AQA English Literature A-level

Othello: Themes
Jealousy

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Introduction

Iago states, ‘O beware, my lord, of jealousy: / It is the green-eyed monster which doth
mock / The meat it feeds on’ (Act 3, Scene 3), portraying the sinful associations of
jealousy, and its corruptive nature. Throughout the play, Shakespeare explores the
consequences of jealous dispositions. This means that jealousy is central in driving most
characters' actions. The revenge plot of Iago is driven by both jealousy towards Cassio,
who was made lieutenant by Othello, and sexual jealousy through the assumption that
Othello slept with his wife. Additionally, it is sexual jealousy that causes Othello to kill
Desdemona, making their love story a tragedy.

While Othello is famous for its depiction of jealousy, Shakespeare argues that jealousy
doesn’t occur in isolation. Instead, the jealousy we witness in the play is a symptom of
the society and institutions explored: for example, Othello has a jealous disposition
because he is insecure about his race and outsider status. Equally, Shakespeare
illustrates that sexual jealousy is an inevitable endemic within patriarchal societies that
preach the ownership of women’s sexuality by men.

Race, Religion & Jealousy

Religious ideas shape the way individuals behave within the play. Othello’s conversion
to Christianity gives him the ability to fit into Venetian society, suggesting that diverting
from Christian teachings of good and evil is fatal. This is reinforced by the constant
temptations and forces of evil that the characters have to face and fight - both physical
through the war with the Turks and psychological, which involves their own inner selves.

Individuals in Jacobean England were encouraged to be introspective, meaning that they

must analyse and improve from the inside by appealing to their own conscience. For
example, Othello exclaims, ‘I had rather be a toad / And live upon the vapor of a
dungeon / Than keep a corner in the thing I love / For others' uses’ (Act 3, Scene 3).
This portrays Othello’s inner struggle, as his perception of his wife’s faithfulness starts to
be manipulated by Iago. His haunted conscience is common in most of Shakespeare’s
heroes, as they are tormented about which actions to take, seeing this as progressing and
journeying towards heaven or hell. This is especially evident before he kills Desdemona,
as she notices, ‘Alas, why gnaw you so your nether lip? / Some bloody passion
shakes your very frame’ (Act 5, Scene 2). Therefore, the link between jealousy and
conscience is important to understand Othello’s descent into raging passions. His
character’s journey into jealousy is as much a spiritual journey as it is an emotional one.

The play begins with racially-charged language that contemporary audiences are familiar
with. However, as Othello becomes more and more aggressive towards Desdemona - to
the horror of the audience, who know she is innocent - Shakespeare offers different
motives for his madness. Shakespeare's depiction of Othello draws on the stereotype
that African men are inherently and extremely jealous. He was probably inspired by Leo
Africanus’ A Geographical History of Africa (1600), a former Moroccan Muslim who
converted to Catholicism. Similarly, the play engages with ideas of geohumoralism, which
was a racialist, pseudo-scientific concept that linked psychology (humors) to the

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climate or geography. Geohumoralism was very popular in Renaissance Europe, as it
was used to justify white-supremacist ideals.

Geohumoralism stated that Africans were not naturally jealous, but if they were provoked
they would respond violently. In the theory, countries with warmer climates produced
more aggressive subjects, which corresponds to European perceptions of Africans as
exotic creatures. For example, Desdemona responds to Emilia about Othello’s jealousy:
‘Who, he? I think the sun where he was born / Drew all such humor’s from him’ (Act
3, Scene 4). Othello himself recognises this, as he says that he is ‘one not easily jealous
but being wrought, / Perplexed in the extreme’ (Act 5, Scene 2) as well as claiming that
his blackness presupposes him to rage: ‘I am black / And have not those soft parts
of conversation’ (Act 3, Scene 3). Iago takes advantage of Othello’s (supposedly racial)
impulsivity: ‘Trifles light as air / Are to the jealous confirmations strong/As proofs of
holy writ’ (Act 3, Scene 3). Therefore, most characters - as well as Othello - see his
jealousy linked to his racial origin.

