A Brief introduction of Art and Architecture during Sultanate period

By
Dr. Sanjay Sen
Asst. Professor, Margherita College

During the Sultanate period, architecture made tremendous progress. This period witnessed
the growth of Indo-Islamic architecture. This style of architecture was either purely Islamic or
purely Hindu; rather it was influenced by both the styles.
Several factors contributed towards the synthesis of Indian and Islamic style. Firstly, the
Muslim rulers had to employ Indian ‘Craftsmen, architects and sculptors, who had applied
the Indian style of construction into Muslim buildings. Secondly, the Muslim rulers destroyed
the Hindu temples and built the mosques, palaces and tombs out of the materials of the
destroyed Hindu temple.
Thirdly, the rulers converted the Hindu temples and palaces into their mosques and buildings.
Besides, there was a nexus between the two styles with regard to the fact that both the Indian
and Islamic art were inherently decorative. The Hindus adorned their buildings with images
of different gods and goddesses, whereas the Muslims decorated them with square, triangular,
parallel, rectangular lines, teachings of the Korans inscribed in the Persian script. Thus, the
Hindu style of architecture greatly influenced Islamic style because of these factors and gave
birth to this Indo-Islamic architecture.

 Delhi Architecture:
Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak constructed the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque of Delhi and Dhai-din-ka-
jhompara mosque at Ajmer. Both these mosques bear the mark of Indian and Islamic art. The
construction of Qutb Minar was started by Qutb-ud-din but was completed by Iltutmish. The
purpose of this tower was that from it the Mauzzin could summon the faithful to prayer.
It was named after the famous Muslim saint Qutb-ud-din who was famous as Qutb Shah. It is
purely an Islamic structure. During the reign of Firuz Tughlaq lightning caused damage to the
fourth storey of this tower and he replaced it by two smaller ones and raised its height to
71.28 metres.
According to Percy Brown, “Qutb Minar as a whole is a most impressive conception, the
vivid colour of its red sand stone, the changing texture of its fluted stories with their overlay
of inscriptional bonds, the contrast between the alternating spaces of plain masonary and rich
carving, the shimmer of the shadows under the balconies, all combine to produce an effect of
marked vitality.
Iltutmish, besides completing Qutb Minar, also built a tomb for his eldest son known as
Sultan-Ghori, situated at a distance of five kilometres from the Qutb Minar. He also built
three buildings such as Hauz-i-Shamsi, Shams-I-idgah and Jam-i-masjid at Badava and the
Atarkin-ka-Darwaza at Jodhpur. The mausoleum of Iltutmish was also another famous
building of that period. Sultan Balban built Red Palace and his own tomb at Delhi.
Sultan Alauddin Khilji had constructed some beautiful buildings like Hazar Situn (thousand
pillars), the fort and the city of Siri, the Jamaita Khan masjid at the dargah of Nizam-ud-din
Auliya, Alai Darwaza at Qutb Minar, the Hauz-i-Alai and the Hauz-i-Khas buildings. Of
course, the city and palace were destroyed but the Jamait Khan mosque and the Alai Darwaza
still exist and have been considered as beautiful specimens of Islamic art.
Unlike the buildings of slave and Khilji regimes, the buildings of the Tughlaq period lacked
splendour. The buildings of the Tughlaq period were formal, prosaic and famous for
puritanical simplicity. The puritanical attitude of the Sultans and the financial difficulties
were two factors which had influenced the architecture, Ghiyasuddin built the new city of
Tughlaqbad, east of the Qutb Minar, his own tomb and a palace.
Muhammad Tughlaq had built the city of Johan Panha, the fortress of Adilabad and some
other buildings at Daulatabad. All the buildings built by him are destroyed, only the remains
of two buildings, the Sathpalahpund and the Bijai Mandal, are found. The buildings
constructed by Firuz Tughlaq were the new city of Firuzabad, the palace fort known as Kotla
Firuz Shah within it, a college and his own tomb near Hauz Khas.
The best specimen of architecture of the Lodi and Sayyid Sultans are the tombs of Mubarak
Shah Sayyid, Muhammad Shah Sayyid and Sikandar Lodi and a mosque known as Moti ki
Masjid by the prime minister of Sikandar Lodi at Delhi.

