Laptop

A laptop computer or notebook computer,

also known as a laptop or notebook for
short, is a small, portable personal
computer (PC). Laptops typically have a
clamshell form factor with a flat panel
screen (usually 11–17 in or 280–430 mm
in diagonal size) on the inside of the upper
lid and an alphanumeric keyboard and
pointing device (such as a trackpad and/or
trackpoint) on the inside of the lower lid,
although 2-in-1 PCs with a detachable
keyboard are often marketed as laptops or
as having a "laptop mode".[1][2] Most of the
computer's internal hardware is fitted
inside the lower lid enclosure under the
keyboard, although many laptops have a
built-in webcam at the top of the screen
and some modern ones even feature a
touch-screen display. In most cases, unlike
tablet computers which run on mobile
operating systems, laptops tend to run on
desktop operating systems which have
been traditionally associated with desktop
computers.
 Clockwise from top left: A 2021 MacBook Pro by Apple
Inc.; a 2019 Microsoft Surface Pro 7 with detachable
hinge (left) and a 2018 Dell XPS 15 9570 with 360 degree
hinge (right); a 2014 ThinkPad Helix by Lenovo with
detachable screen; and a 2014 Acer Chromebook 11

Laptops run on both an AC power supply

and a rechargeable battery pack and can
be folded shut for convenient storage and
transportation, making them suitable for
mobile use.[3] Today, laptops are used in a
variety of settings, such as at work
(especially on business trips), in
education, for playing games, web
browsing, for personal multimedia, and for
general home computer use.

The names "laptop" and "notebook" refer to

the fact that the computer can be
practically placed on (or on top of) the
user's lap and can be used similarly to a
notebook. As of 2022, in American English,
the terms "laptop" and "notebook" are used
interchangeably;[4] in other dialects of
English, one or the other may be preferred.
Although the term "notebook" originally
referred to a specific size of laptop
(originally smaller and lighter than
mainstream laptops of the time),[5] the
term has come to mean the same thing
and no longer refers to any specific size.

Laptops combine many of the

input/output components and capabilities
of a desktop computer into a single unit,
including a display screen, small speakers,
a keyboard, and a pointing device (such as
a touch pad or pointing stick). Most
modern laptops include a built-in webcam
and microphone, and many also have a
touchscreen. Laptops can be powered by
an internal battery or an external power
supply by using an AC adapter. Hardware
specifications may vary significantly
between different types, models, and price
points.

Design elements, form factors, and

construction can also vary significantly
between models depending on the
intended use. Examples of specialized
models of laptops include rugged
notebooks for use in construction or
military applications, as well as low-
production-cost laptops such as those
from the One Laptop per Child (OLPC)
organization, which incorporate features
like solar charging and semi-flexible
components not found on most laptop
computers. Portable computers, which
later developed into modern laptops, were
originally considered to be a small niche
market, mostly for specialized field
applications, such as in the military, for
accountants, or traveling sales
representatives. As portable computers
evolved into modern laptops, they became
widely used for a variety of purposes.[6]

History

Alan Kay holding the mockup of his

Dynabook concept in 2008

As the personal computer (PC) became

feasible in 1971, the idea of a portable
personal computer soon followed. A
"personal, portable information
manipulator" was imagined by Alan Kay at
Xerox PARC in 1968,[7] and described in his
1972 paper as the "Dynabook".[8] The IBM
Special Computer APL Machine Portable
(SCAMP) was demonstrated in 1973.[9]
This prototype was based on the IBM
PALM processor.[10] The IBM 5100, the
first commercially available portable
computer, appeared in September 1975,
and was based on the SCAMP
prototype.[11]
 IBM 5100 (1975)

As 8-bit CPU machines became widely

accepted, the number of portables
increased rapidly. The first "laptop-sized
notebook computer" was the Epson HX-
20,[12][13] invented (patented) by Suwa
Seikosha's Yukio Yokozawa in July
1980,[14] introduced at the COMDEX
computer show in Las Vegas by Japanese
company Seiko Epson in 1981,[15][13] and
released in July 1982.[13][16] It had an LCD
screen, a rechargeable battery, and a
calculator-size printer, in a 1.6 kg (3.5 lb)
chassis, the size of an A4 notebook.[13] It
was described as a "laptop" and
"notebook" computer in its patent.[14]

The Epson HX-20, the first "laptop

computer", was invented in 1980 and
introduced in 1981.

The portable micro computer Portal of the

French company R2E Micral CCMC
officially appeared in September 1980 at
the Sicob show in Paris. It was a portable
microcomputer designed and marketed by
the studies and developments department
of R2E Micral at the request of the
company CCMC specializing in payroll and
accounting. It was based on an Intel 8085
processor, 8-bit, clocked at 2 MHz. It was
equipped with a central 64 KB RAM, a
keyboard with 58 alphanumeric keys and
11 numeric keys (separate blocks), a 32-
character screen, a floppy disk: capacity =
140,000 characters, of a thermal printer:
speed = 28 characters / second, an
asynchronous channel, asynchronous
channel, a 220 V power supply. It weighed
12 kg and its dimensions were 45 × 45 ×
15 cm. It provided total mobility. Its
operating system was aptly named
Prologue.
 GRiD Compass 1101 (1982)

The Osborne 1, released in 1981, was a

luggable computer that used the Zilog Z80
CPU and weighed 24.5 pounds
(11.1 kg).[17] It had no battery, a 5 in
(13 cm) cathode-ray tube (CRT) screen,
and dual 5.25 in (13.3 cm) single-density
floppy drives. Both Tandy/RadioShack and
Hewlett-Packard (HP) also produced
portable computers of varying designs
during this period.[18][19] The first laptops
using the flip form factor appeared in the
early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was
released in Australia in 1981–82, but was
not marketed internationally until 1984–
85. The US$8,150 (equivalent to $24,710 in
2022) GRiD Compass 1101, released in
1982, was used at NASA and by the
military, among others. The Sharp PC-
5000,[20] Ampere[21] and Gavilan SC
released in 1983. The Gavilan SC was
described as a "laptop" by its
manufacturer,[22] while the Ampere had a
modern clamshell design.[21][23] The
Toshiba T1100 won acceptance not only
among PC experts but the mass market as
a way to have PC portability.[24]
From 1983 onward, several new input
techniques were developed and included
in laptops, including the touch pad
(Gavilan SC, 1983), the pointing stick (IBM
ThinkPad 700, 1992), and handwriting
recognition (Linus Write-Top,[25] 1987).
Some CPUs, such as the 1990 Intel i386SL,
were designed to use minimum power to
increase battery life of portable computers
and were supported by dynamic power
management features such as Intel
SpeedStep and AMD PowerNow! in some
designs.
 A Zenith SupersPort laptop,
released in 1988

