WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Work
It is the product of force and distance moved in the direction of force

Work = force x distance

SI units: Joules

A joule is the work done when force of one Newton moves its point of application through a distance of one metre in the
direction of the force

Other units include: kilo Joules, Mega joules e.t.c.

1 kilo Joule= 1,000joules
1megajoule =1,000,000 joules
Example
1. A body of mass 5 kg is lifted through a distance of 6m .calculate the work done.
Force = mg
= 5 x 10
= 50N.
WD = F X D
= 50X6
= 300J.
2. Calculate the work done when a force of 30N moves through a distance of 9cm.

WD =FXD
= 30 x 0.09
= 2.7J
3. A man climbs a hill 300m high. If his weight is 50kg
Find the work he does to lift his body to the top of the hill
Force =mg = 50 x 10 = 500N
WD = F x d
= 500 x 300
= 150,000J.
4. A constant force of 10N acts on a body and moves it through 200cm. find the work done.

WD= F x d

= 10 x 2
= 20J
ENERGY

Energy is the ability to do work or it is the capacity to do work

S.I unit is joule.

Sources of energy

 The sun or the solar energy

 Chemical energy obtained from food, fuel e.t.c.
 Heat energy obtained from fuel, electric heaters and radiation from the sun.
 Light energy – obtained from conversion of other forms of energy
 Electrical energy – obtained from running water ,dynamos, generators e.t.c
 Nuclear energy- obtained from nuclear reactions
 Mechanical energy- obtained from conversion of other forms of energy.

Therefore main sources of energy are -:

 Food
 Fuel (e.g. coal, gas, paraffin e.t.c)
 Wind
 Sun
 Running water

Mechanical forms of energy

There are two namely;

 Potential energy
 Kinetic energy

KINETIC ENERGY

This is the energy possessed by a body in motion e.g. running water, moving bullet etc.

SI unit; joules

Kinetic energy is given by, KE = mv2 where M is the mass of the body, V is the speed or velocity.

Example;

1. Find the kinetic energy of a body mass 2kg moving with a speed of 4m/s
 KE = mv2

KE = x 2 x 42

KE = 42

KE = 16 J

2. Van persie of mass 60 kg is running at a speed of 10m/s. Find his kinetic energy
KE = mv2
= x 60 x 102
= 30 x 102
= 30 x 100
= 3000J
3. Evra has a mass of 50kg moving with kinetic energy of 3125J. Calculate the speed with which he runs.
KE = mv2
3125 = x 50 v2
=
=
= 11.2m/s

PONTENTIAL ENERGY:

This is the energy possessed by a body due to its position above the ground. It lifts a body to some height above the
ground. Work is done against gravitational force and it is stored in the body as potential energy.

When the body is allowed to fall, its potential energy reduces as it approaches the ground

Potential energy = Work done

= F x d but F = mg and d = h

P.E = mgh

Where g = 10m/s2 and h is the height above the ground.

Example

1. A stone of mass 8kg is lifted through a height of 2 metres. Find the potential energy the stone develops (Take g =
10m/s2)
 P.E = mgh

= 8 x 10 x 2

= 160J

2. A girl of mass 40kg is 15 metres above the ground. Find the potential energy she possesses.

P.E = mgh

= 40 x 10 x 15

= 400 x 15

= 6000J

ENERGY INTERCHANGE

In the gravitational field energy changes from one form to another

The stone has maximum potential energy at position y where it is at rest above the ground

At P, the stone has both potential and kinetic energy and when it hits the ground at X it losses all the potential energy.

This potential energy is converted to kinetic energy which is maximum as it hits the ground

P.E at Y = K.E at X

Mgh = mv2

2mgh = mv2

2gh = v2

V =
Where V is the speed with which the stone lands on the ground

Example;

A stone of mass 1kg falls from rest at height of 120m above the ground

a. Find its potential energy before it begins to fall.

P.E = mgh
= 1 x 10 x120
= 1200J
b. If the stone falls with a velocity of 2m/s, find its Kinetic energy.

KE = mv2

= × 1 x 22

= 2J

C. Find the velocity with which it hits the ground.

Gain in K.E = Loss in P.E

mv2 = mgh

x 1 x v2 = 1 x 10 x 120

V2 = 10 x 120 x 2

V = 48.99m/s

Or Simply V =

V =

V =

V = 48.99m/s
The swinging pendulum demonstrates inter conversion of energy.

At A and C the body has maximum potential energy.

At B the body has the highest speed and therefore maximum kinetic energy and zero potential energy because the height
h = 0.

Along AB and BC the body possesses both potential and kinetic energy.

PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another

Questions

a. Explain why a swinging pendulum eventually stops after sometime?

Due to the opposing air resistance
b. (i) Describe the energy changes that occur at an instant the stone is released from a height h to the ground.

(ii)Given that the height in b(i) was 20m. Calculate the speed with which the stone hits the ground.

Answer;

b.(i) At the height, the stone maximum P.E, as it falls, it gains K.E and loses P.E.

On reaching the ground it attains maximum K.E and zero P.E. Sound and heat energy are given out

b. (ii) Gain K.E = Loss in P.E, mv2 = mgh

V2 = 2gh = 2 x10 x 20
 V = 20m/s

POWER:

This is the rate of doing work i.e.

Power =

Si unit of power is a watt

Other units: Kilo watt (kw)

Mega watt (Mw)

Note; 1 kw = 1000w

1Mw = 1000,000w

1kw = Mw

Definition of a watt

A watt –is the power developed when one joule of work is done in one second

I.e. 1W = 1J/s.

Examples

1. Boy climbs some stairs. Each step raises 20cm and there are 10 steps, if the boy has a mass of 50kg
a) How much work does he do in climbing the stairs
b) Calculate the power developed if he took 10 seconds in climbing.

Force = mg
= 50 x10
= 500N
W =FxD
= 500 X 2 = 1000J
Power = = = 100W
2. A machine lifts a load of 2500N through a vertical height of 3m in 1.5s. Find
i) the power developed by a machine
W = F X D = 2500 x 3 = 7500J.
P=
= = 5000W.

ii) using the same power how long would it take to lift 6000N through a vertical height of 5m

W = d x F = 5 x 6000 = 30000
 P=

5000 =30000/t, Time t= 6 seconds

Questions

1. A force of 500N displaced a mass of 20kg through a distance of 4m in 5 seconds, find:

(i) the work done (ii) power developed

2. A pump is rated 400w. How many kilograms of water can it raise in one hour through a height of 72m?

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

This deals with materials used in construction of structures like bridges, dams, tanks, motor vehicles, screw drivers etc.

Materials used in common are;

- Timber - Rubber
- Metals - Concrete
- Glass - Bricks
- Plastics

Before materials are put to use, it is necessary to determine whether they will withstand the condition of finished
structure and tools which they will be subjected to

These conditions are known as by tests called Mechanical properties

Some mechanical properties include:

- Strength - Elasticity
- Stiffness - Plasticity
- Ductility - Hardness
- Brittleness

Strength;

It is the property of material that makes it require a large force to break. The material which has this property is said to
strong e.g concrete, metals etc.

Stiffness;

It is the property of material that makes it resist being bent. Materials with this property are said to be stiff e.g steel, iron
and concrete.
Ductility;

It is a property of materials that makes it possible to be molded in different shapes and sizes or rolled into sheets, wires
or useful shapes without breaking. Materials which have this property are called ductile materials e.g. Copper wire, Soft
iron wire etc.

Brittleness;

This is the ability of a material to break suddenly when force is applied on it. Materials which have this property are called
brittle materials e.g. bricks, chalks, glass, charcoal etc.

Elasticity;

This is property that makes material stretch when force is applied on it and regains original size and shape when the force
is removed. Materials with this property are called elastic materials e.g rubber, copper spring etc.

Plasticity;

This is the property which makes materials stretched (deformed) permanently even when the applied force is removed
materials which have this property are called plastic materials e.g. plasticine, clay, putty or tar etc.

Hardness;

This is a measure of how difficult it is to scratch a surface of a material. Hard materials include; metals, stones etc.

Timber as a building material;

It is used for making furniture, walls, bodies of vehicles, bridges, making ceilings etc.