 Provincial Architecture:

A good number of provinces proclaimed their independence during the period of the later
Tughlaqus. The rulers of these provinces were also great patrons of architecture. The
provincial style was different from imperial style in some respects. The imperial architecture
was more splendid than the provincial architecture. This was mainly due to the limited
financial resources of the provincial rulers. Secondly, the local style also influenced the
provincial style of architecture.
In Bengal the style of architecture which developed was the synthesis of Islamic art and
Hindu art. The notable buildings of province are Adina Masjid constructed by Sikandar Shah
at Pandua the Eklakhi Mausoleum at Hazrat Pandua, the Lotan Masjid and the Bari Sona
Masjid at Gaur, the Qudam Rasul at Gaur built by Nusrat Shah, the Dakhil Darwaza at Gaur
and the tomb of Jalaluddin Muhammad at Pandua.
The buildings of Gaur Tribeni and Pandua are made of bricks. Stones were very rarely used.
The special features of Bengal style of architecture were the use of pointed arches on pillars,
Hindu decorative designs and the application of Hindu architecture to Islamic art.
The rulers of Jaunpur were great patrons of art and architecture. The architecture of Jaunpur
contained the features of both Hindu and Islamic architecture. The Atala Masjid constructed
by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi, the Jami Masjid built by Hussain Shah, and the Lai Darwaza
mosque are some of the beautiful specimens of provincial architecture.
The province of Malwa witnessed the emergence of a distinct style of architecture which had
some resemblance with the architecture of Delhi. The domes and pillars of two mosques built
out of the materials of Hindu buildings at Dhar were of Hindu form. The fort of Mandu has
been considered as the beautiful specimen of provincial architecture. Some of the beautiful
buildings of Mandu are the Jami Masjid, the Hindola Mahal, Asharfi Mahal, the Jahaz Mahal,
the tomb of Hushang Shah and the palaces of Baz Bahadur and his queen Rupamati.
Before the advent of Turks the province of Gujarat had developed a beautiful indigenous
style. After the Muslim conquest, Gujarat had produced the best combination of Hindu and
Muslim architecture. The famous buildings of Gujarat are the Jami masjid at Cambay, the
Jami Masjid and tomb of Ahmad Shah at Ahmedabad, the Tin Darwaza, the Ranika Hujra
and Dholka Masjid. The city of champagne is adorned with many beautiful building and the
most famous building among them is the mosque built by Mahmud Begarha.
The Sultans of Bahamani kingdom also constructed magnificent buildings within their
territories. Some of the famous buildings are the mosques at Bidar and Gulbrga, the tomb of
Muhammad Adil Shah known as Gol Gumbuz and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad.

