LESSON 1: NUMBER THEORY It's described in Euclid's Elements, a foundational

work in mathematics.
Number theory or, in older usage, arithmetic
is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily 3. Pythagorean Theorem
to the study of the integers.
Although primarily associated with
It is sometimes called "The Queen of Mathematics" geometry, the Pythagorean Theorem (attributed to
the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras and
The word "arithmetic" is used by the general public
his followers) has strong implications for number
to mean "elementary calculations" (+, -, x, /)
theory, especially in the context of Pythagorean
It has also acquired other meanings in triples.
computer science, such as floating-point arithmetic.
4. Diophantine Equations
Particularly in the study of prime numbers
Named after the ancient Greek
as well the properties of objects made out of the
mathematician Diophantus, these are polynomial
integers defined as a generalization of the integers
equations where only integer solutions are sought.
The numbers we write are made up of Diophantus is often referred to as the "father of
algorithms, (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) called Arabic algorithm algebra" due to his work in this area.
is used to distinguish from the Roman algorithms (I,
5. Chinese Remainder Theorem
II, III, IV, etc.)
This ancient Chinese mathematical
The Arabs popularize these algorithms, but
principle, which involves solving a system of
their origin goes back to the Phenecian merchant
modular arithmetic equations, has its origins in
that is used by them to count and do their
early Chinese texts like the Sunzi Suanjing, which
commercial countability.
dates back to the 3rd century.
TYPES OF NUMBERS
6. Fermat's Last Theorem
 Counting numbers Proposed by Pierre de Fermat in the 17th
 Integers century (although it remained unproven for
 Rational Numbers centuries), this theorem states that no three
 Real Numbers positive integers a, b, and c can satisfy the
 Imaginary Numbers equation a^n + b^n = c^n for any integer value of n
 Complex Numbers greater than 2.
 Odd Numbers
FIVE MATHEMATICIANS WHO MADE
 Even Numbers
SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO NUMBER
 Prime Numbers
THEORY
 Composite Numbers
 Perfect Numbers Euclid (300 BCE)

HISTORY OF NUMBER THEORY Often referred to as the "father of geometry,"

Euclid also made fundamental contributions to
Number theory, one of the oldest branches number theory in his work "Elements," which
of mathematics, examines properties of whole included the famous Euclidean algorithm for finding
numbers and their relationships. Ancient the greatest common divisor.
civilizations like the Egyptians and Babylonians
made early number discoveries. Greek Leonhard Euler (1707-1783)
mathematicians, including Euclid, made seminal
Euler was a Swiss mathematician who
contributions. In the Middle Ages, scholars like
made extensive contributions to various areas of
Fibonacci and Fermat expanded the field. Today, it
mathematics, including number theory. He
encompasses a wide range of research areas.
introduced the notation for the sum of divisors
SOME OF THE EARLIEST KNOWN function and Euler's totient function.
MATHEMATICAL DISCOVERIES RELATED TO
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1885)
NUMBER THEORY INCLUDE:
Often called the "Prince of Mathematicians,"
1. Prime Numbers
Gauss made significant contributions to many
The concept of prime numbers, which are areas of mathematics, including number theory. He
natural numbers greater than 1 that have no worked extensively on modular arithmetic,
positive divisors other than 1 and themselves, quadratic forms, and prime numbers.
dates back to ancient civilizations like the Egyptians
Diophantus of Alexandria
and Greeks. They recognized the fundamental
importance of primes in arithmetic. Diophantus developed methods for solving
equations involving whole numbers, particularly
2. Euclid's Algorithm
quadratic and higher degree equations. His work
Developed by the ancient Greek laid the groundwork for later developments in
mathematician Euclid, this algorithm is one of the algebra.
oldest and most well-known methods for finding the
Pierre de Fermat (17th century)
greatest common divisor (GCD) of two numbers.
 He was a French lawyer and amateur Abraham Fraenkel improved Zermelo’s
mathematician. He is most famous for Fermat's Theorem. This theory is composed of the basic
Last Theorem, which states that no three positive concepts of set theory.
integers a, b, and c can satisfy the equation a^n +
SET THEORY
b^n = c^n for any integer value of n greater than 2.
branch of mathematics that deals with the
LESSON 2: SET THEORY
properties of well-defined collections of objects,
HISTORY which may or may not be of a mathematical nature,
such as numbers or functions
GEORG CANTOR
FUNDAMENTAL SET CONCEPTS
- the discovery of Set Theory can be credited only
to one person, and he is Georg Ferdinand Ludwig - set is a collection of objects (called members or
Philipp Cantor, a German mathematician. elements) that is regarded as being a single object.
To indicate that an object x is a member of a set A
Zeno of Elea
one writes x ∊ A, while x ∉ A indicates that x is not a
Pythagoras of Samos member of A.

Aristotle A set may be defined by a membership rule

(formula) or by listing its members within braces.
1872
GEORG CANTOR
LESSON 3: NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
RICHARD DEDEKIND
It is the study of geometry on surfaces
1874 which are not flat. Because the surface is curved,
Crelle’s Journal there are no straight lines in the traditional sense,
but these distance minimizing curves known as
Cantor published “On a Characteristic geodesics will play the role of straight lines in these
Property of All Real Algebraic Numbers” which new geometries. Then the geodesics are used as
formally marked the birth of Set Theory the basic object to create non-Euclidian circles,
triangles, and other polygons.
1879-1884
He published a 6-part treatise about Set
Theory in Mathematische Annalen. Here, he cited EUCLID’S FIFTH POSTULATE
the works of the early philosophers who influenced
him.
Cantor’s Six-Part Treatise:
1. The axioms of Set Theory
2. Transfinite numbers
3. Universe of all sets
If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes
4. Continuum Hypothesis
the sum of the interior angles on the same side less
5. Set theory as the foundation of Mathematics than two right angles, then the two straight lines, if
extended indefinitely, meet on that side on which
6. Fundamental Set Concepts the angle sum is less than the two right angles.
1889 Playfair’s Axiom
Giuseppe Peano introduced the symbol ∈
as a notation for “is an element of” in the language
of set theory.
1895-1897
Cantor published his final double treaties in Postulate: Given a line and a point not on that line,
Set Theory. It contained the useful terms in set there is exactly one line through the point that is
theory like subset and equivalent sets. parallel to the line