Advantages Disadvantages
It is cheap Can get rotten
It is durable when seasoned and treated Not fire resistant
They are easier to work with Needs treating and seasoning

Mechanical properties;

It is strong, stiff and somehow hard.

Bricks and blocks as building materials.

These are stony materials.

Uses; For construction of bridges, walls, floors etc.

Mechanical properties;
 - It is hard
- It is strong under compression
- It is stiff.

Advantages;-They are cheap, durable, and easy to work with.

Disadvantages;-They are brittle

- They need firing, and it turn out to be expensive.

- Not suitable under wet conditions i.e can soften and weaken.

Glass as a building material;

Glass is used as a building material because it has a number of desirable properties which include;

- It is transparent
- Few chemicals react with it
- It can be melted and formed into various shapes
- Its surface is hard and difficult to scratch
- It can be re-enforced (strengthened)

Construction materials;

These include concrete, bricks, glass, timber, iron bars, iron sheets etc.

Concrete;

A concrete is a mixture of cement, sand and gravels (small stones) and water.

Concrete is strong under compression but weak under tension. It can with stand tensional forces when it is re-in forced.

Re- in forced concrete;

- Pour wet concrete on steel rods when it dries; it gets stuck on the rods which is strong under tension.
This forms a re-in forced concrete.
- It can also be re-in forced by putting fibre in concrete when it is wet and leave it to harden.

Other re-in forcing materials include;

- Bamboo stripes
- Wood stands
- Metal rods and wire mesh.

Advantages of re-in forcing concrete;

- It is weather resistant
- It does not need firing and it is fire safety.
- It is ductile when still wet
 - It is durable
- It has a high tensile strength
- It is stiff or tough

Advantages of concrete over bricks;

- Concrete can be molded in various shapes

- Concrete does not need firing
- Concrete is weather resistant
- Concrete can have a range of properties depending on the proportion of the mixture.
- Concrete can used to fill holes of different shapes.

BEAMS:

A beam is along piece of materials e.g. wood, metal, concrete etc. It is usually horizontal and supported at both ends. It
carries the weight of the part of the building or other structures.

When a force is applied on a beam it bends on one side of the beam in compressed (under compression), the other side is
stretched (under tension) and its centre is unstretched (neutral).

AB – Under compression

DC – Under tension

EF – Unstretched i.e. it neither under tension nor compression.

The neutral axis of beam does not resist any forces and can therefore be removed without weakening the stretch of the
beam.

GIRDERS

A girder is a beam in which the material’s neutral axis can be removed.

Examples of Girders;

(i) I – Shape girders

 This I – shaped girder is used in construction of large structures like bridges.

(ii) Hollow tube/girder (hollow cylinder)

(iii) Square beam/girder

(iv) Triangular beam/girder

(v) L – Shaped girder.

Advantages of hollow beams

- It is light
- Economically cheap
- It is strong than solid beam.
Disadvantages of solid beams

 They are heavier

 They are economically expensive
 They are weak

Disadvantages of a material used in the neutral axis:

 It is a wastage and un necessary

NOTCH AND NOTCH EFFECTS

A notch is a cut on a weak point on a material. It is either a crack or scratch on the surface of the material.

A notch weakens the strength of a material when it is the region of tension than when it is under compression

In ‘A’ the beam breaks easily when the car crosses the bridge because the notch is in the region of tension and therefore
weakens the beam.

In ‘B’ the beam does not break easily when the car crosses.

Notch effect: This is the effect that the notch has on the strength of the material i.e. the notch weakens the strength of
the material.
WAYS OF REDUCING NOTCH EFFECTS

- Designing the structures in such way that all its parts are under compression.
- Making the surface of the construction material smooth.
- Use of laminated rather solid materials in construction.
- Making the notch blunt.

Structures;

A structure consists of pieces of materials joined together in a particular way. The pieces of materials used to strengthen
structures are called girders.

Examples of structures;

-Both the upper and lower parts of the bridge are under compression. The bridge is weak under tension

(iii) Girder Bridge;

STRUTS AND TIES:

Tie: A tie is a girder under tension and can be replaced by a string.

Strut:

A strut is a girder under compression

HOW TO IDENTIFY SHUTS AND TIES IN A STRUCTURE

- Remove each of the girder one at a time from the structure of the frame work and the effect it causes on
the frame work is noted.
- If the frame work moves further apart the girder is a tie otherwise the girder is a strut

Experiment to distinguish between a tie and a strut

- Two straws are fixed on the side of a piece of soft board.

- A small load is added at the end B. The structure supports the load.
- The straw AB is now replaced by the string of the same length.
- If the structure still supports the load, then AB is under tension hence it is a tie.
- Similarly straw AB is then replaced with the string of the same length. If the structure does not support
the load and it collapses then AB was under compression and it is a strut.

Example;

In the frame work below, identify the struts and ties.

(a)
 T – Tie P – Strut S- Strut

Q – Strut L – Tie R- Strut

(b)

(C)
HOOKE’S LAW OF ELASTICITY

It states that the extension of an elastic material is directly proportional to the applied force provided the elastic limit is
not exceeded

I.e. applied force F α e where e-extension or

F=k e k- Elastic constant of material and F- Applied force.

Example

1. An elastic wire of length 10cm has force applied on it of 3N. If its

a) Extension e.
b) Elastic constant k.

Extension e = l - l0 =12 -10 = 2cm = 0.02m

Using F =K e
3= k x 0.02
K =150Nm-1

2. A spring extends by 0.5 cm when a load of 0.4N hangs on it.

a) Find the load required to cause an extension of 1.5cm.
b) What additional load causes the extension of 1.5cm?

Method 1

Using F =K e
0.4 = k x0.5
K = =0.8N/cm
F2 =ke2 = 0.8 x 1.5 = 1.2N.

Method 2

== =

F2 = = 1.2N

Additional load required = (1.2 – 0.4) = 0.8N

Exercise;

1. A spring has an un stretched length of 12 cm. When a force of 8N is attached to its length becomes 6cm.
 a. Extension produced
b. The constant of the spring
c. Extension which will be produced by a force of 12N

Experiment to verify (prove) Hooke’s law

A spring is suspended next to the metre rule with a pointer at the bottom end used to obtain a reading on a scale as
shown below

- The initial position X0 on the pointer is read and recorded

- Uniformly load the spring by adding standard masses on the mass hanger
- The new position X of the pointer whenever the spring is loaded is recorded
- The extension for each load added is recorded from
e = X – X0.
- A graph of load against extension is plotted as shown
A straight line passing through the origin verified hook’s law.

A graph load against extension for a ductile wire

Points;

P- Proportional limit

E- Elastic limit

Y- Yield point

B- Breaking point.

Lines/ regions

OP – Region where hook’s law is obeyed or region of proportionality, the materials under goes elastic deformation.

OS – materials undergoes permanent extension.

SY – Material undergoes plastic deformation.

Definitions;

Elastic deformation;

This is the deformation which occurs before the elastic limit. The wire regains its shape and size after deformation.
Energy is stored as potential energy.

Plastic deformation;
This occurs after the elastic limit. The wire fails to recover its original shape and size fully. Permanent extension is made
and part of the energy is stored as elastic potential energy and the rest is converted into heat in the wire as it stretches.
The wire recovers along YS and not OE.

STRESS, STRAIN AND YOUNG’S MODULUS

Consider a force F acting on a material e.g. a wire of length l and cross section area A so that it extends by length e.

Stress for the wire is defined as the ratio of applied force on a material to its cross section area

i.e. Stress =

SI unit: N/m2

Strain is a ratio of extension of a material to its original length

i.e. Strain or Strain =

Strain has no units.

Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to strain

Y=

SI unit = N/m2

Young’s modulus is determined when the elastic limit is not exceeded and its value is constant

Example;

1. A force of 20N acting on a wire of cross sectional area 10cm2 = makes its length to increase from 3m to 5m. Find
stress?

a) Stress = = = 2Nm-2

b)

2. A copper wire of length 10cm is subjected to a force of 2N if the cross section area is 5cm2 and a force causes an
extension of 0.2cm

Calculate;

(i) Tensile stress

 (ii)

(iii) Young’s modulus

Questions

1. A mass of 200kg is placed at the end of the wire 15cm long and cross sectional 0.2cm2 if the mass causes an
extension of 1.5cm

Calculate.

i. Tensile stress
ii. Tensile stress.

