Unit 4.

3 Error Analysis and Dealing with Errors

1. Sources and reasons involved in making errors. Types of errors. Errors as a feature of interlanguage.
Categories of mistakes.

Reasons for learner errors:

1. Fossilization: Faulty rules and forms become permanent fixtures in learners' language use.
2. Developmental: Mistakes similar to those made by children learning their first language.
3. Mislearning: Learners may only partly learn new rules, forms, pronunciation, etc.
4. Interference: Learners transfer features of their mother tongue to the language they are learning.

Sources of learner errors:

1. Lack of exposure to the target language: Learners who do not have much exposure to the target
language outside of the classroom are more likely to make errors.
2. Differences in first language: Learners who speak a language other than English as their first
language often make errors due to the influence of their first language.
3. Poor teaching: If learners are not taught English effectively, they are more likely to make errors.
4. Lack of motivation: Learners who are not motivated to learn English are more likely to make
errors.
Types of errors:
● Random guess (pre-systematic)
● Testing out hypotheses (systematic)
● Slip of the tongue, lapse, mistake (post-systematic)
Categories of mistakes:
● Grammatical: Errors in the use of grammar rules.
● Lexical: Errors in the use of vocabulary.
● Phonological: Errors in pronunciation.
● Spelling: Errors in spelling.
● Punctuation: Errors in punctuation.
● Stylistic/situational: Errors in the use of language appropriate for a particular situation.

Errors as a feature of interlanguage:

Interlanguage (IL) is a unique linguistic system developed by second language learners as they
communicate in the target language. It is influenced by the learner's native language but differs from both
the first language (L1) and the target second language (L2). Interlanguage contains its own rules, including
ungrammatical elements, and evolves as learners receive input from teachers and peers. Despite its initial
errors, IL is dynamic and serves as a transitional bridge between L1 and L2. Over time, learners refine and
adjust their rules, showcasing the variability and systematic nature of interlanguage.

2. Understanding of correction. Types of correction; their advantages and disadvantages. Correction as a

motivating/demotivating factor in learning

Correction is a form of feedback, when a teacher or another student provides the correct version of an
error, either spoken or written.
1. All errors and mistakes should be immediately corrected by the teacher (pre-systematic and post-
systematic mistakes, slips and errors, fossilized errors (the ones which remain uncorrected and left
to become a part of a student’s language), anchoring (using some symbol) in fluency technique, not
to interrupt the student and have him lose his train of thought, ).
2. Immediate peer-correction should be systematically encouraged to get rid of errors (can be
demotivating, discouraging, a student may feel humiliated, though, it can foster the cooperative
spirit )
3. All errors should be noted and corrected at a time when doing so does not interfere with
communication. (otherwise they‟ll become fossilised errors)
 4. Errors should not be simply corrected, but also analysed and explained at an appropriate time.
5. Mistakes which are mere slips should be passed over, but systematic errors should be got rid of.
6. Errors should be accepted as „transitional interlanguage‟ and ignored.

Types of correction.
There are several ways of correction that can be employed in the classroom.
● Self-correction:
After the student recognizes what is incorrect in his/her response,
s/he should be able to correct him/herself. Self-correction is the best technique, because the student will
remember it better.
● Peer correction:
If the student cannot correct him/herself the teacher can encourage other students to supply corrections.
This technique is to be applied tactfully, so that the student who originally made the mistake will not feel
humiliated.
In the case of errors, it is useful if after peer correction the teacher goes back to the student who made the
error and gets him/her to say it correctly. Edge (1990) mentions the following advantages of peer
correction:
- It encourages cooperation, students get used to the idea that they can learn from each other
- Both learners (who made the error and who corrects) are involved in listening to and thinking about the
language
● Teacher correction:
If no one can correct, the teacher must realise that the point has not yet been learnt properly. In that case
the teacher can re-explain the problematic item of language, especially if the teacher sees that the majority
of the class has the same problem. There might be more repetition and practice necessary. We must not
forget that the main aim of correction is to facilitate the students to learn the new language item correctly.
That is why it is important that after correction the teacher has to ask the student who originally made the
error or mistake to give the correct response.