 Indo-Islamic Architecture:
Qutubuddin Aibak constructed the Quwat-ul-lslam mosque at Delhi and another mosque at
Ajmer called the Dhai Din Ka Jhonpra. The first was raised at the site of a destroyed temple
and the other at a site of a destroyed college of Sanskrit.
Therefore, both these mosques have the imprint of both the Hindu and Muslim art. Sultan
lltutmish and Alauddin Khilji added further to be Quwat-ul-lslam mosque. The construction
of Qutub Minar was originally planned by Aibak but it was completed by lltutmish.
The planning of Qutub Minar was purely Islamic as it was originally intended to serve as a
place for the muazzin to call Muslims to prayer though, afterwards, it became famous as a
tower of victory, lltutmish constructed its four storeys and it rose to a height of 225 feet. But,
its fourth storey was damaged by lightning during the reign of Furuz Tughlaq who replaced it
by two smaller ones and raised its height to 243 feet.
Qutub Minar is an impressive building and Fergussion regarded it ‘as the most perfect
example of a tower known to exist anywhere in the world’. Besides completing the Qutab
Minar, lltutmish constructed a tomb on the grave of his eldest son, known as Sultan-Ghori,
nearly three miles aways from the Qutub-Minar.
He also constructed a chamber near the Qutub Mnarwhich was, probably, the tomb on his
own grave and also, Hauz-i-Shamsi-ldgah, the Jami Masjid at Badaun and the Atar kin-ka-
Darwaza at Nagur (Jodhpur). He further made additions to Quwat-ul-lslam and Dhai-din Ka
Jhonpra.
Balban built his own tomb and the Red palace at Delhi. His own tomb, though in a
dilapidated condition now, marked a notable landmark in the development of Indo-lslamic
architecture. Alauddin Khilji had better economic resources at his command and therefore,
constructed beautiful buildings. His buildings were constructed with perfectly Islamic view-
point and have been regarded as some best examples of Islamic art in India.
He had a plan to build a minar and a big mosque near the Qutub Minar which he could not
pursue because of his death. Yet, he found the city of Siri, built a palace of thousands of
pillars within it, Jamait Khan Mosque at the shrine of Nizamuddin Auliya and the famous
Alai Darwaza at the Qutub Minar: He also built a single compact chamber near the Qutub
Minar.
His city and the palace had been destroyed but the Jamait Khan mosque and the Alai
Darwaza still exist which have been regarded as beautiful specimens of Islamic art.
According to Marshal, ‘the Alai Darwaza is one of the most treasured gems of Islamic
architecture.’ Alauddin also constructed a magnificent tank covering an area of nearly 70
acres, known as Hauz-i-Alai or Hauz-i-Khas near his newly constructed city of Siri in the
vicinity of the old city of Delhi.
The Tughlaq-Sultans did not construct beautiful buildings. Probably, the primary cause of it
was their economic difficulties. Besides they were puritanical in their taste and therefore,
avoided ornamentation in their buildings. Ghiyasuddin constructed the new city of
Tughlaqabad east of the Qutub area, his own tomb and a palace.
Ibn battuta wrote about his palace that ‘it was constructed of golden bricks which, when the
sun rose, shone so dazzlingly that no one could gaze at it steadily’. However, now his palace
and the city stand destroyed while his tomb constructed of red stone gives the impression of a
small strong fort but lacks splendour.
Muhammad Tuglaq constructed the new city of Jahanpanah near the city of old Delhi, the fort
of Adilabad and a few other buildings at Daulatabad. But, all his buildings have been
destroyed.
The remains of only two buildings, the Sathpalah bund and the Bijai Mandal alone are found.
Firoz Tughluq constructed many buildings but all of them were just ordinary and weak.
Among his notable buildings was the new city of Firuzabad near the old city of Delhi, the
palace-fort known as Kotla Firoz Shah within it, a college and his own tomb near Hauz-i-
Khas. During his time a noble at the court, Khan-i-Jahan Jauna Shah constructed the tomb of
his father, Tilangani, the Kaii Masjid and the Khirki Masjid in the city of Jahanpanah.
A beautiful building known as Lai-Gumbad was constructed by Nasiruddin Muhammad
Tughlaq Shah at the grave of Kabir-ud-din Auliya. Among the buildings constructed by Lodi
and Sayyid Sultans a few notable are the tombs of Mubarak Shah Sayyid, Muhammad Shah
Sayyid and Sikandar Lodi and a mosque known as Moth-ki-Masjid by the prime minister of
Sikandar Lodi at Delhi.
Among buildings raised by Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate cities, palaces and forts have been
destroyed. Only a few tombs, mosques and minars have existed so far. The buildings which
are left, of course are not marvellous, yet fairly good specimens of early Indo-Islamic
architecture in India and the best among them are the Qutub Minar and the Alai-Darwaza.

