or probe. The
free end of the helix expands or contracts it winds or unwinds causing the pointer to rotate
over the scale of a dial fixed to the probe.
The thermometer is secured through a fixing hole in the side window of a cockpit or in the
wrap around portion of a windscreen, so that the probe protrudes into the air stream.
Total air temperature probe
The probe is in the form of a small strut and air intake made of nickel plated beryllium copper
which provides good thermal conductivity and strength.
It is secured at a predetermined location in the front fuselage section of an aircraft.

Aircraft Instrumentation 1
 Dr.Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru
Separation of any water particles from the air is effected by the airflow being caused to turn
through a right angle before passing round the sensing element.
A pure platinum wire resistance type sensing element is used and is hermetically sealed
within two concentric platinum tubes.
The probe has an almost negligible time lag and a high recovery factor approximately
1.00.An axial wire heating element supplied with 110V at 400Hz.
The errors involved are small some typical values obtained experimentally being 0.9 C at 0.1
Mach decreasing to 0.15 C at Mach 1.0.

Aircraft Instrumentation 2
 Dr.Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru
TAT Indicator System
The system is supplied with 115V ac which is then stepped down and rectified by a power
supply module within the indicator.
The probe element forms one part of a resistance bridge circuit and as the element’s
resistance changes with temperature the bridge is unbalanced causing current to flow through
the moving coil of the indicator.
Servo operated indicator employing a mechanical drum type digital counter display.
The unbalanced conditions are monitored by a solid state chopper circuit which produces an
error signal to drive an ac servomotor via an operational amplifier.
The motor then drives the counter drums and at the same time positions the wiper contact of a
potentiometer to start rebalancing of the circuit until at some constant temperature condition
the circuit is nulled.

Aircraft Instrumentation 3
 Dr.Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru

Aircraft Instrumentation 4
 Dr.Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru

Aircraft Instrumentation 5
 Dr.Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru
Air data alerting and warning systems
In connection with the in-flight operation of aircraft, it is necessary to impose limitations in
respect of certain operating parameters compatible with the airworthiness standards to which
each type of aircraft is certificated. It is also necessary for systems to be provided which will,
both visually and aurally, alert and warn a flight crew whenever the imposed operational
limitations are being exceeded. The number of parameters to be monitored in this way varies
in relation to the type of aircraft and the number of systems required for its operation overall.
As far as air data measuring systems are concerned, the principal parameters are airspeed and
altitude, so let us now consider the operating principles of associated alerting and warning
systems typical of those used in some of the larger types of public transport aircraft.

Mach warning system

This system provides an aural warning when an aircraft's speed reaches the maximum
operating value in terms of Mach number, i.e. Mmo (a typical value is 0.84M). The warning
is in addition to any limiting speed reference pointers or 'bugs' that are provided in
Mach/airspeed indicators. The system consists of a switch unit which, as can be seen from
Fig. 2.40, comprises airspeed and altitude sensing units connected to an aircraft's pitot probe
and static vent system in a manner similar to that of a Machmeter. It will also be noted that in
lieu of a pointer actuating system, the sensing units actuate the contacts of a switch which is
connected to a 28 V dc power source.

At speeds below the limiting value, the switch contacts remain closed and the de passing
through them energizes a control relay. The contacts of this relay interrupt the ground
connection to an aural warning device generally referred to as a 'clacker' because of the sound
it emits when in operation. When the limiting Mach speed at any given altitude is reached,
the airspeed sensing unit causes the switch contacts to open, thereby de-energizing the
control relay so that its contacts now complete a connection from the 'clacker' to ground.
Since the 'clacker' is directly supplied with de, then it will be activated to provide the
appropriate warning, which is emitted at a
specific frequency (typically 7 Hz).