Type of Advantages Disadvantages

Correction

Self-correction ● People usually prefer to put their own ● Students may not be able to recognize
mistakes right rather than be corrected mistakes.
by someone else. ● Students may make another mistake.
● Self-correction is easier to remember. ● Overuse hinders the flow of
● It encourages noticing. It increases conversation.
confidence.

Peer correction ● Fosters teamwork and support: stronger ● Students may not catch mistakes.
students help weaker students. ● The same students can always
● Students can learn from each other and volunteer to correct.
be less dependent on teachers. ● It can be time consuming.
● It provides teachers with information ● Some learners might feel superior to
about the learners‟ progress. others.
● Some learners in some cultures are not
used to criticising each other.

Teacher ● Saves time. ● Creates a teacher-centred classroom.

correction ● It is good to use when learners can‟t ● Prevents students from noticing
judge what is right and what is wrong. mistakes.
● It works well with low-level students. ● Harms learners‟ ability to analyse why
something is wrong.
● It negatively affects confidence.
Correction can serve as both a motivating and demotivating factor in learning. Positive, constructive
feedback can inspire learners to improve and build confidence. On the contrary, excessive or overly critical
correction may lead to discouragement and reduced enthusiasm for learning. Striking a balance in
providing feedback is crucial to maintaining motivation in the learning process.

3. Common ways of giving and receiving feedback. Types of feedback.Principles of giving constructive
feedback. Ways of giving and receiving feedback

Feedback is information a teacher or another speaker, including another learner, gives to learners on how
well they are doing, either to help the learner improve specific points, or to help plan their learning.
Feedback can be immediate, during an activity, or delayed, at the end of an activity or part of a learning
programme and can take various forms.

Content-based
● Reading comprehension task.
● Listening comprehension task.
Language-based
● Matching new vocabulary to definitions.
● Completing a text that has missing words.
● Written grammar task where students choose the correct tense.

Oral feedback is usually given during a lesson while written feedback tends to be given after a task. Oral
feedback is sometimes underestimated because it is less formal, but it can be a very powerful and effective
tool as it can be provided easily in the ‘teachable moment’ and in a timely way.
Effective written feedback provides students with a record of what they are doing well, what needs
improvement and suggested next steps. Effective written feedback also needs to be timely, written in a
manner that is understandable to the student and actionable so that the student can make revisions.
Written feedback needs to include information about where the student has met the learning intentions
and/or success criteria and where improvement is still required.

Types of feedback:
1. Constructive: Offering solution-focused developmental dialogue and encouraging reflection.
2. Descriptive: Providing an accurate description of behaviour.
3. Destructive: Describing a perceived negative behaviour without proposing a solution.
4. Formal: Planned as part of the assessment process to evaluate learning.
5. General: Making broad comments of praise or blame.
6. Judgmental: Giving critical comments.
7. Negative: Focusing on shortcomings without offering guidance on ways of improvement.
8. Positive: Making encouraging comments and praising effort.
9. Informal: Given throughout the program, usually spoken.
10. Specific: Stating exactly what is being done.

Recasts involved the teacher’s reformulation of all parts of a students’ utterance minus the error.
Explicit Correction It refers to the explicit provision of the correct form. As the teacher provides the correct
form, he or she clearly indicated that what the students had said was incorrect.
Clarification requests indicate to students either that their utterance has been misunderstood by the
teacher or that the utterance is ill-formed and that a repetition or a reformulation is required.

Principles to make feedback constructive:

1. The content of the feedback: Constructive feedback is specific, issue-focused (rather than a value
judgement about the individual) and based on what is observable (rather than assuming anything
about the person's attitude or motivation). It also includes some specific direction on how to make
improvements (where needed).
 2. How the feedback is delivered: To be constructive, feedback should not be delivered in a way that
provokes hurt feelings, shame, defensiveness, resistance or a sense of failure. Honest does not
mean tactless.

4. Ways of dealing with errors during accuracy and fluency development activities. Correction techniques
for spoken errors

Correction Technique Description

Self-correction Recognizing and correcting one's own mistakes while speaking.

Speech recognition software Utilise tools that recognize spoken language and provide feedback.

Peer correction Classmates identify and correct each other's errors.