2. A mass of 200g is placed at the end of a wire 15cm long are cross sectional area 0.2m .if the mass causes an
extension of 1.5 calculate
(i) Tensile stress
(ii) Tensile strain
(iii) Young modulus

PRESSURE

Pressure is defined as force acting normally per unit area

SI unit is Nm-2 or Newton per square metre or Pascal

Note:

Other units: Kilo Pascal (kpa) or Kilo Newton per metre squared

Note:

The pressure increases when the surface area is decreased. This can be demonstrated using a needle and a nail as shown
When the same force is applied at the top of the needle and nail, one tends to feel more pain from the needle than the
nail.

This is because surface area of the bottom of the needle is smaller therefore the pressure is high

The increase in pressure when the surface area is decreased explains why a tractor can easily move in a muddy area than
the bicycle.

Example;

1. A car piston exerts a force of 200N on a cross sectional area of 40cm2. Find the pressure exerted by the piston

2. The pressure exerted on foot pedal of cross sectional area 5cm2 is 200Nm-2.Calculate the force.

= =

Minimum and maximum pressure;

Pressure is minimum when area is maximum and on the other hand, pressure is maximum when area is minimum

i.e

Example;

1. A box measures 5m by 1m by 2m and has weight of 60N while resting on the surface. What is the minimum
pressure?

2. A box of dimensions of 6m x 2m x 4m exerts its weight of 400N on the floor. Determine its
a) Maximum pressure
b) Minimum pressure
c) Density
a) Maximum pressure;

b) Minimum pressure;

c) Density;

PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

Consider a column of liquid to a height h above the base in a cylinder as shown below;

The pressure on the surface of the base of cross sectional area A is due to weight W of the liquid above it

W = mass of the liquid x g

W= density of liquid x volume of the liquid x g

W = density x (areax height ) x g

W= 𝜌 x A x h x g = F
𝐹
From P =
𝐴

𝜌xAxhxg
P= 𝐴

P= 𝜌 x h x g = h 𝜌 g
It follows that pressure is the same in all directions and depends on;

(i) Depth (h) of the liquid

(ii) Density (ρ) of the liquid

Examples

1. The density of liquid X is 800kgm-3. It was poured in a container to a depth of 400cm. Calculate the pressure it exerts
at the bottom of the container

2.

The tank contains mercury and water. The density of mercury is 13600kgm-3 and that of water is 1000kgm-3. Find the total
pressure exerted at the bottom.

3. A cylindrical vessel of cross section area 50cm2 contains mercury to a depth of 2 cm. calculate

i) The pressure that mercury exerts on the vessel

ii) The weight of water in the vessel (density of mercury =13600kgm-3)

Experiment to show that pressure in liquids increases with increase in depth (h)

Three equally sized holes A, B and C are made on a tall can at different depths h1, h2 and h3 as shown in the figure above

The holes are blocked with cork and the can is filled with water

The holes are unblocked and the sizes of water jets noted

Observation;

The speed with which water spurts out is greatest for the lowest jet, showing that pressure increases with depth.

NB: pressure does not depend on shape and cross sectional area of the container. This can be illustrated using
communication tube.

Experiment to show that pressure is independent of cross section area and shape of container

The liquid is allowed into the tubes A, B and C as shown above

The liquid reaches the same height h in all the tubes.

Since the tubes are of different cross sectional area and shape. It follow that pressure does not depend on shape and
cross sectional area

PRINCIPAL OF TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

(Pascal’s principal or Law of liquid pressure)

The principal states that “pressure at a point in a liquid is equally transmitted throughout the liquid. The principal
assumes that the liquid is incompressible

Experiment to verify the principal of transmission of pressure in liquids

A spherical container is pinched at different points around it

The piston is moved in such way that it pushes “B” to compress the liquid

The pressure caused is transmitted equally throughout the liquid. This can be observed by having all holes pouring out
the liquid at the same rate when the piston is pushed in, hence pressure in liquid is equally transmitted.

Summary;

Experiment above show that pressure in liquids;

1. Depends on depth and density

2. Equally transmitted throughout the liquids
3. Is independent of shape or cross sectional area of the container in which the liquid is placed.

Application of the Pascal’s principle:

Some machines where the Pascal’s principle is used include;

1. Hydraulic car brakes

2. Hydraulic press
3. Hydraulic lifts.
THE HYDRAULIC CAR BRAKE SYSTEM

Mode of action:

- When a foot is applied on a foot pedal, the piston in the master cylinder exerts a force on the brake fluid
(special fluid)
- The resulting pressure is transmitted to the wheel cylinder of each wheel
- The force caused then moves the wheel piston which push against the break pad, making them squeezed
against the car wheel, hence the wheel stops rotating and the car stops.

HYDRAULIC PRESS;

A hydraulic press consists of two connected cylinders of different bores, filled with water or any other incompressible
liquid and fitted with piston shown in the figure below

- When the force F is exerted on the liquid via piston A, the pressure produced is transmitted equally
through out to piston B, which supports a load W
 - The force created at B raises the load squeezing a hard substance

Example;

1. The cross sectional area of the piston A = 2m2 and the force applied at piston A is 10N. Calculate the force on B, given
the cross section area as 150m2

2. Calculate the weight B, lifted by the piston of area 48cm2 with a force of 20N whose piston area is 400cm2 as shown
below;

Pressure at B = pressure at A

=
= 5000 Nm-2
Weight W =pressure at B x piston area B
=5000 x0.048
= 240N

Questions

1. Calculate the weight W raised by a force of 56N applied on a small piston area of 14m2. Take the area of the large
piston to be 42m2

2. A force of 32N applied on a piston of area 8cm2 is used to lift a load W acting on large area of 640cm2. Determine the
value of W
Hydraulic lift

This is commonly used in garages; it lifts cars so that repairs and service on them can be done easily underneath the car

A force applied to the small piston, raises the large piston, which lifts the car. One valve allows the liquid to pass from the
small cylinder to the wider one. A second valve allows more liquid (usually oil) to pass from oil reservoir on the left to the
small cylinder. When one valve is open, the other must be shut

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:

The earth is surrounded by a sea of air called atmosphere. Air has weight therefore it exerts pressure at the surface of the
earth. The pressure this air exerts on the earth’s surface is called atmospheric pressure.

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air on all objects on earth’s surface

The higher you go the less dense the atmosphere and therefore atmospheric pressure decrease at high altitude and
increase at low altitude

The value of atmospheric pressure is about 101325N/m.

Experiment to demonstrate the existence of atmospheric pressure;

a. Crushing can experiment or collapsing can experiment;

- A metal can with its tight stopper removed, is heated until the small quantity of water in boils.
 - When the steam has driven out all the air, the cork is tightly replaced and the heat removed at the same
time.
- Cold water is poured over the can. This causes the steam inside to condense reducing air pressure inside
the can
- The can collapses in wards. This is because the excess atmospheric pressure outweighs the reduced
pressure inside the can.

b. The Magdeburg’s hemisphere

The hemisphere is made of two hollow bronze with a stop cork on one side. The rims are placed together with grease
tightening between them to form an air tight joint. The air is pumped out and the stop cork closed. It becomes
impossible for even eight horses to separate them. When air is re admitted in the sphere they are easily separable. This
indicates the existence of atmospheric pressure.

MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:

Atmospheric pressure is measured using an instrument called Barometer.

Types of barometers Units of pressure

1. Simple barometer Nm-2

2. Fortin barometer Pa
3. Aneroid barometer atmospheres

Simple barometer
A simple barometer is made by completely filling a thick walled glass tube of uniform bore about 1m long with mercury

The tube is tapped from the open side and inverted several times to expel any air bubbles trapped in mercury

It is inverted over a dish containing mercury as shown in the diagram.

The mercury level falls leaving a column “h” of about 76 cm

The height “h” gives the atmospheric pressure 76cmHg.The empty space created above the mercury in the tube vacuum
called Torricellian vacuum

NB; The vertical height of the mercury will remain constant if the tube is lifted as in (2) provided the top of the tube is not
less than 76cm above the level of mercury in the dish.