 Characteristics of the Architecture during the Sultanate Period

1. A mixture of Indian (Hindu) and Iranian (Muslim) Style:
The Sultans of Delhi wanted to construct their buildings on the pattern of Iran and Central
Asia.
However, their buildings could not be exact copies of these buildings. They had to employ
Indian craftsmen who had their own ideas about the form and method of construction.
Thus though the buildings were designed by Muslim architects to suit the requirements of
their religious ideas, yet they were constructed by Hindu craftsmen who formed the finest
artistry of the world. Obviously the buildings had a combination of Indo- Islamic
architecture.
2. Buildings constructed with the material of Hindu temples:
Several buildings were constructed out of the material used in the temples that were
destroyed by some of the Muslim rulers. Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi is said to have
been built by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak by demolishing a Hindu temple. Likewise ‘Adai-din-ka
Jhopra’ a mosque in Ajmer, built in 2 ½ days came into being on the ruins of a Hindu
building.
3. Pointed arched in the Muslim structures:
It is noted that the Hindus used square pillars which supported their temple roofs. On the
other hand the Muslims used the arches. Besides arches, they also used domes over their
buildings and minarets on sides. The use of arch and dome added charm to the Muslim
buildings and also enabled them to dispense with the need of a large number of pillars to
support the roof.
4. Carvings:
The Hindus carved the figures of gods and goddesses on all sides of pillars, walls and ceilings
also. They also carved various ornamental things like garlands, flowers and temple bells etc.
The Muslims did not allow any representation of living things on their buildings. The Hindu
workmen who were skilled in decorating the pillars and walls were allowed the use of
flowers and trees in the decoration of Muslim buildings.
5. Use of geometrical designs:
During the Sultanate period, geometrical designs began to be used for decoration purposes.
6. Quaranic ‘Ayats’:
The use of Quaranic ‘Ayats’ in the buildings served two purposes i.e. religious as well as
decorative.
7. Use of stones and lime:
During the Sultanate period several types of coloured stones like red, light black, yellow and
white marbles were used. A very good quality of stone was used to make the buildings
strong.
  Architecture during the Sultanate Period
The development and progress of architecture during the Sultanate period:
Fine arts, primarily architecture, made progress during the period of the Delhi Sultanate.
Islam objects to painting, music and dance. Therefore, the art of painting could not progress
during this period. However, as Sultans of Delhi and rulers of provincial dynasties were fond
of both music and dance, these certainly progressed. Yet, architecture remained at the top in
the progress of different fine arts.
The architecture of the period of the Sultanate can be divided into three categories for the
sake of convenience. First is the Delhi or the Imperial style of architecture which grew under
the patronage of Sultans of Delhi. It includes all those buildings which were constructed by
different Sultans. The other is provincial style of architecture which grew under the patronage
of provincial ruling dynasties which were mostly Muslims.
The Imperial style, of course, influenced the style of provincial architecture, yet the
provincial arts had their own different characteristics which assigned them different places.
The third- Hindu architecture which mostly developed under Hindu kings of Rajasthan and
the Vijayanagara Empire.
Hindu architecture was also influenced by the Imperial style. The Hindus had already a well-
developed style of their own prior to the coming of the Muslims in India. Therefore, features
of their past style continued to be the governing factors of their style of architecture.
However, the distinction between these three styles of architecture is only for the sake of
convenience of understanding. Otherwise, the period witnessed the growth of that style of
architecture which, as a whole, can be called the Indo-Islamic architecture or the Indian
architecture influenced by the Islamic art of architecture. This style of architecture was
neither purely Islamic nor purely Hindu.
It was, rather, influenced by both the styles and therefore, fairly deserves to be called the
Indian architecture of the period of the Sultanate. Iran and India had come into contact with
each other much earlier and had influenced the architecture of each other. The Iranians,
whatever they learnt from the Indian style, matured it and gave it a perfect Iranian style.
The Turks were influenced by that Iranian style of architecture and when they settled down in
India they maintained its characteristics which were borrowed from the Indians to a certain
extent. That is why one of the Christian Popes wrote- “India has proposed and Persia
disposed, but what India gave, she received back in a new form that enabled her to pass
to fresh architectural triumphs.”
The Indians had developed a remarkable combination of beauty and strength in their
architecture. The Iranians had accepted it and the Turk-Afghan rulers of the Sultanate
introduced it again in India. However, Islamic architecture was influenced not only by
Persians but also by the architectural styles of Mesopotamia, Central Asia, Egypt, North
Africa, South-east Europe, Afghanistan, etc., as well.
The Islamic architecture grew as a result of all these influences and when the Turks came to
India they carried all these influences to India and developed that style of architecture which
has been called the Indo-Islamic architecture.
Several other factors also contributed towards the formation of this Indo- Islamic
architecture. The Turk-Afghan rulers desired to give that shape to their buildings which
existed in Iran and Central Asia. But their buildings could not be exact copies of those
buildings because of several factors.
Firstly, they had to employ Indian craftsmen who had their own ideas about the form and
method of construction. Secondly, during early period of their rule, the Muslims used
materials of destroyed Hindu temples, palaces, etc., in the construction of their buildings or
simply converted them to suit their purposes. Thirdly, both the Hindu and the Islamic
architecture were inherently decorative though, of course, their form of decoration differed.
While the Hindus decorated their buildings with images of different gods and goddesses, the
Muslims decorated them with parallel, rectangular, square or triangular lines, stones of
different colours or teachings of Koran inscribed mostly in Persian script.
Thus, architectural styles of both were ornamental. Therefore, Hindu style of architecture
largely influenced Islamic style because of these unavoidable factors and gave birth to that
mixed style which has been called the Indo-Islamic architecture.
Historians have differed as to how much the Indo-Islamic architecture owed to the Hindu
architecture and how much to the Islamic architecture. Havell remarked that the influence of
Hindu architecture is abundantly clear in medieval architecture while Fergusson, Smith and