1902 Euclid’s Geometry is a geometry that holds

the parallel postulate.
Bertrand Russell published the ultimate
paradox: “R is the set of all sets that are not THE BIRTH OF NON- EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
members of themselves.”
GIROLAMO SACCHERI
1904
He assumed that the fifth postulate was
Ernst Zermelo proved that every set can be false and then attempted to develop a contradiction
well-ordered.
1922
He also studied the hypothesis of the acute angle Showed that there are 3 different types of
and derived many theorems of non-Euclidean geometry.
geometry without even realizing it
1. Bolyai-Lobachevsky
LAMBERT
2. Riemann
Studied a similar idea to Saccheri.
3. Euclidean
He noticed that the angle sum of a triangle
Fifth Postulate Controversy
increases as the area of a triangle decreases.
• Bolyai’s appendix
LEGENDRE
• Lobachevsky’s book
Spent 40 years working on the fifth postulate.
• The endorsement of Gauss
Proved that Euclid’s fifth postulate is equivalent to:
the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two • But the mathematical community wasn’t
right angles and cannot be greater than two right accepting it because it still wasn’t clear that
angles. this new system was consistent.
CARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS MODERN ALGEBRA
A German mathematician and physician who made
History of Algebra
significant contributions to many fields in
mathematics and science Egyptian Algebra
The first to discover the non-Euclidean geometry ● Mostly based on the Rhind Papyrus written
but unknown. at about 1650 B.C.
JANOS BOLYAI ● Can solve problems with one unknown now
called the “method of false position”
Son of Farkas Bolyai
● Rhetorical-problems are stated and solved
1823: “I have discovered things so wonderful that I verbally
was astounded...out of nothing I have created a
strange new world.” ● Can solve some problems with two
unknowns
NIKOLAI LOBACHEVSKY
● Was slowed down by their troublesome unit
In 1829, he published a work about replacing the fractions
5th postulate.
Babylonian Algebra
Postulate: “There exist two lines parallel to a given
line through a given point not on the line.” ● 1800 – 1600 B.C.
● More advanced than Egypt
● Had a general procedure similar to solving
quadratic equations
● Dealt with the equivalent of two equations in
two unknowns and higher degree
● Taught through examples (no reasons
given)
Greek Geometrical Algebra
BELTRAMI
● Represent quantities as geometrical
He was the one that made Bolyai’s and magnitudes
Lobachevsky’s ideas of geometry at the same level
as Euclidean. ● In content, only slightly beyond the
Babylonians but little practical value as it
In 1868, he wrote a paper Essay on the was in geometrical form
Interpretation of non-Euclidean geometry.
● This approach had also slowed down the
REIMANN progress in Algebra for several centuries
Wrote doctoral dissertation under Gauss’ Diophantine Algebra
supervision.
● Ended the Geometrical Algebra
Briefly discussed a “spherical geometry” in which
● Introduced the syncopated style of
every line through p not on a line AB meets the line
equations but still rhetorical
AB.
Hindu Algebra
KLEIN
● Took zero as a number and discussed
He finished Beltrami’s work on Bolyai and
operations
Lobachevsky’s non-Euclidean geometry
 ● Introduced negative numbers to represent Modern algebra helps solve mathematical
debts equations and allows us to derive unknown
quantities, like bank interest, proportions, and
● Developed correct procedures for operating
percentages. We can use the variables in the
with irrational numbers.
algebra to represent the unknown quantities that
● Only examples (no reasons or proof) are coupled in such a way as to rewrite the
equations. Learning algebra helps to develop your
Arabic Algebra critical thinking skills. That includes problem-
● Improved the Hindu number symbols solving, logic, patterns, and reasoning.

● Worked freely with irrationals

● Unlike the Hindu, they rejected negative
numbers
● The word “Algebra” came from an Arab
textbook
● Entirely rhetorical
European Algebra
● Negative numbers were known but not fully
accepted
● Mostly rhetorical
● Made many improvements in symbolism
MODERN ALGEBRA

 a branch of mathematics that emerged in

the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

 It represents a significant departure from

classical algebra, which primarily deals
with solving equations in terms of specific
numbers.

 referred to as abstract algebra

 it is a discipline of mathematics that

concentrates on the basic algebraic
structure of different sets such as groups,
rings, and fields, and their abstract
properties
Prominent figures in the development of
modern algebra
1. Évariste Galois (1811-1832) made
groundbreaking contributions to the theory
of polynomial equations and is known for
Galois theory.
2. Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789-1857)
made significant contributions to the
foundations of algebra, particularly in the
areas of group theory and permutation
groups.
3. Richard Dedekind (1831-1916) is known
for his work on number theory and the
development of the theory of ideals in
algebraic number fields, which laid the
groundwork for the study of rings.
4. Georg Cantor (1845-1918) introduced set
theory, which plays a fundamental role in
modern algebra.
5. Emmy Noether (1882-1935) Her
contributions revolve around the areas of
ring theory and the theory of ideals;
Noether’s theorem.
6. David Hilbert (1862-1943) played a crucial
role in formalizing and systematizing various
branches of mathematics, including abstract
algebra.