Displays reached 640x480 (VGA)

resolution by 1988 (Compaq SLT/286), and
color screens started becoming a
common upgrade in 1991,[26] with
increases in resolution and screen size
occurring frequently until the introduction
of 17" screen laptops in 2003. Hard drives
started to be used in portables,
encouraged by the introduction of 3.5"
drives in the late 1980s, and became
common in laptops starting with the
introduction of 2.5" and smaller drives
around 1990; capacities have typically
lagged behind physically larger desktop
drives.

Common resolutions of laptop webcams

are 720p (HD), and in lower-end laptops
480p.[27] The earliest known laptops with
1080p (Full HD) webcams like the
Samsung 700G7C were released in the
early 2010s.[28]

Optical disc drives became common in

full-size laptops around 1997; this initially
consisted of CD-ROM drives, which were
supplanted by CD-R, DVD, and Blu-ray
drives with writing capability over time.
Starting around 2011, the trend shifted
against internal optical drives, and as of
2022, they have largely disappeared, but
are still readily available as external
peripherals.

Etymology

While the terms laptop and notebook are

used interchangeably today, there are
some questions as to the original
etymology and specificity of either term.
The term laptop was coined in 1983 to
describe a mobile computer which could
be used on one's lap, and to distinguish
these devices from earlier and much
heavier portable computers (informally
called "luggables").[29] The term notebook
appears to have gained currency
somewhat later as manufacturers started
producing even smaller portable devices,
further reducing their weight and size and
incorporating a display roughly the size of
A4 paper;[5] these were marketed as
notebooks to distinguish them from bulkier
mainstream or desktop replacement
laptops.
Types of laptops

Compaq Armada laptop from the late

1990s

Apple MacBook Air, an "ultraportable"

laptop weighing under 3.0 lb (1.36 kg)
Lenovo's IdeaPad laptop

Lenovo's ThinkPad business laptop,

originally an IBM product

Asus Transformer Pad, a hybrid tablet,

powered by Android OS
Microsoft Surface Pro 3, 2-in-1
detachable

Alienware gaming laptop with backlit

keyboard and touch pad

Samsung Sens laptop

Panasonic Toughbook CF-M34, a

rugged laptop/subnotebook
Since the introduction of portable
computers during the late 1970s, their
form has changed significantly, spawning
a variety of visually and technologically
differing subclasses. Except where there is
a distinct legal trademark around a term
(notably, Ultrabook), there are rarely hard
distinctions between these classes and
their usage has varied over time and
between different sources. Since the late
2010s, the use of more specific terms has
become less common, with sizes
distinguished largely by the size of the
screen.
Smaller and larger laptops

There were in the past a number of

marketing categories for smaller and
larger laptop computers; these included
"subnotebook" models, low cost
"netbooks", and "ultra-mobile PCs" where
the size class overlapped with devices like
smartphone and handheld tablets, and
"Desktop replacement" laptops for
machines notably larger and heavier than
typical to operate more powerful
processors or graphics hardware.[30] All of
these terms have fallen out of favor as the
size of mainstream laptops has gone
down and their capabilities have gone up;
except for niche models, laptop sizes tend
to be distinguished by the size of the
screen, and for more powerful models, by
any specialized purpose the machine is
intended for, such as a "gaming laptop" or
a "mobile workstation" for professional
use.

Convertible, hybrid, 2-in-1

The latest trend of technological

convergence in the portable computer
industry spawned a broad range of
devices, which combined features of
several previously separate device types.
The hybrids, convertibles, and 2-in-1s
emerged as crossover devices, which
share traits of both tablets and laptops. All
such devices have a touchscreen display
designed to allow users to work in a tablet
mode, using either multi-touch gestures or
a stylus/digital pen.

Convertibles are devices with the ability to

conceal a hardware keyboard. Keyboards
on such devices can be flipped, rotated, or
slid behind the back of the chassis, thus
transforming from a laptop into a tablet.
Hybrids have a keyboard detachment
mechanism, and due to this feature, all
critical components are situated in the
part with the display. 2-in-1s can have a
hybrid or a convertible form, often dubbed
2-in-1 detachable and 2-in-1 convertibles
respectively, but are distinguished by the
ability to run a desktop OS, such as
Windows 10. 2-in-1s are often marketed as
laptop replacement tablets.[31]

2-in-1s are often very thin, around 10

millimetres (0.39 in), and light devices with
a long battery life. 2-in-1s are
distinguished from mainstream tablets as
they feature an x86-architecture CPU
(typically a low- or ultra-low-voltage
model), such as the Intel Core i5, run a full-
featured desktop OS like Windows 10, and
have a number of typical laptop I/O ports,
such as USB 3 and Mini DisplayPort.

2-in-1s are designed to be used not only as

a media consumption device but also as
valid desktop or laptop replacements, due
to their ability to run desktop applications,
such as Adobe Photoshop. It is possible to
connect multiple peripheral devices, such
as a mouse, keyboard, and several external
displays to a modern 2-in-1.

Microsoft Surface Pro-series devices and

Surface Book are examples of modern 2-
in-1 detachable, whereas Lenovo Yoga-
series computers are a variant of 2-in-1
convertibles. While the older Surface RT
and Surface 2 have the same chassis
design as the Surface Pro, their use of
ARM processors and Windows RT do not
classify them as 2-in-1s, but as hybrid
tablets.[32] Similarly, a number of hybrid
laptops run a mobile operating system,
such as Android. These include Asus's
Transformer Pad devices, examples of
hybrids with a detachable keyboard
design, which do not fall in the category of
2-in-1s.
Rugged laptop

A rugged laptop is designed to reliably

operate in harsh usage conditions such as
strong vibrations, extreme temperatures,
and wet or dusty environments. Rugged
laptops are bulkier, heavier, and much
more expensive than regular laptops,[33]
and thus are seldom seen in regular
consumer use.