Elphinstone opined that the influence of Hindu architecture on Muslim architecture was
negligible.
However, John Marshall seems more near the truth when he remarked- “Indo-Islamic
architecture derives its character from both sources though not always in an equal
degree.” Therefore, it can be expressed that the Muslim architecture which was already the
result of synthesis of several styles of architecture including that of India absorbed many
ideals and methods of Hindu architecture in India though the synthesis between the two
differed from place to place.
Muslim architecture was influenced by Hindu architecture only to some extent at Delhi and
its vicinity while in distant provinces Hindu architecture contributed more to the Muslim
architecture. At Jaunpur, Bengal, Gujrat, Kashmir and the Deccan the Hindu architecture
definitely played a larger role than the Muslim architecture. However, it is certain that the
synthesis between the two architectural styles evolved that architecture which we call Indo-
Islamic architecture.
The Muslims added characteristics of speciousness, massiveness and width to the Hindu
architecture. They introduced mehrab or arch, dome and minar in the indigenous architecture
while the design of the Kalash at the top of a Hindu temple was adopted by the Muslims by
placing a dome on the top of their buildings.
Besides, the Hindu-scheme of ornamentation was applied by the Muslims to decorate their
arches or mehrabs. Many times the historic inscriptions and verses of the Quran in decorative
and graceful letters were engraved on the gates of the building for the same purpose.
The Muslims adopted the Hindu techniques to make the structures more strong, stable and
graceful and also the proportional massing of structures and their different parts. Thus, and in
many other ways, the synthesis between the Hindu and the Muslim architecture took place in
India.
1. Delhi of Imperial Style:
Qutb-ud-din Aibak constructed the Qutb-ul-Islam mosque at Delhi and another mosque at
Ajmer called the Dhai Din Ka Jhonpra. The first was raised at the site of a destroyed temple
and the other at the site of a destroyed college of Sanskrit. Therefore, both these mosques
have the imprint of both the Hindu and the Muslim art. Sultan Iltutmish and Ala-ud-din
Khalji added further to the Quwat-ul-lslam mosque.
The construction of Qutb Minar was originally planned by Aibak but it was completed by
Iltutmish. The planning of Qutb Minar was purely Islamic as it was originally intended to
serve as a place for the muazzin to call Muslims to prayer though, afterwards, it became
famous as a tower of victory.
Iltutmish constructed its four storeys and it rose to a height of 225 feet. But, its fourth storey
was damaged by lightning during the reign of Firuz Tughluq who replaced it by two smaller
one and raised its height to 234 feet.
Qutb Minar is an impressive building and Fergusson regarded it ‘as the most perfect example
of a tower known to exist anywhere in the world.’ Besides completing the Qutb Minar,
Iltutmish constructed a tomb on the grave of his eldest son, known as Sultan-Ghari, nearly
three miles away from the Qutb Minar.
He also built a single compact chamber near the Qutb Minar which was probably, the tomb
on his own grave and, also, Hauz-i-Shamsi, Shamsi-ldgah, the Jami Masjid at Badaun and the
Atarkin-ka-Darwaza at Nagaur (Jodhpur). He further made additions to Quwat-ul-Islam and
Dhai Din Ka Jhonpra. Balban built his own tomb and the Red palace at Delhi.
His own tomb, though in a dilapidated condition now, marked a notable landmark in the
development of Indo-Islamic architecture. Ala-ud-din Khalji had better economic resources at
his command and therefore, constructed beautiful buildings. His buildings were constructed
with perfectly Islamic viewpoint and have been regarded as some best examples of Islamic
art in India.
He had a plan to build a minor and a big mosque near the Qutb Minar which he could not
pursue because of his death. Yet, he found the city of Siri, built a palace of thousands of
pillars within it, Jamait Khan mosque at the shrine of Nizam-ud-din Auliya and the famous
Alai Darwaza at the Qutb Minar. His city and the palace has been destroyed but the Jamait
Khan mosque and the Alai Darwaza still exist which have been regarded as beautiful
specimens of Islamic art.
According to Marshall, ‘the Alai Darwaza is one of the most treasured gems of Islamic
architecture.’ Ala-ud-din also constructed a magnificent tank known as Hauz-i-Alai or Hauz-
i-Khas near his newly constructed city of Siri in the vicinity of the old city of Delhi. The
Tughluq Sultans did not construct beautiful buildings. Probably, the primary cause of it was
their economic difficulties.
Besides, they were puritanical in their taste and therefore, avoided ornamentation in their
buildings. Ghiyas-ud- din constructed the new city of Tughluqabad east of the Qutb area, his
own tomb and a palace. Ibn Batuta wrote about his palace ‘that it was constructed of golden
bricks which, when the sun rose, shone so dazzlingly that no one could gaze at it steadily.
However, now his palace and the city stand destroyed while his tomb constructed of red stone
gives the impression of a small strong fort but lacks splendour. Muhammad Tughluq
constructed the new city of Jahanpanah near the city of old Delhi, the fort of Adilabad and
some other buildings at Daultabad. But, all his buildings have been destroyed.
The remains of only two buildings, the Sathpalahbanda and the Bijai-Mandal alone are found.
Firuz Tughluq constructed many buildings but all of them were just ordinary and weak.
Among his notable buildings were the new city of Firuzabad near the old city of Delhi, the
palace-fort known as Kotla Firuz Shah within it, a college and his own tomb near Hauz-i-
Khas.
During his time, a noble at the court, Khan-i-Jahan Jauna Shah constructed the tomb of his
father, Tilangani, the Kali Masjid and the Khirki Masjid in the city of Jahanpanah. A
beautiful building known as Lal-Gumbad was constructed by Nasir-ud-din Muhammad
Tughluq Shah at the grave of Kabir-ud-din Auliya.
Among the buildings constructed by Lodi and Sayyid Sultans, some notables are the tombs of
Mubarak Shah Sayyid, Muhammad Shah Sayyid and Sikandar Lodi and a mosque known as
Moth-ki-Masjid by the prime minister of Sikandar Lodi at Delhi.
Among buildings raised by the Sultans of the Delhi cities, palaces and forts have been
destroyed. Only some tombs, mosques and minars have existed so far. The buildings which
are left, of course, are not marvellous, yet fairly good specimens of early indo-Islamic
architecture in India and the best among them are the Qutb Minar and the Alai Darwaza.
2. Provincial Architecture:
The Muslim rulers in provinces also built up palaces, tombs, forts, mosques, etc. in their
respective kingdoms. Primarily, the provincial styles drew inspiration from the Delhi style of
architecture.
But as the economic resources of provincial rulers were limited, they could not provide that
grandeur to their buildings as was provided by the Sultans of Delhi. Besides, the local
circumstances also influenced the provincial styles and therefore, the architecture of
provinces differed not only from the Imperial style but also from each other.