Aircraft Instrumentation 6
 Dr.Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru
A toggle switch that is spring-loaded to 'OFF' is provided for the purpose of functional
checking the system. When placed in the 'TEST' position, it allows dc to flow to the ground
side of the switch unit control relay, thereby providing a bias sufficient to de-energize the
relay and so cause the 'clacker' to be activated. In some aircraft systems, Mach/airspeed
indicators W'ith 'built-in' warning switch units may be used and so arranged that they
operate two independent 'clackers'. In the exam:,le shown in Fig. 2.41, the indicator in the
captain's group of flight instruments is servo-operated by signals from an ADC. The other
indicator, which is in the first officer's group of flight instruments, is also of the servo-
operated type, but contains a switch unit that is connected directly to the pitot probe and
static vent system. The 'ciacker' units associated with the indicators are respectively
designated as 'aural warning I' and 'aural warning 2'.

The captain's indicator contains an over speed circuit module that is supplied by the ADC
with prevailing speed data and also the limiting Vw and Mmo values appropriate to the type
of aircraft. The circuit module is, in turn, connected to a solid-state switch (S 1) that is
powered 'open' at speeds below Vm0 and Mmo· If, however, these speeds are reached, then
S1 is relaxed to provide a ground connection for the de supply to 'aural warning I' clacker
unit which thus gives the necessary warning. The contacts of the switch unit in the first
officer's indicator are connected to a relay, and since these contacts remain closed at speeds
below maximum values, the relay is de-energized. When the maximum speed is reached,

Aircraft Instrumentation 7
 Dr.Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru
the relay coil circuit is interrupted and its contacts then change over to provide a ground
connection for the dC supply which activates 'aural warning 2' clacker unit.
Test switches are provided for checking the operation of each clacker by simulation of over
speed conditions. When switch 1 is operated de is applied to the overs peed circuit module
in the captain's indicator, and causes the switch S1 to relax. The operation of switch 2
applies dc to the relay coil such that it is shorted out against the standing supply from the
closed airspeed switch; the relay 'is therefore de-energized to provide a ground connection
for 'aural warning 2' clacker unit. The indicators themselves provide visual indications of
over speed and these are discernible when the airspeed pointers become positioned
coincident with pre-set maximum limit pointers

Altitude alerting system

This system is designed to alert a flight crew, by aural and visual means, of an aircraft's
approach to, or deviation from, a pre-selected altitude. The components of a typical system
are shown in Fig. 2.42(a). An aircraft's pressure altitude is provided as a signal input to the
alert controller unit from an altimeter via a coarse/fine synchro system. The selected altitude
is set by means of a knob on the controller, and is indicated by a digital counter which is
geared to the rotors of control and resolver synchros, so that they produce a corresponding
signal. The signal is compared with the pressure altitude signal and the resulting difference
is supplied to level detection circuits within the controller. At predetermined values of rotor
voltages of both synchros, two signals are produced and supplied as inputs to a logic circuit
and timing network which controls the aural and visual alerting devices.

Aircraft Instrumentation 8
 Dr.Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru
The sequence of alerting is shown at (b) of Fig. 2.42. As an aircraft descends or climbs to
the preselected altitude the difference signal is reduced, and the logic circuit so processes
the input signals that, at a pre-set outer limit H1 (typically 900 ft) above or below
preselected altitude, one signal activates the aural alerting device which remains on for two
seconds; the annunciator light is also illuminated. The light remains on until at a further pre-
set inner limit H2 (typically 300 ft) above or below preselected altitude, the second signal
causes the annunciator light to be extinguished. As an aircraft approaches the preselected
altitude, the synchro system approaches the 'null' position, and no further alerting takes
place. If an aircraft should subsequently depart from the preselected altitude, the controller
logic circuit changes the alerting sequence such that the indications correspond to those
given during the approach through outer limit Hi, i.e. aural alert on for two seconds, and
annunciator light illuminated.