Hardware

Inner view of a MacBook (Retina)

laptop
 A SODIMM memory module

The basic components of laptops function

identically to their desktop counterparts.
Traditionally they were miniaturized and
adapted to mobile use, The design
restrictions on power, size, and cooling of
laptops limit the maximum performance
of laptop parts compared to that of
desktop components, although that
difference has increasingly narrowed.[34]

In general, laptop components are not

intended to be replaceable or upgradable
by the end-user, except for components
that can be detached; in the past, batteries
and optical drives were commonly
exchangeable. This restriction is one of
the major differences between laptops and
desktop computers, because the large
"tower" cases used in desktop computers
are designed so that new motherboards,
hard disks, sound cards, RAM, and other
components can be added. Memory and
storage can often be upgraded with some
disassembly, but with the most compact
laptops, there may be no upgradeable
components at all.[35]

The following sections summarizes the

differences and distinguishing features of
laptop components in comparison to
desktop personal computer parts.[36]

Display

The typical laptop has a screen that, when

unfolded, is upright to the user.

Screen technology

Laptop screens most commonly employ

liquid-crystal display (LCD) technology,
although use of OLED panels has risen
substantially since 2020. The display
interfaces with the motherboard using the
Low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS)
or embedded DisplayPort protocol.

Surface finish

Externally, it can be a glossy or a matte

(anti-glare) screen.

Sizes

In the past, there was a broader range of

marketing terms (both formal and
informal) to distinguish between different
sizes of laptops. These included Netbooks,
subnotebooks, Ultra-mobile PC, and
Desktop replacement computers; these
are sometimes still used informally,
although they are essentially dead in terms
of manufacturer marketing.

As of 2021, mainstream consumer laptops

tend to come with 11", 13" or 15"-16"
screens; 14" models are more popular
among business machines. Larger and
smaller models are available, but less
common – there is no clear dividing line in
minimum or maximum size. Machines
small enough to be handheld (screens in
the 6–8" range) can be marketed either as
very small laptops or "handheld PCs",
while the distinction between the largest
laptops and "All-in-One" desktops is
whether they fold for travel.
Resolution

Having a higher resolution display allows

more items to fit onscreen at a time,
improving the user's ability to multitask,
although at the higher resolutions on
smaller screens, the resolution may only
serve to display sharper graphics and text
rather than increasing the usable area.
Since the introduction of the MacBook Pro
with Retina display in 2012, there has been
an increase in the availability of "HiDPI" (or
high Pixel density) displays; as of 2022,
this is generally considered to be anything
higher than 1920 pixels wide. This has
increasingly converged around 4K (3840-
pixel-wide) resolutions.

External displays can be connected to

most laptops, with most models
supporting at least one.[37] The use of
technology such as USB4 (section
Alternate Mode partner specifications).
DisplayPort Alt Mode has been utilized to
charge a laptop and provide display output
over one USB-C Cable.[38]

Refresh rates

Most laptop displays have a maximum

refresh rate of 60 Hz. The Dell M17x and
Samsung 700G7A, both released in 2011,
were among the first laptops to feature a
120 Hz refresh rate,[39][40] and more such
laptops have appeared in the years since.

Central processing unit (CPU)

A laptop's CPU has advanced power-

saving features and produces less heat
than one intended purely for desktop use.
Mainstream laptop CPUs made after 2018
have at least two processor cores, often
four cores, and sometimes more, with 8
cores becoming more common.

For the low price and mainstream

performance, there is no longer a
significant performance difference
between laptop and desktop CPUs, but at
the high end, the fastest desktop CPUs still
substantially outperform the fastest laptop
processors, at the expense of massively
higher power consumption and heat
generation; the fastest laptop processors
top out at 56 watts of heat, while the
fastest desktop processors top out at 150
watts (and often need water cooling).

There has been a wide range of CPUs

designed for laptops available from both
Intel, AMD, and other manufacturers. On
non-x86 architectures, Motorola and IBM
produced the chips for the former
PowerPC-based Apple laptops (iBook and
PowerBook). Between around 2000 to
2014, most full-size laptops had socketed,
replaceable CPUs; on thinner models, the
CPU was soldered on the motherboard
and was not replaceable or upgradable
without replacing the motherboard. Since
2015, Intel has not offered new laptop CPU
models with pins to be interchangeable,
preferring ball grid array chip packages
which have to be soldered;[41] and as of
2021, only a few rare models using
desktop parts.

In the past, some laptops have used a

desktop processor instead of the laptop
version and have had high-performance
gains at the cost of greater weight, heat,
and limited battery life; this is not unknown
as of 2022, but since around 2010, the
practice has been restricted to small-
volume gaming models. Laptop CPUs are
rarely able to be overclocked; most use
locked processors. Even on gaming
models where unlocked processors are
available, the cooling system in most
laptops is often very close to its limits and
there is rarely headroom for an
overclocking–related operating
temperature increase.
Graphics processing unit (GPU)

On most laptops, the GPU is integrated into

the CPU to conserve power and space.
This was introduced by Intel with the Core
i-series of mobile processors in 2010,
followed by similar AMD APU processors
in January 2011.

Before that, lower-end machines tended to

use graphics processors integrated into
the system chipset, while higher-end
machines had a separate graphics
processor. In the past, laptops lacking a
separate graphics processor were limited
in their utility for gaming and professional
applications involving 3D graphics, but the
capabilities of CPU-integrated graphics
have converged with the low-end of
dedicated graphics processors since the
mid-2010s. For laptops possessing limited
onboard graphics capability but sufficient
I/O throughput, an external GPU (eGPU)
can provide additional graphics power at
the cost of physical space and portability.

Higher-end laptops intended for gaming or

professional 3D work still come with
dedicated (and in some cases even dual)
graphics processors on the motherboard
or as an internal expansion card. Since
2011, these almost always involve
switchable graphics so that when there is
no demand for the higher performance
dedicated graphics processor, the more
power-efficient integrated graphics
processor will be used. Nvidia Optimus
and AMD Hybrid Graphics are examples of
this sort of system of switchable graphics.