 Multan:
There are four notable buildings in Multan which were prepared during this period, namely,
the shrine of Shah Yusuf-ul-Gardizi, the mausoleum of Bahlul Haqq, the tomb of Shams-ud-
din and the tomb of Rukn-i-Alam built up by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq. Among them, the tomb
of Rukn-i-Alam has been regarded as the best.

 Bengal:
The Sultans of Bengal adorned their capitals, Pandua and Gaur, with the magnificent
buildings. These had a style of their own distinct from the style which had developed in
Delhi. The materials used were both stones and bricks.
The rulers of Bengal failed to maintain a first-rate style of architecture. Mostly bricks were
used in the buildings raised in Bengal. Among these buildings, prominent ones are the Adina
Masjid built by Sikandar Shah at Pandua, at Eklakhi Mausoleum at Hazarat Pandua, the
Gunamant and the Darasbari mosques at Gaur, the Lotan Masjid and the Bari Sona Masjid at
Gaur, the Sath (Sixty) Gumbad mosque at Bagerhat (Khulna district), the tomb of Rukn Khan
at Debikota, the Qadam Rasul at Gaur built by Nusrat Shah, the Dakhil-Darwaza at Gaur and
the tomb of Jalal-ud-din Muhammad at Pandua.
The principal features of the Bengal style of architecture were the use of pointed arches on
pillars, Hindu decorative designs and adaptation of Hindu architecture to Islamic art. Yet, the
Bengal style of architecture remained inferior to other styles which were adopted in several
other provinces.

 Jaunpur:
The Sharqi Sultans fixed their capital at Jaunpur (in eastern Uttar Pradesh) which they
beautified with magnificent palaces, mosques and mausoleums. Only a few of these mosques
and mausoleums survive now. They show that the Sharqi Sultans did not just copy the Delhi
style of architecture; they created a magnificent style of their own marked by lofty gates and
huge arches.
The rulers of Sharqi dynasty at Jaunpur greatly patronised architecture and some very good
buildings were raised during their rule which possessed certain good features of both the
Hindu and the Islamic architecture. The salient features of the buildings raised here were
square pillars, small galleries and absence of minarets.
Among the buildings which were constructed at Jaunpur when it was under the rule of the
Delhi Sultanate, the fort and the palace of Ibrahim Naib Barbak are the most prominent.
Among the buildings constructed by the Sharqi rulers, are the Atala Masjid completed by
Ibrahim Shah Sharqi, the Jami Masjid built by Husain Shah and the Lal Darwaza mosque
which are good specimens of provincial architecture.