Femininity & Jealousy

Jacobean ideas of female infidelity and its consequences are apparent in this play.
However, Othello is reluctant to believe that Desdemona is being adulterous at the
beginning of Iago’s plan. He is dismissive about her being deceptive: ‘My life upon her
faith’ (Act 1, Scene 3). This suggests that he trusts her completely, yet, at Iago’s doing,
Othello’s rash decision-making leads him to become obsessively jealous over his wife's
sexuality. The thought of Desdemona’s unrestrained sexuality threatens him, as it is a
challenge to his honour as a husband and to his masculinity. Someone who could not
control the sexual urges of his wife was a laughing stock.

He begins to doubt her loyalty to him, as he says that ‘her name, that was as fresh / As
Dian’s visage, is now begrimed and black’ (Act 3, Scene 3). This reflects the fears
surrounding female sexuality, purity and corruption. As Renaissance women were
expected to be ruled by their husband, assertiveness in any form would be seen as a
transgression of the established social order that legally made them possessions. This
explains Othello’s anger, as he sees Desdemona’s infidelity as a question to his authority
and does not want to seem passive to her assumed actions. Therefore, underlying
concepts of femininity and sexuality allow Iago to deceive Othello more easily.

The Handkerchief

The handkerchief is an important, continuous symbol throughout the play and is a portrayal
of the progress from Othello’s love to jealousy. It is the first gift that he gives to Desdemona
as a sign of his love, but this meaning is quickly manipulated by Iago to represent her
unfaithfulness. This is evident when Othello tells her that the handkerchief possesses
magical qualities: ‘If she lost it / Or made gift of it, my father’s eye / Should hold her
loathed and his spirits should hunt / After new fancies’ (Act 3, Scene 4). He explains to
her that it was used by his mother to keep his father faithful, as the design of the
handkerchief - a white background with red strawberries - represents female virginity
and marital fidelity. This attests to the significance of the material as a sign of trust and

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loyalty; if it is lost, the spouse will look for love outside of their marriage. Desdemona
understands this, as she says to Emilia that if she lost the handkerchief ‘it were enough //
To put him to ill thinking’ (Act 3, Scene 4).

However, Iago’s possession of the handkerchief enables him to position Desdemona as an

adulterer. She is unable to produce it when Othello asks for it as evidence of her loyalty. Iago
states: ‘The Moor already changes with my poison’ (Act 3, Scene 3), showing how his
words affect Othello corrosively. As a result of his poisonous words, Othello’s rage
overflows at the end of the play: ‘I saw my handkerchief in's hand. / O perjured woman!
thou dost stone my heart, / And makest me call what I intend to do / A murder’ (Act 5,
Scene 2).

The handkerchief passes through many characters. Othello, Desdemona, Emilia, Iago,
Bianca - they all handle it at least once in the play. As the handkerchief represents marriage,
the handling of it suggests how everyone is involved in private relationships. This is a
problem because it causes misunderstandings to occur and doubts to spread. Therefore,
the handkerchief is a prevailing central object that documents the conflict of Desdemona
and Othello’s marriage, and arguably the fallibility of the marital institution as a whole.

The Handkerchief & Narrative Structure

The position in which the handkerchief is introduced, lost, stolen and found is central in the
way characters meet their fate. For Desdemona and Emilia it is death, while for Othello it is
eternal grief and repentance. Iago, on the other hand, walks free. He controls the plot and
his fate the same way he controls the handkerchief. This suggests that the narrative
surrounding the handkerchief plays a chief role in dictating the way the story unfolds once
it is lost, depicting the downfall of Othello’s mind and marriage.

After talking to Iago, Othello and Desdemona interact privately in Act 3 Scene 3, in which
Othello’s demeanour completely changes towards her. When she notices that Othello is
rubbing his forehead, she notes, ‘That’s with watching’ (Act 3, Scene 3). This
communicates her concern as a wife and lover, pointing to the fact that his career might be
over-working him. For the audience, this is an innocent comment out of concern, yet with
Iago’s poisonous words embedded in his mind, Othello’s cold behaviour towards her reflects
his rising suspicions.

Furthermore, in the conversation with Iago, concepts such as observing and perceiving are
emphasised; Iago warns Othello to be more aware of his wife’s language as well as her
actions, making him more sensitive to the things she would say. Additionally, Othello is more
likely to misinterpret her behaviour as cunning or deceitful, as his conception of her has
distorted and changed. For example, the word ‘watching’ could be misunderstood as
something to do with protection; she may want to protect herself in fear of Othello finding out
about her infidelity. Such misinterpretations by Othello justify his coldness and increasing
violence towards her, solidifying his beliefs of her unfaithfulness to him.