Traditionally, the system RAM on laptops

(as well as on desktop computers) was
physically separate from the graphics
memory used by the GPU. Apple's M series
SoCs feature a unified pool of memory for
both the system and the GPU; this
approach can produce substantial
efficiency gains for some applications but
comes at the cost of eGPU support.

Memory

Since around the year 2000, most laptops

have used SO-DIMM RAM,[36] although, as
of 2021, an increasing number of models
use memory soldered to the motherboard.
Before 2000, most laptops used
proprietary memory modules if their
memory was upgradable.

In the early 2010s, high end laptops such

as the 2011 Samsung 700G7A have
passed the 10 GB RAM barrier, featuring
16 GB of RAM.[42]

When upgradeable, memory slots are

sometimes accessible from the bottom of
the laptop for ease of upgrading; in other
cases, accessing them requires significant
disassembly. Most laptops have two
memory slots, although some will have
only one, either for cost savings or
because some amount of memory is
soldered. Some high-end models have four
slots; these are usually mobile engineering
workstations, although a few high-end
models intended for gaming do as well.
As of 2021, 8 GB RAM is most common,
with lower-end models occasionally having
4 GB. Higher-end laptops may come with
16 GB of RAM or more.

Internal storage

The earliest laptops most often used

floppy disk for storage, although a few
used either RAM disk or tape, by the late
1980s hard disk drives had become the
standard form of storage.

Between 1990 and 2009, almost all

laptops typically had a hard disk drive
(HDD) for storage; since then, solid-state
drives (SSD) have gradually come to
supplant hard drives in all but some
inexpensive consumer models. Solid-state
drives are faster and more power-efficient,
as well as eliminating the hazard of drive
and data corruption caused by a laptop's
physical impacts, as they use no
mechanical parts such as a rotational
platter.[43] In many cases, they are more
compact as well. Initially, in the late 2000s,
SSDs were substantially more expensive
than HDDs, but as of 2021 prices on
smaller capacity (under 1 terabyte) drives
have converged; larger capacity drives
remain more expensive than comparable-
sized HDDs.
Since around 1990, where a hard drive is
present it will typically be a 2.5-inch drive;
some very compact laptops support even
smaller 1.8-inch HDDs, and a very small
number used 1" Microdrives. Some SSDs
are built to match the size/shape of a
laptop hard drive, but increasingly they
have been replaced with smaller mSATA or
M.2 cards. SSDs using the newer and
much faster NVM Express standard for
connecting are only available as cards.

As of 2022, many laptops no longer

contain space for a 2.5" drive, accepting
only M.2 cards; a few of the smallest have
storage soldered to the motherboard. For
those that can, they can typically contain a
single 2.5-inch drive, but a small number
of laptops with a screen wider than 15
inches can house two drives.

A variety of external HDDs or NAS data

storage servers with support of RAID
technology can be attached to virtually any
laptop over such interfaces as USB,
FireWire, eSATA, or Thunderbolt, or over a
wired or wireless network to further
increase space for the storage of data.
Many laptops also incorporate a SD or
microSD card slot. This enables users to
download digital pictures from an SD card
onto a laptop, thus enabling them to delete
the SD card's contents to free up space for
taking new pictures.

Removable media drive

Optical disc drives capable of playing CD-

ROMs, compact discs (CD), DVDs, and in
some cases, Blu-ray discs (BD), were
nearly universal on full-sized models
between the mid-1990s and the early
2010s. As of 2021, drives are uncommon
in compact or premium laptops; they
remain available in some bulkier models,
but the trend towards thinner and lighter
machines is gradually eliminating these
drives and players – when needed they
can be connected via USB instead.

Inputs

Closeup of a touchpad on an Acer

laptop, where buttons and the touch-
sensitive surface are shared

Closeup of a TrackPoint cursor and

UltraNav buttons on a ThinkPad
laptop
 Interfaces on a ThinkPad laptop (2011):
Ethernet network port (center), VGA (left),
DisplayPort (top right) and USB 2.0 (bottom
right). Due to the trend towards very flat
laptops and the widespread use of WLAN,
the relatively high Ethernet socket is no
longer mandatory in today's devices, as is
the technically outdated VGA.

An alphanumeric keyboard is used to enter

text, data, and other commands (e.g.,
function keys). A touchpad (also called a
trackpad), a pointing stick, or both, are
used to control the position of the cursor
on the screen, and an integrated
keyboard[44] is used for typing. Some
touchpads have buttons separate from the
touch surface, while others share the
surface. A quick double-tap is typically
registered as a click, and operating
systems may recognize multi-finger touch
gestures.

An external keyboard and mouse may be

connected using a USB port or wirelessly,
via Bluetooth or similar technology. Some
laptops have multitouch touchscreen
displays, either available as an option or
standard. Most laptops have webcams
and microphones, which can be used to
communicate with other people with both
moving images and sound, via web
conferencing or video-calling software.

Laptops typically have USB ports and a

combined headphone/microphone jack,
for use with headphones, a combined
headset, or an external mic. Many laptops
have a card reader for reading digital
camera SD cards.

Input/output (I/O) ports

On a typical laptop there are several USB

ports; if they use only the older USB
connectors instead of USB-C, they will
typically have an external monitor port
(VGA, DVI, HDMI or Mini DisplayPort or
occasionally more than one), an audio
in/out port (often in form of a single
socket) is common. It is possible to
connect up to three external displays to a
2014-era laptop via a single Mini
DisplayPort, using multi-stream transport
technology.[37]

Apple, in a 2015 version of its MacBook,

transitioned from a number of different I/O
ports to a single USB-C port.[45] This port
can be used both for charging and
connecting a variety of devices through
the use of aftermarket adapters. Apple has
since transitioned back to using a number
of different ports. Google, with its updated
version of Chromebook Pixel, shows a
similar transition trend towards USB-C,
although keeping older USB Type-A ports
for a better compatibility with older
devices.[46] Although being common until
the end of the 2000s decade, Ethernet
network port are rarely found on modern
laptops, due to widespread use of wireless
networking, such as Wi-Fi. Legacy ports
such as a PS/2 keyboard/mouse port,
serial port, parallel port, or FireWire are
provided on some models, but they are
increasingly rare. On Apple's systems, and
on a handful of other laptops, there are
also Thunderbolt ports, but Thunderbolt 3
uses USB-C. Laptops typically have a
headphone jack, so that the user can
connect headphones or amplified speaker
systems for listening to music or other
audio.
Expansion cards