If it is lifted so that “h” is less than 76cm.The mercury completely fills the tube. This shows that vacuum was a trice
vacuum and a column of mercury is supported by atmospheric pressure

Generally, Atmospheric pressure = Barometer height x Density of liquid x gravity

Example; 1. Determine the atmospheric pressure (i) in cmHg and in (ii) Pascal’s (Nm-2) using the following barometer.

(a)
 (i) Height = 600mm p = 60cmHg
(ii) P = hpg
= 600mm x 13600 x 10
= x 13600 x 10
81600pa or 81600Nm-2

(b)

(c)
2. Express (i) 76cm Hg in Nm-2 (density = 13600kgm-2)

P= hpg

= x 13600 x 10 = 103360 Pascals

(ii) 540mmHg in pa

P = hpg = x 13600 x 10 = 73440N/m2

3. The column of mercury supported by the atmospheric pressure is 76cm. Find column of water that the atmospheric
pressure will support in the same place. Comment on your answer.

P = hpg = x 13600 x 10

= 103360 Nm-2

In the same place atmosphere pressure is the same as using water;

P = hpg

103360 = h x 1000 x 10

h = 103360/ 1000 X 10

h= 1034m

The answer to the question above, explains why water is not used in a barometer because the column will be too long.

Applications of Atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure may be made useful in

a. Rubber suckers
b. Bicycle pump
c. Lift pump
d. Force pump
e. Siphon
f. Water supply system
g. Drinking straw

Rubber Sucker
This is circular hollow rubber cap before it is put to use it is moisturized to get a good air seal and firmly pressed against a
small flat surface so that air inside in pushed out then atmospheric pressure will hold it firmly against surface as shown
below

Uses of rubber sucker;

-Fitting sheets against walls

-It is used printing machines for lifting papers to be fed into the printer

Drinking straw;

-When drinking using a straw some of the air in the straw goes into the lungs once sucked.

-This leaves space in the straw partially evacuated and atmospheric pressure pushing down the liquid becomes greater
than the pressure of the air in the straw

The siphon;

This is used to take the liquid out of vessels (eg. Aquarium, petrol tank)
How a siphon works

The pressure at A and D is atmospheric, therefore the pressure at E is atmospheric pressure plus pressure due to the
column of water DE. Hence, the water at E can push its way out against atmospheric pressure

NB: To start the siphon it must be full of liquid and end A must be below the liquid level in the tank.
Applications of siphon principle
1. Automatic flushing tank: This uses siphon principle.
Water drips slowly from a tap into the tank. The water therefore rises up the tube until it reaches and fills the bend
In the pipe, the siphon action starts and the tank empties (the water level falls to the end of the tube).The action is
then repeated again and again.

2. Flushing tank of water closet: This also uses the siphon principle.
When the chain or handle is pulled, water is raised to fill the bend in the tube as shown below:
 The siphon action at once starts and the tank empties.

Lift pump or common pump;

Pumps are used to raise water from walls. They consist of cylindrical metal barrel with side tubes near the top to act as
spouts.

Down stroke;

When the plunger moves down wards valve B closes due to force of gravity on it and weight of water above it.

At the same time water inside the barrel passes upwards through A into the space above the plunger.

The upstroke;

- Valve A closes due to the force of gravity on it and weight of water above it.
- As the plunger rises water is pushed up the pipe through valve B by atmospheric pressure on the surface of the water
in the well.
- At the same time, the water above it is raised and flows out at the spout.

Force pump;
A force pump is used to raise water from a deep well or reservoir to a storage tank.

It is first pumped to make it air tight.

On the upstroke, valve A closes and atmospheric pressure forces the water up the barrel through valve B.

On the down stroke valve B closes, water is forced into the reservoir through valve A and also out of the spout D.

The air in the spout is compressed and on the next up stroke, it expands so keeping the supply of water at B.

BICYCLE PUMP;

Principle and action of a pump

-The air in the pump barrel is compressed.

-The high pressure of the air in barrel presses the leather washer against the inside of the barrel closing the pump valve.

-When the pressure of compressed air becomes greater than that of air already in the tyre, air is forced past the tyre
valve into the tyre.
When the handle is pulled out, the pressure of the air in the barrel is reduced.

The high pressure of air in the tyre closes the tyre valve preventing the air escaping.

The atmospheric pressure being greater than the reduced pressure in the barrel, forces the air past the leather washer
opening the valve refilling the barrel with air.

Water supply system:

Water supply in towns often comes from a reservoir on a high groundwater flows from it through a pipe to any tap or
storage tank that is below the water reservoir.

In very tall building it may be necessary to first pump water to a large tank on a roof. Reservoirs of water supply in hydro
electric power stations are often made in mountainous areas.

The dam must be thicker at the bottom than at the top to with stand large water pressure at the bottom.

Atmospheric pressure is 760mmHg.When you move on the top of the mountain, the pressure reduces to about
600mmHg.This shows that pressure reduces with increase in altitude.

Measurement of fluid pressure:

a. Bourdon gauge
This gauge measures the very high pressures of liquids or gases, e.g. the pressure of steam in boilers. It is a
hollow curved tube of springy metal closed at one end. The tube straightens slightly when pressure acts on the
inside.
The closed end of the tube is joined to a series of levers and gear wheels which magnify the slight movement.
A pointer moving over a scale (usually graduated in 105 Pa, which is about 1 atmosphere pressure) records the
pressure. The recorded pressure is the excess pressure of liquid or gas over atmospheric pressure, but some
gauges can record the actual pressure.
Bourdon gauges are commonly used at fueling stations.

b. Manometer;

It is a U – shaped tube containing mercury

Action;

One limb is connected to the gas or air cylinder whose pressure P is required.

Second limb is left open to the atmosphere

Using a metre rule, pressure P of the gas is calculated as

 Pressure at B = Pressure at C

= H + h (when B is above A)

= H – h (when B is below A)

Example;

1 .Find the gas pressure given atmospheric pressure H = 76cmHg

(i) In cmHg
(ii) In Nm-2

Solution

1. (i) Gas pressure P = H + h = 76 + 20 = 96 cmHg

(ii) P = hpg = x 13600 x 10 = 130560 Nm-2

2. Express a pressure of 75cmHg into Nm-2

P = hpg = x 13600 x 10 = 102000Nm-2
3. A man blows in one end of a water U – tube manometer until the level differ by 40.0cm.If the atmospheric
pressure is 1.0x 105 N/m2 and density of water is 1000kgm-3.calculate his lung pressure.

Pressure of air = H + hpg

= 1.01 x 105 + x 1000 x 10 = 105,000Nm-2

Therefore lung pressure = 105,000Nm-2

4. The manometer contains water, when the tap is opened; the difference in the level of water is 54.4cm. The height of
mercury column in the barometer was recorded at 76cm.What is the pressure in cmHg at points A, B, and C.

Pressure at A = pressure B

=H+h

Pressure using mercury = pressure of water

h1 p1 g1 = h2 p2 g2

h x 13600 x 10 = 54.4 x 1000 x 10

h = 4 cm

Therefore at B, P =H+4

P = 4 +76 = 80cmHg

5. The difference in pressure at the peak of the mountain and the foot of the mountain is Given that the density of air is
1.3kgm-3, calculate the height of the mountain.

Difference of P = hpg → 5.0 x 104 = h x 1.3 x 10

h = 3846.15m or 3.85km

Comparison of densities of liquids using Hare’s apparatus

 Liquids of different densities are placed in glass pots as shown above.

When the gas tap is opened each liquid rises to different height h1 and h2.Since they are subjected to the same gas
supply,

Pressure on liquid 1 = pressure on liquid 2

h1 p1 g = h2 p2 g

h1 p1 = h2 p2

Example;

1.

Water and kerosene are placed in U-tube containing mercury as shown above.
Determine the density of kerosene

Pressure of kerosene = Pressure of water (since both tube are open to the atmosphere)

hx ρx g = hw ρw g

hx ρx = hw pw ρx = =

2. The level of the mercury in arms of the manometer shown below is equal. Determine

(i) Density kerosene

(ii) Relative density of kerosene

h1 ρ1 g = h2 ρ2 g

24 x 1000 = 30 x ρ2

Density ρ = 800kgm-3

Relative density of kerosene

R.d =

= 0.8
STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight. It exists in different forms/states of small items called atoms.