This belief in her treachery can be perceived in his rejection of her affections and physical
love language. When she tries to console him by saying ‘’Twill away again’ or ‘Within this

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hour / it will be well again’ (Act 3, Scene 3), Othello’s intense concentration on her words
betrays his rising contempt at her attempts to be loving. Her words may be regarded as
dismissive, as she was concerned about the pain in his forehead and now quickly disregards
it. On the other hand, this may be genuine care for her partner, as she may attempt to
console him.

The audience also starts to question Desdemona’s intentions as a result of Iago’s words
against her. Words and context are powerful in twisting reality, and no one is safe from
this influence. When she tries to ‘bind’ (Act 3, Scene 3) Othello’s head with the
handkerchief, he may perceive it as an insulting act; the action of hiding part of him with the
token that he gave her may be seen as her hiding something from him. Alternatively, it could
also be perceived as a sign of her disapproval of him, making her seek pleasures from other
men. Consequently, Othello sees this as soiling the token of his love, which is also a
parental keepsake, and therefore leads him to reject the offer – this initiates the beginning of
the downfall of their marriage, as he does not want her to use to handkerchief that binds her
to him.

This urge to reject and the inability to allow her near him is emphasised by the suggestion
that he does not want her to hold it – this is where the handkerchief falls out of Desdemona’s
hands, implying the gradual loss of their love. Othello’s change in perception of Desdemona
becomes more pronounced. This is because when he speaks to Iago again a little later in
the play, Othello is shocked and angry at the fact that Iago was able to give him the evidence
of her infidelity – the handkerchief. This is the final piece of concrete evidence that Othello
requires in order to descend into madness. Iago furthers his aggravations by stating: ‘I
know not that, but such a handkerchief— / I am sure it was your wife’s—did I today /
See Cassio wipe his beard with’ (Act 3, Scene 3). This suggests that along with ocular
proof, Othello is faced with visual evidence by his most trusted advisor.

However, it is disturbing that Othello fails to remember that Desdemona had just previously
used it to try and relieve the pain in his head. Emilia did not provide any suggestions of
where she found the handkerchief and how she got it in the first place. Nevertheless, Iago
seems dismissive of such risks, implying his confidence and arrogance in Othello’s
dwindling trust towards Desdemona. He exploits this notion of distrust, as Othello
switches his loyalties towards Iago instead, seeing him as a true friend. Similarly, Othello
fails to question where Iago gets the handkerchief from, blindly believing Iago that
Desdemona is actually being unfaithful. His inherent belief of her infidelity makes it easier for
him to see her as a villain, making his forgetfulness a tactic to put blame on her. By
convincing himself that she has actually lost the handkerchief, Othello’s jealousy is justified
in his own mind.

Consequently, through his own psychological justifications, Othello believes that her
losing this love token violated the terms of their love; in spite of his explanation telling her of
its origin, she seems to have dismissed it and thus thrown away their love herself. As such,
Othello makes her the perpetrator, asserting the fact that she has lost it. As a result, he
helps this ocular proof become legitimate in believing that his wife has given it to another
man, breaking the trust between them and setting her up as a deceitful lover.

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In particular, it may be noted that both Othello and Desdemona work with Iago to change
the meaning of the handkerchief. This means that they create the conflict for themselves –
Othello misinterprets its loss as a loss of fidelity and Desdemona’s lack of assertiveness in
regards to her innocence makes her look guilty. For example, Othello demands the ocular
proof from Iago but is already convinced that Desdemona is unfaithful. Her being able to
even lose the handkerchief is enough for him to see her as an adulterer, while Desdemona
quickly sees the change in his manner towards her by his rejection of her touch. Both lovers
are seen to occupy two different spheres of suspicion; Desdemona wants to test whether
he has actually changed by seeing how he reacts to her losing it. On the other hand, Othello
does not consider any other avenue of reconciliation, wanting to take murderous action
against his wife.