In the past, a PC Card (formerly PCMCIA)

or ExpressCard slot for expansion was
often present on laptops to allow adding
and removing functionality, even when the
laptop is powered on; these are becoming
increasingly rare since the introduction of
USB 3.0. Some internal subsystems such
as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or a wireless cellular
modem can be implemented as
replaceable internal expansion cards,
usually accessible under an access cover
on the bottom of the laptop. The standard
for such cards is PCI Express, which
comes in both mini and even smaller M.2
sizes. In newer laptops, it is not
uncommon to also see Micro SATA
(mSATA) functionality on PCI Express Mini
or M.2 card slots allowing the use of those
slots for SATA-based solid-state drives.[47]

Battery and power supply

Almost all laptops use smart

batteries.

Since the late 1990s, laptops have typically

used lithium ion or lithium polymer
batteries, These replaced the older nickel
metal-hydride typically used in the 1990s,
and nickel–cadmium batteries used in
most of the earliest laptops. A few of the
oldest laptops used non-rechargeable
batteries, or lead–acid batteries.

Battery life is highly variable by model and

workload and can range from one hour to
nearly a day. A battery's performance
gradually decreases over time; a
noticeable reduction in capacity is typically
evident after two to three years of regular
use, depending on the charging and
discharging pattern and the design of the
battery. Innovations in laptops and
batteries have seen situations in which the
battery can provide up to 24 hours of
continued operation, assuming average
power consumption levels. An example is
the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its
ultra-capacity battery.[48]

Laptops with removable batteries may

support larger replacement batteries with
extended capacity.

A laptop's battery is charged using an

external power supply, which is plugged
into a wall outlet. The power supply
outputs a DC voltage typically in the range
of 7.2—24 volts. The power supply is
usually external and connected to the
laptop through a DC connector cable. In
most cases, it can charge the battery and
power the laptop simultaneously. When
the battery is fully charged, the laptop
continues to run on power supplied by the
external power supply, avoiding battery
use. If the used power supply is not strong
enough to power computing components
and charge the battery simultaneously, the
battery may charge in a shorter period of
time if the laptop is turned off or sleeping.
The charger typically adds about 400
grams (0.88 lb) to the overall transporting
weight of a laptop, although some models
are substantially heavier or lighter. Most
2016-era laptops use a smart battery, a
rechargeable battery pack with a built-in
battery management system (BMS). The
smart battery can internally measure
voltage and current, and deduce charge
level and State of Health (SoH)
parameters, indicating the state of the
cells.

Power connectors

Laptop power supply with cylindrical

coaxial DC power connector

Historically, DC connectors, typically

cylindrical/barrel-shaped coaxial power
connectors have been used in laptops.
Some vendors such as Lenovo made
intermittent use of a rectangular
connector.

Some connector heads feature a center

pin to allow the end device to determine
the power supply type by measuring the
resistance between it and the connector's
negative pole (outer surface). Vendors
may block charging if a power supply is
not recognized as original part, which
could deny the legitimate use of universal
third-party chargers.[49]

With the advent of USB-C, portable

electronics made increasing use of it for
both power delivery and data transfer. Its
support for 20 V (common laptop power
supply voltage) and 5 A typically suffices
for low to mid-end laptops, but some with
higher power demands such as gaming
laptops depend on dedicated DC
connectors to handle currents beyond 5 A
without risking overheating, some even
above 10 A. Additionally, dedicated DC
connectors are more durable and less
prone to wear and tear from frequent
reconnection, as their design is less
delicate.[50]
Cooling

Waste heat from the operation is difficult

to remove in the compact internal space of
a laptop. The earliest laptops used passive
cooling; this gave way to heat sinks placed
directly on the components to be cooled,
but when these hot components are deep
inside the device, a large space-wasting air
duct is needed to exhaust the heat.
Modern laptops instead rely on heat pipes
to rapidly move waste heat towards the
edges of the device, to allow for a much
smaller and compact fan and heat sink
cooling system. Waste heat is usually
exhausted away from the device operator
towards the rear or sides of the device.
Multiple air intake paths are used since
some intakes can be blocked, such as
when the device is placed on a soft
conforming surface like a chair cushion.
Secondary device temperature monitoring
may reduce performance or trigger an
emergency shutdown if it is unable to
dissipate heat, such as if the laptop were
to be left running and placed inside a
carrying case. Aftermarket cooling pads
with external fans can be used with
laptops to reduce operating temperatures.
Docking station

Docking station and laptop

A docking station (sometimes referred to

simply as a dock) is a laptop accessory
that contains multiple ports and in some
cases expansion slots or bays for fixed or
removable drives. A laptop connects and
disconnects to a docking station, typically
through a single large proprietary
connector. A docking station is an
especially popular laptop accessory in a
corporate computing environment, due to
a possibility of a docking station
transforming a laptop into a full-featured
desktop replacement, yet allowing for its
easy release. This ability can be
advantageous to "road warrior" employees
who have to travel frequently for work, and
yet who also come into the office. If more
ports are needed, or their position on a
laptop is inconvenient, one can use a
cheaper passive device known as a port
replicator. These devices mate to the
connectors on the laptop, such as through
USB or FireWire.
Charging trolleys

Laptop charging trolleys, also known as

laptop trolleys or laptop carts, are mobile
storage containers to charge multiple
laptops, netbooks, and tablet computers at
the same time. The trolleys are used in
schools that have replaced their traditional
static computer labs[51] suites of desktop
equipped with "tower" computers, but do
not have enough plug sockets in an
individual classroom to charge all of the
devices. The trolleys can be wheeled
between rooms and classrooms so that all
students and teachers in a particular
building can access fully charged IT
equipment.[52]