The three states are

- Solids
- Liquids
- Gas

According to kinetic theory, matter is made up of small particles known as molecules which are in a state of continuous
random motion. The speed of molecules is increased by increase in temperature.

FORCE BETWEEN MOLECULES

Cohesion /Cohesive force;

This is the force of attraction between molecules of the same substance e.g. water- water molecules, mercury – mercury
molecules

Adhesion/Adhesive force;

This is the force of attraction between the molecules of different substances e.g. water – glass molecules.

STATES OF MATTER

Solids;

The molecules are closely packed together, their particles are not free to move from place to another but can vibrate
along their mean positions i.e. move to and fro about their mean positions. This is because their cohesive forces between
molecules are strong. Molecules in solids are arranged in a regular pattern called lattice. They have shape and size.

Liquids;

The molecules in liquids are slightly further apart than in solids. Particles are free to move about colliding with each
other and with the walls of the container. The cohesive force holding the molecules are weaker than in solids.

They have no definite shape but take up shape of the container.

Gases;

In gases the molecules are much further apart and free compared to those in liquids and so free that they are in constant
random motion moving with high speed as they collide with one another and with the walls of a container. The cohesive
force is much weaker in gas and can spread easily to occupy the whole volume of a container. Gases lack definite shape
and size.

Model illustrating the states matter

Diffusion;

It is the movement of molecules of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.

Demonstration of Diffusion in Gases;

Two Gas jars one full of nitrogen dioxide and the other gas full of air as shown in (a) above.

When the gas cover is removed as shown in (b) the gases mix up and the whole become filled with the brown gas
(Nitrogen dioxide)

NB: The lighter gas diffuses faster than the heavier gas.

Demonstration of diffusion in liquids:

- Half fill a glass beaker with water
- Using a funnel with a long tube reaching the bottom, slowly pour saturated copper (II) sulphate solution down the tube
to form a separate layer.
- Carefully remove the funnel so that the liquids are mixed.
- After some time, the blue colour spreads throughout the beaker. This is due to diffusion of liquid molecules.

Note: The rate of diffusion increases when temperature is increased.

Behavior of liquids on the surface;

When water is dropped on a glass surface it wets it and spreads out in a thin surface because adhesive force between
the water molecules and glass is greater than the cohesive force between water molecules.

When mercury is dropped on a glass surface it forms spherical droplets or large flatten drop because cohesive forces
between mercury molecules is greater than adhesive forces between mercury and glass.

SURFACE TENSION
This is the effect of force on the surface of a liquid which makes it behave like a stretched elastic skin.

Or it is a tangential force on surface of a liquid acting perpendicularly per unit length across any line on the surface.

Effects of surface tension;

Because of surface tension,

1. Steel needle when carefully placed on top of water floats, despite its greater density.
2. Some birds and insects can walk on the surface of water.
3. Some drops of water from the top are in form of a spherical shape.
4. Soap film inside the cotton loop when broken makes or forms a circle as shown below

Make a ring of thin wire. Tie a thread loosely across the middle as shown in (i). Dip the ring in soap solution or liquid
detergent so that a film forms across it. Break the film on one side of the thread. The thread pulls tight, forming a circle as
shown in (ii).This because surface tension stretches molecules on the liquid surface farther apart than normal.

Explanation on surface tension:

Surface tension is due to molecules on liquid surface being slightly further apart like those in a stretched wire. Therefore
experience attractive forces from their neighbors in liquid surface. The forces stretch the molecules on the surface,
making it behave like a stretched elastic skin.

Reduction of surface tension;

Surface tension can be reduced by;

1. Increasing the temperature of the liquids

2. Addition of detergents or soap solution.

Experiment to demonstrate surface tension

- Some water is poured in a clean trough

- It is then left to settle and a filter paper (blotting paper) is placed on the water surface.
- A pin smeared with Vaseline is carefully placed on top of the filter paper as shown below.
After sometime, the filter paper will absorb water and sink while the pin will remain floating on the water surface.

CAPILARITY/CAPILARY ACTION:

This is the rise or depression of a liquid in a capillary tube.

The rise of water in a capillary tube is because the cohesive force between the water molecules is less than the adhesive
force between molecules of glass and water. It is also for this reason that water spreads over glass surface

When similar capillary tubes are dipped in mercury, each surface is depressed below the outside level of the beaker and
the surface curves down wards as shown below.
 Mercury is depressed more in narrow tube than in a large one. This is because cohesive forces between molecules of
mercury are greater than adhesive forces between molecules of mercury and glass. It is also for this reason that mercury
does not wet glass but forms droplets on glass as shown.

Application of capillarity;

1. The rise of oil in a lamp wick

2. Absorption of water in a towel.
3. The rise of water and mineral salts in plants
4. Action of a blotting paper

Disadvantages of capillarity;

House bricks and concrete are porous. Capillary action is likely to draw water upwards from the ground through them,
making the building dump (wet).This problem is overcome by putting water proof layer made from plastic that is placed
in the layers of bricks at the bottom of the house.

BROWNIAN MOTION

It is the random movement of the molecules of a substance in a gaseous state.

When smoke particles are suspended in air and observed through a microscope. They seem to be in a state of
continuous random motion.
The smoke particles are seen as bright specks moving in continuous random motion. The bright specks are due to
collision between smoke particles and gas molecules.

The random motion is due to smoke particles colliding with air molecules which were moving randomly.

When the temperature of the glass cell is increased the random motion increases (smoke particles are seen to move
faster), showing that increase in temperature increase the kinetic energy of molecules.

OIL DROP EXPERIMENT

Estimation of the size of an oil molecule

- A trough is cleaned thoroughly and clean water poured on it

- Lycopodium powder is sprinkled on the water surface
- Using a burette a drop of oil of known volume V is allowed to gently fall on the surface of water
- The experiment is left standing for some time
- The oil spreads forming a circular film

The
diameter “d” of the patch is measured using a millimeter scale. Several experiments are performed using fresh water and
the average diameter “d” of the patch is determined.

Since the patch is cylindrical, the volume of the patch is;

 V = πr2h (where h is the thickness of the oil drop)

= π()2h

V = πh

4V = πd2h

Therefore the thickness of oil drop

h=

Assumptions made in the experiment;

- The oil spreads to form a film of one molecule thick.

- The oil patch is cylindrical in shape.
- There are no air spaces between the molecules.
- The oil drop is spherical in shape.
- The volume of the oil drop is equal to the volume of oil patch.

Example;

1. In an oil drop experiment the radius of the oil was found to be 10cm and the volume of the used oil was 1.1 x 10-
5
cm3. Calculate;

(i) The diameter of the film

(ii) The thickness of the patch
(iii) The size of the molecule

Answer

Diameter of the patch d = 2r= 2 x 10 = 20cm

Thickness of the patch h =

Or Thickness h =

= 3.5 x 10-8cm

The size of the drop = thickness of the patch

= 3.5 x 10-8cm

Note: Thickness h =

i.e. h =

2. A student made an oleic acid oil of volume 0.005cm3 to make an oil film on the surface of water. The average
diameter of the oil film was found to be 10cm. Find the thickness of the oil film.
 Thickness h =

=6.37x10-5m

3. Noah, picked an oleic acid oil drop of diameter 0.5mm using a wire and allowed it to drop on a water surface
containing lycopodium powder. The circular patch had an average diameter of 200mm.Find the thickness of oil film.

Diameter = 0.5mm

Volume of spherical drop V =r3

= (0.25)3

= 0.0208mm3

Volume of the patch = volume of spherical drop

r2h = 0.0208

(100)2h = 0.0208

h =2.08 x 10-6cm

4. If 1.8 x 10-4cm3 of oil spreads to form a patch of area 150cm2. Calculate the thicknesses of the oil patch.

Thickness h = =

= 1.2 x 10-6cm

CHANGE OF STATE

1. Melting
It is a process by which a solid substance changes into a liquid e.g. ice (solid) changes to water (liquid) when heated.
Temperature at which solid substance changes to liquid is called melting point.

NB: There is no change in temperature of substance at its melting point. This is because the heat supplied is used to
weaken cohesive forces of attraction between molecules.

2. Boiling

This is the process by which a liquid when heated changes to the gaseous state at a fixed temperature e.g. pure water at
1000c changes to vapour by the process of boiling.