Teacher correction Receiving guidance and feedback from a teacher to improve speaking
accuracy and fluency.
Delayed correction Providing feedback on speaking mistakes after the speaking activity is
completed.
Correct non-verbally Use facial cues to convey approval or disapproval.

Visual prompt Display visual aids or cues to prompt correction.

Selective correction Focusing on specific areas of improvement rather than correcting every
mistake.
Grammar blogs/videos Refer to online resources explaining common grammar mistakes.

Discussion group feedback Participate in speaking-focused discussion groups for collective correction.

Online pronunciation tools Use tools focusing on pronunciation for accurate spoken language.

Elicitation Encouraging students to self-correct their mistakes by asking questions or

providing prompts.
Clarification Restating the student's error in a corrected form.
Hot error correction Providing feedback on errors as soon as they occur.
Giving the rule Clarifying rules about article usage.
Anticipation Identifying and memorizing common errors to avoid them in speech.

Reformulation Involves restating spoken errors or mistakes in a more accurate or

grammatically correct way.
Visual Method Using fingers to highlight errors, especially in contractions or missing
words.
Gestures Utilizing hand movements to indicate tense or word order errors.

Game-based Correction Turning correction into a game or activity for reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement Balancing correction with praise to motivate and acknowledge good
language use.
During speaking activities, monitor students and note pronunciation,
Correction Slots grammatical, or lexical mistakes. Pause the activity, write selected errors
on the board, and have students correct them. If there's an extra student,
assign them as an assistant teacher to note mistakes. Students often can
correct most errors themselves
5. Ways of dealing with errors in writing. Correction techniques for dealing with errors in writing.
Developing learners’ ability to self-correct and to take responsibility for their own errors.

Correction Technique Description

Using symbols Teachers use correction codes to indicate mistakes.

Marking criteria Teachers establish clear criteria for evaluating writing.

Reformulation Rewriting student's writing to maintain the main idea while upgrading
language, aiding acquisition through analysis.
Peer correction To build a positive vibe around peer correction, try first encouraging the
students to give only positive comments, slowly easing them into the idea of
correcting their partner’s mistakes.

Responding/Commenting Providing feedback by indicating what was liked and what needs
improvement, promoting a positive and goal-oriented approach.

Using Colors Utilizing colors (green for positive aspects, red for mistakes) to visually
highlight correct and incorrect elements in writing.
Self-Correction Encourage students to identify and correct errors themselves.

Crosses in the Margin Place crosses in the margin for the number of errors in each line. Students
identify and correct the errors.
Explicit Correction: Cross Cross out errors and provide the correct forms explicitly.
Out & Correct
Offering Useful Comments Provide comments that guide improvement and understanding.

Positive Feedback and Emphasize positive aspects, praise efforts, and encourage learners.
Encouragement

Focus on Necessary Correct grammar only when necessary, avoiding topics not yet taught.
Accuracy

Encouraging Multiple Drafts Promote the practice of revising and rewriting as a regular classroom activity.

5 Ways to Encourage Self-Correction

1. Playing Dumb
This is by far the easiest and my favourite way to get a student to self-correct (and it might be your favourite
too if you like “acting” for students). The technique goes something like this. Say a student incorrectly uses
a verb in the past tense and says, “Yesterday I leaved the school at 5 pm”. All you need to do is say,
“Sorry?” or “What was that?” or “Come again?” Making a face that expresses your confusion is a great
help! The student will be forced to repeat what he/she said and, in most cases, they correct their mistake
the second time around. If the student fails to notice the problem, try further encouragement: You said you
did what at 5pm? You …..what?
2. Write It Down
If the “playing dumb” strategy doesn’t work, write the sentence down on the board. You can go about this in
two ways:
Write the sentence down as it was said by the student and ask him/her to find the mistake.
Write the sentence down and leave a blank where the mistake was made. Ask the student to fill in the blank
correctly.
3. The Corrections Card
Most ESL teachers know that it is not convenient to interrupt and correct students during a performance
activity like a presentation or any kind of speech.
4. Gestures
5. The Red Flag.
Use a red flag (or any coloured flag) to literally flag mistakes. This technique is more useful for drilling or
intensive grammar practice, but less so for performance activities.