Laptop charging trolleys are also used to

deter and protect against opportunistic
and organized theft. Schools, especially
those with open plan designs, are often
prime targets for thieves who steal high-
value items. Laptops, netbooks, and
tablets are among the highest–value
portable items in a school. Moreover,
laptops can easily be concealed under
clothing and stolen from buildings. Many
types of laptop–charging trolleys are
designed and constructed to protect
against theft. They are generally made out
of steel, and the laptops remain locked up
while not in use. Although the trolleys can
be moved between areas from one
classroom to another, they can often be
mounted or locked to the floor, support
pillars, or walls to prevent thieves from
stealing the laptops, especially
overnight.[51]

Solar panels

In some laptops, solar panels are able to

generate enough solar power for the
laptop to operate.[53] The One Laptop Per
Child Initiative released the OLPC XO-1
laptop which was tested and successfully
operated by use of solar panels.[54]
Presently, they are designing an OLPC XO-
3 laptop with these features. The OLPC
XO-3 can operate with 2 watts of
electricity because its renewable energy
resources generate a total of 4
watts.[55][56] Samsung has also designed
the NC215S solar–powered notebook that
will be sold commercially in the U.S.
market.[57]

Accessories

A common accessory for laptops is a

laptop sleeve, laptop skin, or laptop case,
which provides a degree of protection
from scratches. Sleeves, which are
distinguished by being relatively thin and
flexible, are most commonly made of
neoprene, with sturdier ones made of low-
resilience polyurethane. Some laptop
sleeves are wrapped in ballistic nylon to
provide some measure of waterproofing.
Bulkier and sturdier cases can be made of
metal with polyurethane padding inside
and may have locks for added security.
Metal, padded cases also offer protection
against impacts and drops. Another
common accessory is a laptop cooler, a
device that helps lower the internal
temperature of the laptop either actively or
passively. A common active method
involves using electric fans to draw heat
away from the laptop, while a passive
method might involve propping the laptop
up on some type of pad so it can receive
more airflow. Some stores sell laptop pads
that enable a reclining person on a bed to
use a laptop.

Modularity

Opened bottom covers allow

replacement of RAM and storage
modules (Lenovo G555).

Some of the components of earlier models

of laptops can easily be replaced without
opening completely its bottom part, such
as keyboard, battery, hard disk, memory
modules, CPU cooling fan, etc.

Some of the components of recent models

of laptops reside inside. Replacing most of
its components, such as keyboard, battery,
hard disk, memory modules, CPU cooling
fan, etc., requires removal of its either top
or bottom part, removal of the
motherboard, and returning them.

In some types, solder and glue are used to

mount components such as RAM, storage,
and batteries, making repairs additionally
difficult.[58][59]
Obsolete features

A modem PCMCIA card on an old

ThinkPad. The card would
normally fully insert into the
socket.

Features that certain early models of

laptops used to have that are not available
in most current laptops include:

Reset ("cold restart") button in a hole

(needed a thin metal tool to press)
Instant power off button in a hole
(needed a thin metal tool to press)
Integrated charger or power adapter
inside the laptop
Dedicated Media buttons (Internet,
Volume, Play, Pause, Next, Previous)
Floppy disk drive
Serial port
Parallel port
Modem
IEEE 1394 port
Docking port
Shared PS/2 input device port
IrDA
S-video port[note 1]
S/PDIF audio port
 PC Card / PCMCIA slot
ExpressCard slot
CD/DVD Drives (starting with 2013
models)
VGA port (starting with 2013 models)

Characteristics

Advantages

A teacher using the laptop as part of

a workshop for school children
 A man using a laptop on a park bench

Portability is usually the first feature

mentioned in any comparison of laptops
versus desktop PCs.[60] Physical
portability allows a laptop to be used in
many places—not only at home and the
office but also during commuting and
flights, in coffee shops, in lecture halls
and libraries, at clients' locations or a
meeting room, etc. Within a home,
portability enables laptop users to move
their devices from room to room.
Portability offers several distinct
advantages:
Productivity: Using a laptop in places
where a desktop PC cannot be used can
help employees and students to
increase their productivity on work or
school tasks, such as an office worker
reading their work e-mails during an
hour-long commute by train, or a student
doing their homework at the university
coffee shop during a break between
lectures, for example.
Up-to-date information: Using a single
laptop prevents fragmentation of files
across multiple PC's as the files exist in
 a single location and are always up-to-
date.
Connectivity: A key advantage of
laptops is that they almost always have
integrated connectivity features such as
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, and sometimes
connection to cellular networks either
through native integration or use of a
hotspot. Wi-Fi networks and laptop
programs are especially widespread at
university campuses.[61]

Other advantages of laptops:

Size: Laptops are smaller than desktop

PCs. This is beneficial when space is at
a premium, for example in small
apartments and student dorms. When
not in use, a laptop can be closed and
put away in a desk drawer.
Low power consumption: Laptops are
several times more power-efficient than
desktops. A typical laptop uses 10–100
W, compared to 200–800W for
desktops. This could be particularly
beneficial for large businesses, which
run hundreds of personal computers
thus economies of scale, and homes
where there is a computer running 24/7
(such as a home media server, print
server, etc.).
Quiet: Laptops are typically much
quieter than desktops, due both to the
components (often silent solid-state
drives replacing hard drives) and to less
heat production leading to the use of
fewer, sometimes no cooling fans. The
latter has given rise to laptops that have
no moving parts, resulting in complete
silence during use.
Battery: a charged laptop can continue
to be used in case of a power outage
and is not affected by short power
interruptions and blackouts, an issue
that is present with desktop PC's.
 All-in-One: designed to be portable,
most modern laptops have all
components integrated into the chassis.
For desktops (excluding all-in-ones) this
is usually divided into the desktop
"tower" (the unit with the CPU, hard
drive, power supply, etc.), keyboard,
mouse, display screen, and optional
peripherals such as speakers.

Disadvantages

Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have

disadvantages in the following areas:

Performance
The majority of laptops released in 2022
are capable of common tasks such as web
browsing, video playback, and office
applications, even at the low end. That
said, performance of desktops often
surpass comparably priced laptops. The
upper limits of performance of laptops
remain lower than desktops, due to mostly
practical reasons, such as decreased
battery life, increased size and heat, etc.