There is no change in temperature at boiling point because the heat supplied is used to weaken cohesive forces of
attraction of molecules and the rest is converted to kinetic form of energy.

3. Evaporation;

It is the process by which a liquid changes to gaseous state at any temperature. The rate of evaporation is affected by the
following factors;

1. Temperature
 2. Amount of humidity in the atmosphere
3. Pressure
4. Surface area
5. Nature of the liquid
6. Wind and dryness of air

Temperature;

The higher the temperature, the higher the average speed at which molecules move and therefore there will be more
molecules moving to the liquid surface.

Pressure;

Increase in pressure lowers the rate of evaporation.

Surface area;

When the surface area of a liquid is increased, more molecules are brought to the surface and the rate of evaporation is
increased.

Nature of the liquid

Different liquids have different cohesive forces, those which have greater cohesive forces tend to evaporate less than
liquids with less cohesive forces.

Wind and dryness of air

Dryness of air around the liquid surface causes rapid evaporation. Wind blows away water vapor along the body and this
causes rapid evaporation to take place.

Differences between boiling and evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
Takes place at a fixed temperature called boiling Occurs at any temperature
Boiling takes place throughout the liquid. Takes place only on the surface of the liquid
Boiling is a vigorous process Evaporation is a gentle process
Bubbles are formed with in the liquid No bubble is formed on the surface of the liquid
Boiling doesn’t result into cooling Evaporation result into cooling.

Cooling by evaporation

The molecules which escape from the surface of liquids are those with greater kinetic energy, the molecules which remain in
the liquid are those with very low kinetic energy. The energy the molecules use as their kinetic energy is the latent heat
which they absorb. The absorption of this latent heat from the liquids brings about a fall in temperature, thus a body cools.

Application of cooling by evaporation

-cooling of a body by evaporation of sweat from the body

 -cooling water using a porous pot or refrigerator

-cooling of the dog by the saliva on its tongue evaporation

Demonstration of cooling by evaporation

A beaker about one third full of ether is stood in a small pour of water on a flat piece of wood

Air is then bubbled through the ether. The ether evaporates into bubbles and the vapour is carried quickly away as the
bubbles rise to the surface and burst thus increasing the rate of evaporation.

After sometime, the water on the wooden block cools to 00c and freezes to form ice. This demonstrates that evaporation
causes cooling.

Explanation

As the ether evaporates, it absorbs latent heat from its liquid state with the result that it cools below 0 0c. At the same time
heat becomes conducted through the walls the beaker from the pool of water below it and eventually the water cools to
00c. After this, it begins to lose latent heat and freezes.

The refrigerator
It operates on the evaporation by cooling principle.

The liquid used in a refrigerator is Freon which is volatile (Freon is collective term for suitable refrigerants e.g.
dichlorodifluoromethane boiling point about -300c or 243k)

Operation;

The volatile liquid in the coiled tubes absorbs latent heat from the surrounding air and evaporates. This causes the
refrigerators and its contents to cool.

Vapour produced is pumped away and compressed in the condenser where it condenses to liquid again

The heat released during condensation is quickly removed by cooling fins at the back of the refrigerator.

The process of evaporating and condensing of the volatile liquid is repeated on and on, thus causing the refrigerator to cool
further.

VAPOUR PRESSURE

It refers to the pressure exerted on the wall of the container by the vapour.
Consider a liquid in a closed vessel. When molecules escape from the liquid, they form vapour on the surface of the liquid.
The vapour molecules move in all directions and exert a pressure called vapour pressure on the surface of the liquid and the
walls of the container

The less energetic molecules return to the bulk of the liquid, a state of dynamic equilibrium is eventually reached ,in which
the rate at which molecules leave the liquid is equal to that at which others returns to it.

When this happens, the space above the liquid is said to be saturated with vapour.

The vapour pressure used in this state is called saturated vapour pressure but before the equilibrium the vapour is said to
be unsaturated.

Saturated vapour pressure

Is pressure exerted by vapour in dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid

Boiling point

This is the temperature at which the saturated vapour pressure is equal to the external atmospheric pressure

At this temperature liquid molecules have enough energy to form bubbles of vapour inside the liquid.

The bubbles formed at the bottom contain saturated vapour. When they reach the surface they burst

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE BOILING POINT AND FREEZING/MELTING POINT OF WATER

- Addition of impurities
- Increase or decrease in pressure

Effects of impurities on boiling and melting points

a) Melting point
The impurities lower the melting point of a surface e.g. when impurity is added to ice it melts at a lower temperature.
This is because impurities weaken the cohesive forces in ice molecules making it easy for them to move freely hence
the change of state from solid to liquid.
b) Boiling point
Impurities raise the boiling point of a substance e.g. when salt is added to water, the mixture must be heated at a
higher temperature before it boils. This is because impurities strengthen the cohesive forces between water
molecules so more heat must be supplied to weaken them.

Effect of pressure on boiling and melting points

Boiling points

Increase in pressure raises the boiling point of liquid.

Experiment to demonstrate the effect of pressure on boiling point

 - Water in the flask is heated for a few minutes so that the steam sweeps out most air
- Heating is stopped and the clip is closed
- Cold water is poured on the inverted flask, so condensing the steamed water. This reduces pressure above water.
- The water starts to boil

Note: If cooling is continued, boiling goes on until about 400c

Melting point

Increase in pressure lowers the melting point of a solid e.g. ice. This effect makes skating /skiing possible, the pressure of
ice skate melts the ice under it, so that there is a thin layer of water between the skate and ice. The layer of water acts as
a lubricant and almost completely removes friction between skate and ice.

Demonstration of effect of pressure on melting point (regelation)

A weighted copper wire is allowed to pass over a block of ice

It sinks through without cutting the ice block into two pieces

Explanation

When a copper wire is pulled, a very high pressure is exerted on the ice block, lowering its melting point and the ice melts.

The wire sinks through

The water which is no longer under pressure refreezes above the wire because melting point returns to 00c

On freezing, the water gives out its latent heat of fusion and thus conducted down through the wire to enable the ice below
it to melt. This effect is called regelation (refreezing).

Note: If an iron wire is used in demonstration, it passes through the ice more slowly. No effect is obtained if string is used.

The pressure cooker

This is a strong aluminium pan, whose lid is sealed with a rubber sealing ring to prevent steam from escaping from inside the
pan.
As the substance e.g. water is heated to boil, the steam pressure inside builds up causing the boiling point to rise to about
1200c
The high temperature makes the substance get cooked quickly.

HEAT

Heat is a form of energy which is transferred from one place to another due to difference in temperature between the
two places

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat is transferred in three different ways, namely; Conduction, convection and radiation

Conduction

Conduction is the flow of heat from a region of high temperature to that of low temperature through matter without the
movement of matter as a whole. e.g. in metals when they are heated their molecules vibrates faster along their mean
position and pass on the heat to the molecules on the cooler parts of the metal. Also electrons that are always moving
about the metal transfer from the hot to the cold end
Heat conduction is best in metals and worst in gases. Because of the distant spread of molecules in gases it is not highly
possible to have heat transfer in gases

Factors affecting conduction in metals

 Increase in the cross section area of the metal increases the rate of conduction.
 Decrease in the length of the metal bar
 Increase in the temperature difference
 Different metals conduct heat differently.

Experiment to compare conduction in metals

Procedure

 Match sticks are fixed with wax at one end of each rod and placed on a tripod stand with their free ends put
together
 The free ends are heated with a Bunsen flame
 Heat is conducted along each rod towards the cork
 The match stick on copper drops off first which shows that of all the metals, copper is the best conductor of heat

Application of heat conduction

- Good conductors are used in frying and cooking utensils

- Bad conductors are used on handles of frying pans i.e. handles are made of plastic, wood, rubber.

Explain why metals feel colder when touched than bad conductors

This is because metals conduct away heat from the hands due to high degree of conduction while bad conductors do
not conduct heat

Note: Liquids and gases transfer heat very slowly. This is because their molecules are apart and they do not have free
electrons like in metals, so transfer of heat is only by atoms
Experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of heat

Procedure

- Water is put in a test tube slanted as shown in the diagram above.