Unlike Othello, Desdemona is sure that her husband is incapable of feeling jealousy,
reinforcing the idea that she still sees them as equal partners. Here, the play becomes
more tense as the audience is aware of Othello’s anger and fearful for Desdemona’s fate.
Shakespeare achieves this by intricately involving Desdemona, Cassio and Othello into the
action, linking them to each other after Othello obtains the ocular proof. The structure of the
play here is significant, as it confirms Othello’s fears and makes Iago more believable as a
result. For example, Desdemona calls for Cassio: ‘I will not leave him now till Cassio / Be
called to him’ (Act 3, Scene 4). This is further complicated by Othello’s insistence to find
out, through indirect statements, whether she has been unfaithful or not. However,
Desdemona does not realise the dark undertone with which he is addressing her. She
dismisses his topic, instead going back to Cassio: ‘I cannot speak of this; come, come,
your promise [...] I have sent to bid Cassio come speak with you’ (Act 3, Scene 4). This
positions her in a dangerous space, which she has unknowingly entered. Shakespeare does
this in order to highlight Othello’s jealous disposition, using the narrative to portray the
increasing intensity of his anger and Desdemona’s helplessness towards it.

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Othello’s Speech Acts & Their Consequences

Othello’s characterisation of himself is significant in defining and influencing his jealousy.

These can be viewed in comparison to Iago’s speech patterns, as both have different
intentions and motives behind what they say. The distinction can be seen in the marked
ways in which they both speak: Iago can be seen to use more directives in his monologues.
This means that he likes to give instructions in a more authoritative manner. This can be
observed in the way he instructs Roderigo from the start or from the way he drives ideas into
Othello’s head. Such a characteristic is essential in Iago because it makes him even more
evil. On the contrary, Othello is shown to use more candid, assertive speech. This is when
an individual portrays a more forceful personality; specifically, speakers communicate their
own beliefs above other people. This is a contrasting trait to Iago, as an assertive speech act
suggests a strong sense for reason, rationality and calmness. This suggests that Othello,
at the start, was much more level headed, which makes his change far more profound. For
example, he says: ‘Not I. I must be found. My parts, my title, and my perfect soul //
Shall manifest me rightly’ (Act 1, Scene 2) when finding out that Brabantio is looking for
him in order to confront him about courting Desdemona. Here the audience observes that he
is unfazed by her father’s threatening demeanour or reputation, being strongly grounded
upon his belief that he did not commit any wrong.

This is especially significant because the play is intrinsically related with

reality/appearances, which are linked to the idea of jealousy. Othello develops a distorted
way of perceiving reality, as opposed to the truth which he used to pursue at the start. For
example, his change into a distrustful lover is further emphasised by his belief in his inner
sense of self. This means that he was very sure of himself when wooing Desdemona, using
this confidence to counter her father. His self-assuredness is highlighted by the fact that he
calls his soul ‘perfect’ (Act 1, Scene 2). This suggests that he understands himself as
someone who is worthy of her love. Consequently, this illuminates that he is completely
confident that others will perceive him favourably. This means that even before meeting
Desdemona, he has a stable outlook on himself, not
being influenced by stereotypes surrounding his race
or character. It is this disposition that makes him more
respectable in Venetian society.

This is further reinforced when he is confronted by

Brabantio and responds, ‘That I have ta’en away this
old man’s daughter, / It is most true; true I have
married her / The very head and front of my
offending / Hath this extent, no more’ (Act 1,
Scene 3). He is honest and does not try to hide
behind a façade, which makes him a very
sympathetic character.

However, as the play goes on, Othello’s speech acts

become more and more violent towards Desdemona,
revealing his insecurities and jealousy. For example, he
exclaims, ‘Excellent wretch! Perdition catch my soul

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// But I do love thee! // And when I love thee not, // Chaos is come again’ (Act 3, Scene
3). This suggests the changing nature of his love, as he questions his own idealisations
of her. It reveals a great extent of love for her – it is almost excessive. The religious
imagery that is portrayed within this quotation suggests that he is ready to be damned for
eternity in order to keep her as his only. The idea of excessive love and jealousy parallel
each other, positioning Othello’s madness surrounding his wife’s sexuality as the result of
loving her too much.

This is further emphasised by the way he characterises his soul in relation to her – he uses
the noun ‘chaos’, implying discontent. This is a contrasting image, as he says at the
beginning of the play: ‘Twere now to be most happy; for I fear / My soul hath her content
so absolute / That not another comfort like to this / Succeeds in unknown fate’ (Act 2,
Scene 1). This change in character, from a “content” soul to a discontent one, conveys that
he is unable to let her out of his sight, as he is both condemning her and unable to live
without her because he loves her too much. This is both a shock to her and himself, as the
love he holds for her revealed a new side to him that he was unaware of. Therefore, his
jealousy leads him to become consumed by her and his changing, unhinged emotional
state.