Upgradeability

The upgradeability of laptops is very

limited compared to thoroughly
standardized desktops, due to technical
and economic reasons. In general, hard
drives and memory can be upgraded
easily. Due to the integrated nature of
laptops, however, the motherboard, CPU,
and graphics, are seldom officially
upgradeable. Some efforts towards
industry standard parts and layouts have
been attempted, such as Common
Building Block, but the industry remains
largely proprietary and fragmented. There
is no industry-wide standard form factor
for laptops; Moreover, starting with 2013
models, laptops have become increasingly
integrated (soldered) with the
motherboard for most of its components
(CPU, SSD, RAM, etc.) to reduce size and
upgradeability prospects.[41]
 Durability

A clogged heat sink on a laptop after

2.5 years of use

Laptops are less durable than

desktops/PCs. However, the durability of
the laptop depends on the user if proper
maintenance is done then the laptop can
work longer.

Laptop keyboard with its keys (except

the space bar) removed, revealing
crumbs, pet hair, and other detritus to
be cleaned away
Because of their portability, laptops are
subject to more wear and physical
damage than desktops, additionally
hindered by their integrated nature. A
liquid spill onto the keyboard, while a
minor issue with a desktop system, can
damage the internals of a laptop and
destroy the computer, result in a costly
repair or entire replacement of laptops.
One study found that a laptop is three
times more likely to break during the first
year of use than a desktop.[62] To maintain
a laptop, it is recommended to clean it
every three months for dirt, debris, dust,
and food particles. Most cleaning kits
consist of a lint-free or microfiber cloth for
the screen and keyboard, compressed air
for getting dust out of the cooling fan, and
a cleaning solution. Harsh chemicals such
as bleach should not be used to clean a
laptop, as they can damage it.[63]

Heating and cooling

Laptops rely on extremely compact

cooling systems involving a fan and heat
sink that can fail from blockage caused by
accumulated airborne dust and debris.
Most laptops do not have any type of
removable dust collection filter over the air
intake for these cooling systems, resulting
in a system that gradually conducts more
heat and noise as the years pass. In some
cases, the laptop starts to overheat even
at idle load levels. This dust is usually
stuck inside where the fan and heat sink
meet, where it can not be removed by a
casual cleaning and vacuuming. Most of
the time, compressed air can dislodge the
dust and debris but may not entirely
remove it. After the device is turned on, the
loose debris is reaccumulated into the
cooling system by the fans. Complete
disassembly is usually required to clean
the laptop entirely. However, preventative
maintenance such as regular cleaning of
the heat sink via compressed air can
prevent dust build-up on the heat sink.
Many laptops are difficult to disassemble
by the average user and contain
components that are sensitive to
electrostatic discharge (ESD).

Battery life

Battery life is limited because the capacity

drops with time, eventually warranting
replacement after as little as 2–3 years. A
new battery typically stores enough energy
to run the laptop for five to six hours or
more, depending on usage and the battery
size. The battery is often easily
replaceable and a higher capacity model
may be obtained for longer charging and
discharging time. Some laptops do not
have the usual removable battery and have
to be brought to the service center of their
manufacturer or a third-party laptop
service center to have their battery
replaced. Replacement batteries can also
be expensive, depending on the availability
of the parts. Desktop PC's do not face
similar problems since they are reliant on
long lasting power supplies.

Security and privacy

Because they are valuable, commonly

used, portable, and easy to hide in a
backpack or other type of bag, laptops are
often stolen. Every day, over 1,600 laptops
go missing from U.S. airports.[64] The cost
of stolen business or personal data, and of
the resulting problems (identity theft,
credit card fraud, breach of privacy), can
be many times the value of the stolen
laptop itself. Consequently, the physical
protection of laptops and the safeguarding
of data contained on them are both of
great importance. Some laptops, primarily
professional and educational devices,
have a Kensington security slot, which can
be used to tether them with a security
cable and lock. In addition, modern
operating systems have features such as
Activation Lock or similar that prevents the
use of the device without credentials. As
of 2015, some laptops also have
additional security elements added,
including biometric security components
such as Windows Hello or Touch ID.[65]

Software such as GadgetTrak and Find My

Mac have been engineered to help people
locate and recover their stolen laptops in
the event of theft. Setting one's laptop with
a password on its firmware (protection
against going to firmware setup or
booting), internal HDD/SSD (protection
against accessing it and loading an
operating system on it afterward), and
every user account of the operating
system are additional security measures
that a user should do.[66][67] Fewer than 5%
of lost or stolen laptops are recovered by
the companies that own them,[68] however,
that number may decrease due to a variety
of companies and software solutions
specializing in laptop recovery. In the
2010s, the common availability of
webcams on laptops raised privacy
concerns. In Robbins v. Lower Merion
School District (Eastern District of
Pennsylvania 2010), school-issued laptops
loaded with special software enabled staff
from two high schools to take secret
webcam shots of students at home, via
their students' laptops.[69][70][71]
Ergonomics and health effects

Wrists

Prolonged use of laptops can cause

repetitive strain injury because of their
small, flat keyboard and trackpad pointing
devices.[72] Usage of separate, external
ergonomic keyboards and pointing devices
is recommended to prevent injury when
working for long periods of time; they can
be connected to a laptop easily by USB,
Bluetooth or via a docking station. Some
health standards require ergonomic
keyboards at workplaces.

Neck and spine

A laptop's integrated screen often requires
users to lean over for a better view, which
can cause neck or spinal injuries. A larger
and higher-quality external screen can be
connected to almost any laptop to
alleviate this and to provide additional
screen space for more productive work.
Another solution is to use a computer
stand.

Possible effect on fertility

A study by State University of New York

researchers found that heat generated
from laptops can increase the temperature
of the lap of male users when balancing
the computer on their lap, potentially
putting sperm count at risk. The study,
which included roughly two dozen men
between the ages of 21 and 35, found that
the sitting position required to balance a
laptop can increase scrotum temperature
by as much as 2.1 °C (4 °F). However,
further research is needed to determine
whether this directly affects male
sterility.[73] A later 2010 study of 29 males
published in Fertility and Sterility found that
men who kept their laptops on their laps
experienced scrotal hyperthermia
(overheating) in which their scrotal
temperatures increased by up to 2.0 °C
(4 °F). The resulting heat increase, which
could not be offset by a laptop cushion,
may increase male infertility.[74][75][76][77][78]

Laptop cooler (silver) under laptop

(white), preventing heating of lap and
improving laptop airflow

A common practical solution to this

problem is to place the laptop on a table or
desk or to use a book or pillow between
the body and the laptop. Another solution
is to obtain a cooling unit for the laptop.
These are usually USB powered and
consist of a hard thin plastic case housing
one, two, or three cooling fans – with the
entire assembly designed to sit under the
laptop in question – which results in the
laptop remaining cool to the touch, and
greatly reduces laptop heat buildup.