- The upper part of the tube is heated and convection currents are seen at the top of the tube
- Water begins to boil from the top.
- Ice at the bottom remains not melted. This shows that water is poor conductor of heat.

Convection:

This is the transfer of heat in fluids from region of high temperature to that of low temperature with the movement of
the fluid molecules

Convection cannot occur in vacuum because it requires a material medium. It occurs in fluids (liquid and gases) because
they flow easily.

Experiment to demonstrate convection in liquids:

Procedure;

- The apparatus is arranged as in the diagram above.

 - By means of a straw, potassium permanganate crystals are put in water at the bottom.
- When heat is applied, purple streaks are observed moving upwards in the middle of the flask and down wards at
the side of a flask in a circular form. The purple streaks show convection currents.

Explanation of convection currents:

When water at the bottom becomes hot, it expands and becomes less dense.

It is therefore displaced by dense cold water from the top.

In displacement of hot water by cold water, it sets up convection currents as observed by the purple loops.

Application of convection:

In electric kettles: When warming a liquid, the heating element of an electric kettle is placed at the bottom.

Domestic hot water system:

Cold water is supplied to the boiler along the cold water supply pipe. On warming, in the boiler the cold water warms
up, expands and becomes less dense, so it rises up.

As more cold water is supplied to the boiler, hot water is displaced upwards and supplied to the hot water taps along
hot water pipes.

The ventilation pipe is used to release steam.

Convection in gases

Experiment to demonstrate convection in gases:

C A

B X

A lighted piece of paper will produce smoke at point A. The movements of smoke from A to B across point X and out
through C shows convection.

Explanation of how smoke moves:

Smoke moves by convection because;

- The air above the candle warms up, becoming less dense and then rises up through C.
- The dense cold air from the paper (smoke) enters X through chimney A to replace the risen air (smoke) causing
convection currents.

Application of convection in gases:

- Chimneys in kitchens and factories

- Ventilation pipes in VIP latrines
- Ventilators in houses
- Sea and land breezes

SEA AND LAND BREEZES

Sea breeze:

Sea breeze occurs during day. During day, the sun heats up both the land and the sea. The land heats up faster than the
sea because of its low specific heat capacity and becomes warmer than the sea. So warm air rises which is replaced by
the cold air from the sea.
Land breeze;

It occurs at night. At night land loses heat faster than sea water causing land to be cooler than the sea. As a result, air
above the sea becomes warm and less dense, so it rises.

The air above the land which is cold, replaces the warm air resulting in the land breeze.

Ventilation:

During hot days, rooms get heated up and it is why they are usually provided with ventilators above the floor, through
which warm air finds its way out while fresh air enters through the doors and windows. In this way a circulation of air
convection is set up.

RADIATION:

This is the transfer of heat from a region of high temperature to that of low temperature by means of electromagnetic
waves

Radiation is the only way through which heat can travel through a vacuum

Radiant heat is mainly comprised of infrared which makes the skin feel warm. It travels as fast as light and it is the fastest
means of heat transfer

Good and bad absorbers of heat radiation:

Some surfaces absorb heat radiation better than others as illustrated below;
The experiment is setup as shown above

A source of heat is placed mid – way between a polished and dull surface

Cork is fitted with wax on the two surfaces and the experiment left standing for a few minutes

After a few minutes the wax on the dull or black surface begins to melt and cork eventually falls off while the one on the
polished surface remains not melted for some time

This shows that a dull black surface is a good absorber of heat radiation while a polished surface is a poor absorber of
heat radiation because shiny surfaces reflect heat radiation instead of absorbing it

Comparison of radiation of different surfaces:

Requirements: - A Leslie tube

- Thermopile (instrument that converts heat to electrical energy)

One side of the tube is dull black, the other is dull white and the last one is made shiny polished.

The tube is filled with hot water and radiation from each surface is detected by a thermopile

When the radiant heat falling on the thermopile is much, it registers a large deflection of the pointer

With different surfaces of the tube made to face the thermopile one at a time, the following results are obtained:

- The greatest deflection at the pointer is obtained when dull black surface faces the thermopile
- The least deflection is obtained when a highly polished shiny surface faces the thermopile.
- The dull surface is a good radiator or emitter of heat radiation while a polished shiny surface is a poor emitter of heat
radiation.

Laws of radiation:

- Heat radiation travels in a straight line.

 - Good absorbers of heat radiation are also good emitters.
- Temperature of the body remains constant when the rate at which it absorbs heat radiation is equal to the rate at
which it radiates heat energy.
- Bodies only radiate heat when their temperature is higher than that of the surrounding and absorb heat from the
surrounding if their temperature is lower than that of the surrounding

Application of radiation:

a. Black and dull surfaces

i) Car radiators are painted black to easily absorb and emit heat
ii) Cooling fins of a refrigerator are black to easily absorb and emit heat
iii) Solar plates or panels are black to easily absorb and emit heat

b. Polished and white surfaces

i) White washed buildings keep cool in summer.
ii) Roots and petro tanks are aluminum painted to reflect radiant heat.
iii) White coloured clothes are won in summer to keep us cool.
iv) Silver tea pots, kettles and saucepans retain heat for a long time

c. The vacuum flask:

It keeps hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold. It is very difficult for heat to travel in or out of the flask.

How a flask minimizes heat loss

Through the function of the various parts of the vacuum flask, heat loss by conduction, convection and radiation are
minimized

- The cork. This minimizes heat loss by conduction and convection

- Vacuum prevents heat loss by conduction and convection
 - Silvered walls minimize heat loss by radiation
- Vacuum seal keeps air out of the vacuum
- Asbestos anti – shock pad keeps the walls apart to avoid damage

NB

The thermos flask becomes useless when the vacuum seal breaks, because the vacuum will no longer exists and heat loss
by conduction and convection will occur.

Choice of dress

The choice of dress one puts on depends on conditions of the environment. On hot days, a white dress is preferable
because it reflects most of the heat radiations falling on it

On cold days a dull black woolen dress is preferred because it absorbs most of the heat incident on it and can retain for a
longer time.

EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

Expansion is an increase in size of a substance. When heated, solids increase in size in all directions

Expansion of solids can be illustrated using a metal ball with a ring as shown below

The metal ball passes through the ring when it is cold but when heated, the ball doesn’t pass through the ring any more,
showing that it has expanded. It passes through the hole again when it cools, meaning that the metal contracts when it
loses heat

Experiment to demonstrate that metals expand at different rates when heated equally

Different metals expand at different rates when equally heated, this can be shown using a metal strip made of two
metals such as copper and iron bounded tightly together (bi- metallic strip ) when the bi metallic strip is heated, the
copper expands more than iron and the strip bends as shown
Uses of a bi – metallic strip (application of expansion of solids)

a) Fire alarm

Heat from the source makes the bi metallic strip bend and completes the electric circuit and the bell rings.

b) Thermostat

This is a device that makes temperature of appliances or room constant. The thermostat shown below uses a bi –
metallic strip in the heating circuit of a flat iron.

When the flat iron reaches the required temperature, the strip bends and breaks the circuit at the contact and switches
off the heater.

The strip makes contact again after cooling a little and the heater is on again. A nearly steady temperature results
If the control knob screwed, the strip has to bend more to break the circuit and this needs higher temperature

Disadvantages of expansion

Expansion can cause a number of problem;

Railway lines are constructed with gaps left in between consecutive rails such that on hot days when the rails expand,
they have enough room for expansion.

If no gap is left in the rails, they bend on hot days.

Steel bridges

These are constructed in such a way that one end is rested on rollers and the other end is normally fixed. This is to ensure
that the structure can contract and expand freely at various temperatures without damaging the bridge.

Transmission cables

Wires or cables in transmission or telephone cables are normally not pulled tightly during installation in order to allow
room for expansion and contraction during extreme weather conditions.

EXPANSION IN FLUIDS

When liquids or gases (fluids) get hot , they expand just as solids do, but their expansion is greater than that of solids for
the same amount of heat

Experiment to demonstrate expansion in liquids

 Procedure

- The flask is filled completely with coloured water.