Angle of attack sensing

The angle of attack (AoA), or alpha (a) angle, is the angle between the chord line of the
wing of an aircraft and the direction of the relative airflow, and is a major factor in
determining the magnitude of lift generated by a wing. Lift increases as a increases up to
some critical value at which it begins to decrease due to separation of the slow-moving air
(the boundary layer) from the upper surface of the wing, which, in turn, results in separation
and turbulence of the main airflow. The wing, therefore, assumes a stalled condition, and
since it occurs at a particular angle rather than a particular speed, the critical AoA is also
referred to as the stalling angle. The angle relates to the design of aerofoil section adopted
for the wings of any one particular type of aircraft, and so, of course, its value varies
accordingly; typically it is between 12 ° and 18 °. The manner in which an aircraft responds
as it approaches and reaches a stalled condition depends on many other factors, such as
wing configuration, i.e. high, low, swept-back, and also on whether the horizontal stabilizer
is in the 'T' -tail configuration. Other factors relate to the prevailing speed of an aircraft,
which largely depends on engine power settings, flap angles, bank angles and rates of
change of pitch. The appropriate responses are pre-determined for each type of aircraft in
order to derive specifically relevant procedures for recovering from what is, after all, an
undesirable situation.
An aircraft will, in its own characteristic manner, provide warning of a stalled condition,
e.g. by buffeting, gentle or severe pitch-down attitude change, and/or 'wing drop', and
although recoverable, in a situation such as an approach when an aircraft is running out of
airspace beneath itself, these inherent warnings could come too late! It is, therefore,
necessary to provide a means whereby a can be sensed directly, and at some value just
below that at which a stalled condition can occur it can provide an early warning of its
onset.

Stall warning systems

The simplest form of system, and one which is adopted in several types of small aircraft,
consists of a hinged-vane-type sensor mounted in the leading edge of a wing so that the
vane protrudes into the airstream. In normal level flight conditions, the airstream maintains
the vane in a parallel position. If the aircraft's attitude changes such that α increases, then,
by definition, the airflow will meet the leading edge at an increasing angle, and so cause the
vane to be deflected. When α reaches that at which the warning unit has been preset, the
vane activates a switch to complete a circuit to an aural warning unit in the cockpit. In
larger types of aircraft, stall warning systems are designed to perform more active function.

Aircraft Instrumentation 9
 Dr.Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru
In that they are either of the stick shaker or stick push or nudger type for some air craft
configurations they are used in combination.

Figure 2.43 illustrates the type of sensor normally used for these systems. It consists of a
precision counter-balanced aerodynamic vane which positions the rotor a synchro. The vane
is protected against ice formation by an internal heater element. The complete unit is
accurately aligned by means of index pins at the side of the front fuselage section of an
aircraft. Since the pitch attitude of an aircraft is also changed by the extension of its flaps,
the sensor synchro is also interconnected with a synchro within the transmitter of the flap
position indicating system, in order to modify the a signal output as a function of flap
position.
Stick-shaking is accomplished by a motor which is secured to a control column and drives a
weighted ring that is deliberately unbalanced to set up vibrations of the column, to simulate
the natural buffeting associated with a stalled condition. Sensor signals, and signals for the
testing of a system, are processed through a circuit module unit located on a flight deck
panel. Control switches for normal operation and for testing are also provided in this unit.
Sensing relays and shock strut micro switches on the nose landing gear are included in the
circuit of a system to permit operational change-over from ground to air.
The circuit of a typical system is shown in basic form in Fig. 2.44. When the aircraft is on
the ground and electrical power is on, the contacts of the landing gear microswitches
complete a de circuit to a sensing relay K1 which, on being energized, supplies an ac
voltage (in this case 11.8.V) to the circuit module amplifier. The output is then supplied to a
demodulator whose circuit is designed to 'bias off the ac voltage from the contacts of K1, so
that the solid-state switch SS1 remains open to isolate the stick-shaker motor from its de
supply. The vane heater element circuit is also isolated from its ac supply by the opening of
the second set of contacts of K1. The sensor synchro is supplied directly from the ac power
source. During take-off, and when the nose gear 'lifts off, the micro switches operate to de-
energize relay K1, and with the system control switch at 'NORMAL', the system is fully
activated. The only signal now supplied to the amplifier and demodulator is the modified a
signal.
In normal flight, the signal produced and supplied as input to the amplifier is less than a
nominal value of 20 mV, and in phase with the ac voltage supplied as a reference to the
demodulator. If the aircraft's attitude should approach that of a stalled condition, the α
signal will exceed 20 mV and become out-of-phase. The demodulator then produces a
resultant voltage which triggers the switch SS1 to connect a 28 V dc supply direct to the
stick-shaker motor, which then starts vibrating the control column.