Thighs

Heat generated from using a laptop on the

lap can also cause skin discoloration on
the thighs known as "toasted skin
syndrome".[79][80][81][82]

Sales

Manufacturers

There are many laptop brands and

manufacturers. Several major brands that
offer notebooks in various classes are
listed in the adjacent box. The major
brands usually offer good service and
support, including well-executed
documentation and driver downloads that
remain available for many years after a
particular laptop model is no longer
produced. Capitalizing on service, support,
and brand image, laptops from major
brands are more expensive than laptops
by smaller brands and ODMs. Some
brands specialize in a particular class of
laptops, such as gaming laptops
(Alienware), high-performance laptops (HP
Envy), netbooks (EeePC) and laptops for
children (OLPC).
Many brands, including the major ones, do
not design and do not manufacture their
laptops. Instead, a small number of
Original Design Manufacturers (ODMs)
design new models of laptops, and the
brands choose the models to be included
in their lineup. In 2006, 7 major ODMs
manufactured 7 of every 10 laptops in the
world, with the largest one (Quanta
Computer) having 30% of the world market
share.[83] Therefore, identical models are
available both from a major label and from
a low-profile ODM in-house brand.
Adoption by users

Battery-powered portable computers had

just 2% worldwide market share in
1986.[84] However, laptops have become
increasingly popular, both for business and
personal use.[85] Around 109 million
notebook PCs shipped worldwide in 2007,
a growth of 33% compared to 2006.[86] In
2008 it was estimated that 145.9 million
notebooks were sold, and that the number
would grow in 2009 to 177.7 million.[87]
The third quarter of 2008 was the first time
when worldwide notebook PC shipments
exceeded desktops, with 38.6 million units
versus 38.5 million units.[85][88][89][90] Due
to the advent of tablets and affordable
laptops, many computer users now have
laptops due to the convenience offered by
the device.

Price

Before 2008, laptops were very expensive.

In May 2005, the average notebook sold
for $1,131 while desktops sold for an
average of $696.[91] Around 2008, however,
prices of laptops decreased substantially
due to low-cost netbooks, drawing an
average US$689 at U.S. retail stores in
August 2008. Starting with the 2010's,
laptops have decreased substantially in
price at the low end due to inexpensive
and low power Arm processors, less
demanding operating systems such as
ChromeOS, and SoC's. As of 2023, a new
laptop can be obtained for $299.[92]

Disposal

The list of materials that go into a laptop

computer is long, and many of the
substances used, such as beryllium, lead,
chromium, and mercury compounds, are
toxic or carcinogenic to humans. Although
these toxins are relatively harmless when
the laptop is in use, concerns that
discarded laptops cause a serious health
and environmental risks when improperly
discarded have arisen. The Waste
Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Directive (WEEE Directive) in Europe
specified that all laptop computers must
be recycled by law. Similarly, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
has outlawed landfill dumping or the
incinerating of discarded laptop
computers.

Most laptop computers begin the recycling

process with a method known as
Demanufacturing, this involves the
physical separation of the components of
the laptop.[93] These components are then
either grouped into materials (e.g. plastic,
metal and glass) for recycling or more
complex items that require more advanced
materials separation (e.g.) circuit boards,
hard drives and batteries.

Corporate laptop recycling can require an

additional process known as data
destruction. The data destruction process
ensures that all information or data that
has been stored on a laptop hard drive can
never be retrieved again. Below is an
overview of some of the data protection
and environmental laws and regulations
applicable for laptop recycling data
destruction:
Data Protection Act 1998 (DPA)
EU Privacy Directive (Due 2016)
Financial Conduct Authority
Sarbanes-Oxley Act
PCI-DSS Data Security Standard
Waste, Electronic & Electrical Equipment
Directive (WEEE)
Basel Convention
Bank Secrecy Act (BSA)
FACTA Sarbanes-Oxley Act
FDA Security Regulations (21 C.F.R. part
11)
Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA)
HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act)
NIST SP 800–53
Add NIST SP 800–171
Identity Theft and Assumption
Deterrence Act
Patriot Act of 2002
PCI Data Security Standard
US Safe Harbor Provisions
Various state laws[94][95]
JAN 6/3
Gramm-leach-Bliley Act
DCID
Extreme use

ISS laptops in the US lab

The ruggedized Grid Compass computer

was used since the early days of the
Space Shuttle program. The first
commercial laptop used in space was a
Macintosh portable in 1990 on Space
Shuttle mission STS-41 and again in 1991
aboard STS-43.[96][97][98][99] Apple and
other laptop computers continue to be
flown aboard crewed spaceflights, though
the only long-duration flight certified
computer for the International Space
Station is the ThinkPad.[100] As of 2011,
over 100 ThinkPads were aboard the ISS.
Laptops used aboard the International
Space Station and other spaceflights are
generally the same ones that can be
purchased by the general public but
needed modifications are made to allow
them to be used safely and effectively in a
weightless environment such as updating
the cooling systems to function without
relying on hot air rising and
accommodation for the lower cabin air
pressure.[101] Laptops operating in harsh
usage environments and conditions, such
as strong vibrations, extreme
temperatures, and wet or dusty conditions
differ from those used in space in that
they are custom designed for the task and
do not use commercial off-the-shelf
hardware.

See also

List of computer size categories

List of laptop brands and manufacturers
Netbook
Smartbook
Chromebook
Ultrabook
Smartphone
Subscriber Identity Module
Mobile broadband
Mobile Internet device (MID)
Personal digital assistant
VIA OpenBook
Tethering
XJACK
Open-source computer hardware
Novena
Portal, a make of a French luggable
accounting computer of 1980
Mobile modem
Stereoscopy glasses
Notes

1. Unconfirmed if this exists in most recent

models of laptops.

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