 Malwa:
The rulers of Malwa constructed a large number of buildings, the ruins of which are still
impressive. Unlike the Gujarat style of architecture, the Mandu architecture was massive and
was made to look even more so by using a very lofty plinth for the buildings. The large-scale
use of coloured and glazed tiles provided variety to the buildings. The best known among
them are Jama Masjid, the Hindola Mahal and the Jahaz Mahal.
The buildings constructed in Malwa closely resembled those which were constructed by the
Sultans of Delhi. They are beautiful and have proved lasting as well. The fort of Mandu has
been regarded as a beautiful protected city.
The most notable buildings of Mandu are the Jami Masjid, the Hindola Mahal, the Ashrafi
Mahal, the tower of victory, and the tomb of Sultan Hushang Shah constructed by Sultan
Mahmud Khalji, the Jahaz Mahal and palace of Baz Bahadur and his queen Rupmati.
The notable buildings which were constructed earlier are the Kamal Mahal Masjid, Lal
Masjid, Dilawar Khan Masjid and the tomb of Malik Mugis at Mandu. The buildings in
Malwa have their own distinct style and occupy a respectable place among the architectural
styles of provinces during this period.

 Mewar:
The ruins of Rana Kumbha’s palace and the Victory Tower (Kiriti Stambha) which he built at
Chittor show that he was an enthusiastic builder as well. He dug several lakes and reservoirs
for irrigation purposes. Some of the temples built during his period show that the art of stone-
cutting, sculpture, etc. were still at a high level.

 Gujarat:
Ahmad Shah I, the real founder of the kingdom of Gujarat was a great builder and beautified
the town with many magnificent palaces and bazaars, mosques and madarsas. He drew on the
rich architectural traditions of the Jains of Gujarat to devise a style of building which was
markedly different from Delhi. Some of its features are slender turrets, exquisite stone-
carving and highly ornate brackets.
Gujarat provided the best combination of the Hindu and the Islamic architecture and beautiful
buildings were raised there. Dr Saraswati wiites- “Its unique character may best be
explained as the product as much of a highly specialised local style as of a different kind
of Islamic patronage.” The capital city of Ahmedabad was founded by Sultan Ahmad Shah
and certain beautiful buildings were erected there.
Most notable buildings of Gujarat are the Jami Masjid at Cambay, the mosque of Hilal Khan
Kazi at Dholka, the Jami mosque and tomb of Ahmad Shah at Ahmedabad, the tombs of
Habit Khan and Sayyid Alam, the Tin Darwaza (Triple Gateway), the Rani-Ka-Hujra, the
mosque of Dariya Khan and Alif Khan, the Dholka Masjid and the tomb of Shaikh Ahmad
Khatri six miles away from Ahmedabad. Fergusson described the Jami mosque of
Ahmedabad as ‘one of the most beautiful mosques in the East.’
Besides, Sultan Mahmud Begarha established three new cities and adorned each of them with
many splendid buildings. Sultan Mahmud Begarha founded at the foot of the hill a new town
called Mustafabad. He built many lofty buildings there and asked all his nobles to do the
same. The city of Champaner contains many beautiful buildings and the mosque built up by
Mahmud Begarha has been regarded as the best among them. Fergusson regarded it
‘architecturally the finest in Gujarat.’
Thus, it became the second capital of Gujarat. He constructed a new town called
Muhammadabad near Champaner. He laid out many fine gardens there and made it his
principal place of residence. In Champanagar, the building which attracts attention is the
Jama Masjid. It has a covered courtyard and many Jain principles of architecture have been
used in it. The stone work in the other buildings constructed during this period is so fine that
it can only be compared to the work of goldsmiths.
Certain new features were added to the style of architecture of Gujarat during the rule of
Mahmud Begarha. Among the buildings which were constructed during his reign and
afterwards are the tombs of Mubarak Sayyid and Sayyid Usman and the Qutuba-ul-Alam.
  Kashmir:
Zainul Abidin, the great Sultan of Kashmir, developed agriculture by making large numbers
of dams, canals and bridges. He was an enthusiastic builder, his greatest engineering
achievement being Zaina Lanka — the artificial island in the Woolur Lake on which he built
his palace and a mosque.
There was a harmonious blending of the Hindu and the Muslim architecture in Kashmir. The
most notable buildings constructed here during this period are the tomb of Mandani, the Jami
Masjid at Srinagar and the mosque of Shah Hamadan.