- A narrow tube is passed through the hole in cork and the cork fitted tightly
- The first level of water on a narrow tube is noted
- Water is heated from the bottom of the flask as its level is observed
- The level of water in the tube first drops then rises steadily as heating is continued

Explanation

Water level first drops because the flask first expands then the water expands steadily due to continued heating

Application of expansion property of liquids

This property is used in thermometers

The liquids used include alcohol and mercury

Anomalous expansion of water

As water is cooled up to 40C, it contracts as we would expect. Between 40 – 00C, water expands and this is unusual. It is
between 40C and 00C that the anomalous expansion of water occurs
The volume of water is minimum at 40C and its density is maximum at 4oC
 Application of anomalous behavior of water

It is used to preserve aquatic life during cold weather

As the temperature of the pond or lake falls, the water contracts and becomes denser then sinks. A circulation is thus set
up until all the water reaches its maximum density at 40C. If further cooling occurs any water below 40c will stay at the
top due to its lighter density thus ice forms at the top of water
The lower layer of water at 40C can only lose heat by conduction. So in deep water there will always be water beneath
the ice in which fish and other creatures can live

Disadvantages of anomalous behavior of water

- It causes weathering of rocks due to its expansion and contraction

- It can cause water pipes to burst due to formation of ice inside the pipe
- Cannot be used as a thermometric liquid.

EXPANSION OF GASES

A gas expands when heated almost 10,000 times more than solids. This is due to the fact that cohesion between
molecules is extremely weak
 Experiment to demonstrate expansion in gases

- In the above set up the flask is slightly heated.

- Air bubbles will be seen coming out from the other end of the tube
- This shows that air expand when heated.
- In the second set up, when the source of heat is removed and the flask is allowed to cool by pouring cold water, the
level of water will rise. This shows that air contacts when cooled.

Application of expansion of air

1) Hot air balloon

Expansion of air is used in hot air balloon. When air in the balloon is heated, it expands and becomes less dense and as a
result the balloon rises up

THERMOMETRY

Thermometers:

These are instruments used for measuring temperatures

Thermometric properties

A thermometric property is a property of a substance which continuously changes with temperature and may be used for
temperature measurements. These include:

 Change in length
 Change in resistance
 Change in volume
 Change in pressure

THERMOMETER SCALES (Temperature scales)

There are 3 thermometer scales commonly used

1) Celsius / centigrade scale(0C)

2) Fahrenheit (0F)
3) Kelvin/ absolute(k)

a) Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit

If Celsius scale reads 00C, then

And if Celsius scale reads 1000C then
b) Converting from Fahrenheit to Celsius.
The formula is

c) Relationship between Celsius scale and Kelvin scale.

Where C is temperature on Celsius scale and K is temperature on Kelvin scale.
0
d) Convert 0 C to Kelvin scale

e) Convert 1000C to Kelvin scale (Absolute scale)

To obtain a standard scale on a thermometer, two fixed points must be marked out on it,
these are the upper and lower fixed points.

LOWER FIXED POINT:

This is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard atmospheric pressure

The standard atmospheric pressure is 76cmHg or 760mmHg

On the Fahrenheit scale, the lower fixed point = 320F

- On Celsius scale = 00C

- Kelvin scale = 237K

DETERMINATION OF LOWER FIXED POINT:

Procedure;

-The filter funnel is supported on a retort stand as shown above.

-A thermometer is placed in the funnel and surrounded with pure melting ice.

- The thermometer is adjusted so that the mercury thread is clearly seen.

-The point at which the mercury thread is steady is marked off with a scratch as the lower fixed point.

UPPER FIXED POINT:

This is the temperature of steam above water boiling under standard atmospheric pressure.

On Celsius scale it is 1000C

On Kelvin scale it is 373K

On Fahrenheit scale it is 2120F.

Determination of upper fixed point using a hypsometer

A hypsometer is a two walled vessel made out of a round bottom flask.

Procedure;

-Partly fill vessel with water and arrange the apparatus as in the diagram.

-Gently heat water in vessel using a Bunsen flame to its boiling point.

-Adjust the thermometer so that mercury thread is seen clearly when water is boiling.

-Mark the steady point of mercury thread as the upper fixed point.

With the upper and lower fixed points marked on the thermometer, the distance between them is divided into 100 equal
degrees so that the thermometer gets the Celsius scale. In the way it is said to be calibrated.

Using an un calibrated thermometer to measure temperature:

Fundamental interval is the difference between the upper fixed point and the lower fixed point. This is divided into a
hundred equal parts to calibrate in Celsius scale and each is called a degree.
Example:

1. The top of a mercury thread of a given thermometer is 3cm from the ice point, if the fundamental interval is 5cm,
determine the unknown temperature θ.

X = 3cm

Y = 5cm

θ = x 100

= x 100

= 600C

2. The length of a mercury thread at a low fixed point and upper fixed point are 2cm and 8cm respectively for a certain
liquid X. Given that the length of mercury thread at un known temperature θ is 6cm determine the value of θ

3. Find the temperature in oC if the length of mercury thread is 7cm from the ice point and fundamental interval is 20cm
4. Find the unknown temperature θ given the following length of mercury.

-Length of steam = 25cm

-Length of ice point = 1cm

-Length of known temperature θ= 19cm

Thermometric liquids

These are liquids used in a thermometer, they include;

-mercury

- Alcohol

Water is not suitable for use in a thermometer because of the following reasons;

-It is transparent i.e. its meniscus is difficult to see and read

-It does not expand regularly

-It sticks on glass

-It has relatively low boiling point

-It is poor conductor of heat

QUALITIES OF A GOOD THERMOMETRIC LIQUID

 Must easily be seen (opaque)

 Must expand regularly with temperature

 Must have a high boiling point to measure high temperature

 Must have low freezing point to measure low temperature

 Must not stick on glass

 Must be a good conduct of heat

 Must not be very expensive

  Must not be poisonous and it should be available.

Advantages of mercury over alcohol when used as thermometric liquid

Mercury Alcohol
 It is opaque  It is colourless
 Good conduct of heat  Poor conduct of heat as compared to mercury
 Expands regularly  Does not expand regularly as mercury
 Has a high boiling point (3570C) and can be  Has low boiling point 780C
used to measure high temperature
 Mercury does not stick on glass  Sticks on glass
 It does not distill easily  Distills easily.

Advantages of alcohol over mercury

Alcohol Mercury
 0
Has a low freezing point (-115 C)  Has a high freezing point of -390C hence
unsuitable to measure very low temperatures.
 Has a high linear expansivity(expands so much  Has a low linear expansivity (expands little for
for small temperature range) the same temperature range)

CLINICAL THERMOMETER

This thermometer is used to measure the human body temperature

-The thermometer has a very fine bore which makes it sensitive

-Expansion of mercury makes it shoot along the tube

-The glass from which the tube is made is very thin which makes the body heat reach the mercury quickly to read body
temperature

-When thermometer bulb is placed into the mouth or armpit, the mercury expands and it is forced past the
constriction along the tube

-When removed, the bulb cools and the mercury in it contracts quickly

-The mercury column breaks at the constriction leaving mercury in the tube. The constriction prevents flow back of
mercury to the bulb when the thermometer is temporary removed from the patients mouth or armpits.

The thermometer is reset by shaking the mercury back in the bulb.

Effect of heat on matter

-When a solid is heated, the cohesive forces between its molecules are weakened and the molecules begin to vibrate
vigorously causing the solid to change into a liquid state

-The temperature at which a solid changes into liquid is called the melting point. At melting point the temperature
remains constant until the solid has melted

-When the entire solid has melted and more heat is applied, the temperature rises. The heat gained weakens the
cohesive forces between the liquid molecules considerably causing the molecules to move faster until the liquid
changes into gaseous state

-The temperature at which a liquid changes into gaseous state is called the boiling point. At boiling point temperature
of the liquid remains constant since heat supplied weakens the cohesive forces of attraction in liquid molecules

-If the heated substance is water its temperature rises with time as shown below

Properties/qualities of a thermometer

- Quick action
This refers to the ability of a thermometer to measure temperature in the shortest time possible. This is attained
by using a thin walled bulb using a liquid which is a good conductor of heat e.g. mercury.

- Sensitivity
This is the ability of a thermometer to detect a very small temperature change. It is attained by;
i) Using a thermometer with a big bulb
ii) Use of a liquid which has a high linear expansivity
iii) Using a narrow bore or reducing the diameter of the bore hole