Aircraft Instrumentation 10
 Dr.Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru

A confidence check on system operation may be carried out by placing the circuit module
control switch in the 'TEST' position. This energizes a relay which switches the sensor signal
to the motor of an indicator, the dial of which will be rotated by the motor if there is circuit
continuity. Since the switch isolates the sensor circuit from the amplifier, the reference
voltage to the demodulator triggers the switch SS1 to operate the stick-shaker motor. The
control switch also has a 'HEATER OFF' position which isolates the vane heater circuit from
its power supply, thus enabling the vane to be manipulated manually without inflicting burns.
In most cases, two systems are installed in an aircraft, so that a sensor is located on each side
of the front fuselage section, and a stick-shaker motor on each pilot's control column.
In certain types of aircraft the sensor signals are transmitted to an air data computer, which
then supplies an output, corresponding to actual α angle, to a comparator circuit within an
electronic module of the stall warning system. The comparator is also supplied with signals
from a central processor unit (also within the module) which processes a programme to
determine maximum a angles based on the relationship between flap position and three
positions of the leading edge slats. The positions are: retracted, partially extended and fully
extended, and so signals corresponding to three different computed angles are processed for
comparison with an actual α angle signal. If the latter is higher than a computed maximum,
the circuit to the stick-shaker motor is completed.

Stick-pushers
In some types of air-craft, particularly those with rear-mounted engines and a 'T' -tail
configuration, it is possible for what is termed a 'deep' or 'super' stall situation to develop.
When such aircraft first get into a stalled condition then, as in all cases, the air flowing from
the wings is of a turbulent nature, and if the α angle is such that the engines are subjected to
this airflow loss of power will occur as a result of surging and possible 'flame-out'. If, then,
the stall develops still further, the horizontal stabilizer will also be subjected to the turbulent
airflow with a resultant loss of pitch control. The aircraft then sinks rapidly in the deep stalled
attitude, from which recovery is difficult, if not impossible.

Aircraft Instrumentation 11
 Dr.Mallikarjunaswamy M S
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation
SJCE, JSSSTU, Mysuru
In order to prevent the development of a deep stall situation, warning systems are installed
which, in addition to stick-shaking, utilize the α sensor signals to cause a forward push on the
control columns and downward deflection of the elevators. The manner in which this is
accomplished varies; in some aircraft, the signals are transmitted to a linear actuator which is
mechanically connected to the feel and centring unit of the elevator control system. In aircraft
having computerized flight control systems, a sensor signals are transmitted to the elevator
control channel of the flight control computer. Whenever stick-push is activated, the elevator
control channels of automatic flight control systems are automatically disengaged via an
interlock system.

Indicators
There is no standard requirement for angle of attack indicators to be installed in aircraft, with
the result that the adoption of any one available type is left as an option on the part of an
aircraft manufacturer and/or operator. When selected for installation, however, they must not
be used as the only means of providing stall warning, but as a supplement to an appropriate
type of stick-shake and stick-push system.
Indicators are connected to the alpha sensors of a stall warning system, and display the
relevant data in a variety of ways, depending on their design. In some cases a conventional
pointer and scale type of display is used, while in aircraft having electronic flight instrument
display systems, the data can be programmed into computers such that it is displayed against
a, vertical scale, usually located adjacent to that indicating vertical speed, on the attitude
director indicator. Another type of indicator currently in use has a pointer which is referenced
against horizontal yellow, green and red bands; a dividing line between the yellow and green
bands signifies the angle at which the stick-shaker operates.

Aircraft Instrumentation 12