 The Bahamani kingdom:

The rulers of the Bahamani kingdom and, then afterwards, the rulers of different states of the
Deccan in which the Bahamani kingdom was parcelled out, also constructed splendid
buildings within their territories. Their buildings also represent a fair synthesis of the Hindu
and Islamic architecture. Their buildings also represent a fair synthesis of the Hindu and
Islamic architecture. The most notable buildings among them are the mosques at Bidar and
Gulbarga, the tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah, known as the Gol Gumbaz, the Chand Minarat
Daultabad and the college constructed by Mahmud Gawan at Bidar.

 Vijayanagar:
The Vijayanagar Empire which was established in the south later on revived the glory of the
Hindus and beautiful architectural edifices were raised by their rulers within the territory of
their empire but the battle of Talikota doomed their fate and most of buildings and temples of
Vijayanagar were destroyed by the Muslims. However, one among those which were left is
the Vitthala temple which was constructed by Krishnadeva Raya. It is a beautiful temple
about which Fergusson wrote: “the finest building of its kind in southern India.”
In the South, the rulers of Vijayanagar further elaborated the art of constructing gopurams
(gateways of temples). Tall and massive gopurams were constructed at the temples of the
south during this period.

 Others in South:
Different rulers also constructed mandapas over the temples which have been regarded as a
fine specimen of architecture. The Kalyana-mandpa at Vellore has been described by Percy
Brown to be the “The richest and most beautiful structure of its kind”. Similar beautiful
mandapas were constructed in the temples of Varadarajaswami and Ekambaranatha at
Kanchipuram and in the Jamhukeswara temple near Trichinopoly.
3. Hindu Architecture:
In north India particularly in Rajasthan, the Rajput’s could maintain their political existence.
Hence in Rajasthan, the specimens of Hindu architecture are found. Rana Kumbha of Mewar
had constructed the fort of Kumbhal Garh and the Kirti Stambha or the tower of victory in
Chitor. Kirti Stambha has been considered as one of the remarkable tower in the country.
At many places forts and palaces were built by different rulers. Though the forts still exist,
the palaces have perished. Of course, the Vijayanagara Empire which was established in the
South, later on, revived the glory of the Hindus and beautiful architectural edifices were
raised by their rulers within the territory of their empire but the battle of Talikota doomed
their fate and most of the buildings and temples of Vijayanagara were destroyed by the
Muslims.
However, one among those which were left is the Vitthala temple which was constructed by
Krishnadeva Raya. It is a beautiful temple about which Fergusson wrote- “the finest
building of its kind in southern India.” Thus, both the Indian and Islamic art had played
pivotal role in the enrichment of Indian architecture. Rest of the notable buildings constructed
by the Hindus are found only in Rajasthan.
Rana Kumbha of Mewar erected many forts, palaces and other buildings, the best known
among them being the fort of Kumbhalgarh and the Kirti Stambha (tower of victory). Part of
this pillar is built of red sand-stone and part of it is that of marble. It has been regarded as the
most remarkable tower in the country.
There is another beautiful tower at Chittor known as Jain Stambha which is decorated with
beautiful carving and lattice work. Many other forts and palaces were built by the Rajput
rulers at different places. The forts have existed but most of the palaces have perished.
The Hindus, no doubt, learnt something about the art of construction from the Muslims but
kept their architectural style free from their influence. Therefore, their buildings maintained
their separate entity and differed from the buildings of the Muslim rulers.
In the South, the rulers of Vijayanagara further elaborated the art of constructing gopurams
(gateways of temples). Tall and massive gopurams were constructed at the temples of the
South during this period. Different rulers also constructed mandapas over the temples which
have been regarded as fine specimens of architecture.
The Kalyana-mandapa at Vellore has been described by Percy Brown to be “The richest and
most beautiful structure of its kind.” Similar beautiful mandapas were constructed in the
temples of Varadarajasvami and Ekambaranatha at Kanchipuram and in the Jambukesvara
temple near Trichinopoly. Thus, the Hindus also helped in the growth of architecture in their
own way.
The Muslims mostly constructed tombs, minarets, mosques, palaces and forts while the
Hindus mostly constructed temples, forts, palaces, stambhas (pillars), gopurams and
mandapas in the temples. Both participated in the enrichment of Indian architecture.
Besides, though no positive efforts were made for the fusion of the Hindu and the Muslim
architecture, yet the synthesis took place and gave birth to that style of architecture which has
been called the Indo-Islamic architecture in India.