The change in his speech acts is demonstrated when he loses his sense of rationality. This
is due to the doubt and jealousy he is feeling, implying how he is unable to counter negative
emotions related to his wife. Shakespeare reveals how male reputation and ownership in
marriage becomes a dangerous, destructive force – both for the individual and their
love-interest. Overall, jealousy is depicted through Othello’s language, suggesting that words
have detrimental consequences in changing Othello’s entire persona.

Desdemona’s Voice

The rising jealousy of Othello inadvertently affects Desdemona’s character; her lack of
dialogue as the play progresses depicts this change. At the start, her voice was quite
assertive because she followed through with her own decisions. However, her speech
becomes distorted to the audience and Othello, once it is influenced by Iago. For example,
this is evident when she defends another man; she insists on helping Cassio as she is a
helpful woman, but this is used against her. Similarly, this incites jealousy in Othello, as any
behaviour directed towards men is perceived as treacherous.

Ironically, she also reifies certain characteristics of other male characters. Frank Kermode,
for example, says: ‘Desdemona aids the process, twice commending Iago’s honesty, a
conviction of which in the other characters is now essential to his design’. This
conviction has fatal consequences for her, as she seems to confirm her own infidelity by
avowing Iago’s truthfulness.

Other critics have noted that her insistence on helping Cassio becomes annoying not only to
Othello but to the audience too. Such a defence is seen as offensive by Othello. The
annoying nature of her constant defence of Cassio is noted by critics such as Edward A.
Snow, who suggests, ‘Even when her suit on Cassio’s behalf starts to wear on our
nerves as well as Othello’s, the focus is not so much on a fault in her character as on

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the pathological reverberations that even a woman’s trivial indiscretions have in the
minds of men’. This reflects Jacobean conventions surrounding female voices in general –
they are not taken seriously but rather as something ‘trivial’. Desdemona’s pursuit of Cassio
may be seen as inappropriate and thus justifies Othello’s aggressiveness towards her.
Furthermore, as she begins to be dismissed by her husband due to his jealousy, she fails to
fight back and assumes an expected submissive position.

Jealousy & Redemption

Shakespeare’s protagonists, including Hamlet, Macbeth and Othello suffer at the end of
the play. These characters, while portrayed to be heroic as well as noble, go through
disastrous changes that affect those around them. These could be the manifestations of
their fatal flaws showing themselves through their behaviour. In particular, Othello’s noble
disposition and naivety in trusting people quickly results in the exploitation of his loyalties
alongside his beliefs of male authority. For Hamlet, his inability to act quickly costs him his
own life and the prolonged evilness of his uncle. Macbeth’s ambition leads to his own
demise, losing himself, his morals and family in the quest towards greater power. Othello, on
the other hand, fails to contain his jealousy and therefore gives in to his chaotic temper.

Shakespeare’s use of a fatal flaw is important in these heroes: their morality and sense of
responsibility is destroyed by their own decisions and personality. This leads the audience
to question whether they can achieve redemption for their actions. Othello’s redemption
(and false sense of redemption for his wife) can be observed in the last act of the play.
Othello’s first sense of redemption was achieved
when he was rescued from the hands of slavery. This
is a significant detail about his life, because it
establishes him as an individual who was saved by
others in order to serve in the military and aid others
in return. His conversion to Christianity is a
conventional sign of this redemption; he upholds
these values through his actions, words and morals.
In being freed and accommodating to Christian
values, he was quickly positioned higher up in the
social hierarchy, depicting his gratitude which made
others perceive him as noble and worthy.

Redemption was therefore a key factor in Othello’s

reputation within Venice. His peers believe he has
‘redeemed’ himself for being a Moor (something that
shouldn’t need to be forgiven or justified), and so
tolerate his presence. Shakespeare sets this up in
order to highlight that regardless of his race, he was able to achieve redemption and
therefore integrate himself into Venetian society without transgressing any boundaries.
However, the subsequent character transgressions that he undergoes undermine the
redemption he achieved at the start of his militant life.

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Othello’s gradual loss of his redeeming quality leads him to regress back into a more
primitive state of mind. Compared to the sense of nobility that accompanied his speech, he
becomes consumed by jealousy which reveals a simplicity in the way he thinks about his
own beliefs. Believing in Iago’s words and his own morals, he dismisses any objections from
his wife. This primitive nature can be seen when he does not go into deep reflections about
the evidence presented to him, rather choosing to defame his wife’s fidelity to confirm his
own assumptions. As such, his ideas are always absolute. This means that if he believes
something is wrong, there is no room for other thoughts. This makes it easier for him to be
controlled by Iago, who abuses this simple-mindedness. As a result, the feelings he does
feel are all-absorbing for him; at the end, although consumed by jealousy, he is then also
easily consumed by guilt.

His loss of his redemptive trait can be observed in the violence of his language towards
Desdemona: ‘…Let her rot, and perish, and be damned to-night; / for she shall not live:
no, my heart is turned to / stone; I strike it, and it hurts my hand’ (Act 4, Scene 1). This
depicts how his morals have changed, being unable to talk about her in an affectionate
manner and keeping her at a distance as opposed to having her close to him.

Act 5 represents the pivotal climax of the play’s action. This is because it is the act in which
Iago’s plan is exposed, Emilia defends Desdemona’s innocence and Othello realises, in a
terrible turn of events, that he had killed his innocent wife. His lack of trust in her, compared
to his trust in Iago, results in him tainting their love and marriage. This revelation that it is him
that caused the breakdown of his relationship is both terrifying and unbearable. He
understands that it was his weakness and failure to use his calm manner in order to make a
level headed decision that killed his wife. To atone for the sin of murdering his wife, Othello
chooses to redeem himself by shunning his jealous feelings and recognising her innocence:
‘…You must speak of one that loved not wisely, but too well, of one not easily jealous,
but being wrought….one whose hand…threw a pearl away rich than all his tribe’ (Act
5, Scene 2).

Overall, jealousy is Othello’s fatal flaw that leads to hasty decisions and an ill temper. The
idea of tragedy is particularly interesting when conceptualising jealousy, as Shakespeare
restores the lost values when the characters die. Othello commits suicide as a sort of
punishment for being distrustful. Although this is another major sin, the audience may
perceive this as a virtuous act to compensate for his temper and jealousy. Othello’s
tragedy lies in the fact that the real evil plan is revealed too late and therefore death can only
re-establish those morals.

Overview

Jealousy in the play is one of the main factors that drives the main characters. Iago’s
jealousy drives the main plot of revenge; he is jealous of not being appointed lieutenant as
well as assuming that Othello cuckolded him. The language Iago employs is also laced with
malice, making it clear from the start what his evil intentions are. Furthermore, the play
utilises the idea of jealousy throughout. It is Othello’s jealousy that becomes a barrier to his
redemption. We have explored how redemption and jealousy are closely linked in
Shakespeare’s play: Othello’s initial societal redemption was overwritten by his inability to

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contain his jealous disposition. Although this jealousy can be seen as something that
emerges due to the unfolding events in the play, there are some theories that attribute
jealousy as an inherent characteristic in those from exotic countries. For example,
Geohumoralism argues that those from warmer climates are more prone to be aggressive or
jealous if provoked. Such widespread beliefs at the time may have inspired the way Iago
manipulates Othello. The use of his racial difference justifies his descent into jealousy, as his
insecurities surface by believing that his wife was unfaithful. The handkerchief fuels this
jealousy because it is the symbol of a love betrayed.

Another factor that we explored was the influence of patriarchal structures that informed
the way Othello’s jealousy emerged. Female infidelity was especially condemned because
of the social limitations that were placed on women - transgressing beyond their passive
position as housewives was considered criminal. Contemporary audiences, however,
perceive such possessiveness and control as abusive. As social regulations on female and
masculine behaviours have transformed, individuals have greater freedom in the way they
act. This can be attributed to the rise of feminism, which changed the outlook on women and
the opportunities that they are given.

Overall, jealousy manifests itself strongly within the play and leads to many tragic deaths.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Freud, S. (2006). The Psychology of Love. London: Penguin Group.

Snow, E. (1980). Sexual Anxiety and the Male Order of Things in "Othello". English Literary
Renaissance.

Othello in The Norton Shakespeare. (2016). ed. by Stephen Greenblatt, Suzanne Gossett,
Walter Cohen, Jean E. Howard, Katharine Eisaman Maus and Gordon McMullan. New York:
W.W. Norton & Company.

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