SECTION A

EXPERIMENT NO.1
Aim
To measure diameter of a small spherically cylindrical body using Vernier
Callipers.
Apparatus
Vernier callipers, a spherical body (pendulum bob) or a cylinder and a
magnifying lens.
Theory
If with the body between the jaws, the zero of vernier scale lies ahead of Nth.
division of main scale, then main scale reading (M.S.R.) = N. If nth division of
vernier scale coincides with any division of main scale, then
vernier scale reading (V.S.R.)
= n x (L.C.) (L.C. is least count of vernier callipers)
= n x (V.C.) (V.C. is vernier constant of vernier callipers)
Total reading, T.R. = M.S.R. + V.S.R. (L.C. = V.C.)
= N + n x (V.C.).
Diagram

Procedure
1. Determine the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e. least count (L.C.) of the vernier
callipers and record it step wise.2. Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact
with the fixed jaw AC and find the zero error. Do it three times and record
them. If there is no zero error, record zero error nil.
3. Open the jaws, place the sphere or cylinder between the two jaws A and
B and adjust the jaw DB, such that it gently grips the body without any undue
pressure on it. Tight the screw S attached to the vernier scale V.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale.
Record the main scale reading just before the zero mark of the vernier scale.
This reading (1st) is called main scale reading (M.S.R.).
5. Note the number (n) of the vernier scale division which coincides with some
division of the main scale.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the body by 90° for measuring the
diameter in a perpendicular direction.
7. Repeat steps 3, 4, 5 and 6 for three different positions. Record the
observations in each set in a tabular form.
8. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
9. Take mean of different values of diameter and show that in the result with
proper unit.
Observations
1. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the Vernier Callipers
1 M.S.D. = 1mm
10VS.D.=9M.S.D.
.-. 1 V.S.D. = 9/10 M.S.D. = 0.9 mm.
Vernier Constant, V.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D. = (1 – 0.9) mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01
cm.
Observations Table
Result
The diameter of the given sphere/cylinder is 2.61cm.
Precautions
1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by oiling if
necessary).
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly
recorded.
3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently (without
undue pres-sure on it from the jaws).
4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least as
three different places.
Sources of Error
1. The vernier scale may be loose on main scale.
2. The jaws may not be at right angles to the main scale.
3. The graduations on scale may not be correct and clear.
4. Parallax may be there in taking observations.
Aim To measure internal diameter and depth of a given beaker/calorimeter
using Vernier Callipers and hence find its volume.
Apparatus
Vernier callipers, a beaker or a calorimeter, magnifying glass.
Theory
For measuring internal diameter and depth - If with the body between the jaws,
the zero of vernier scale lies ahead of Nth.

division of main scale, then main scale reading (M.S.R.) = N.

If nth division of vernier scale coincides with any division of main scale, then
vernier scale reading (V.S.R.)
= n x (L.C.) (L.C. is least count of vernier callipers)
= n x (V.C.) (V.C. is vernier constant of vernier callipers)
Total reading, T.R. = M.S.R. + V.S.R. (L.C. = V.C.)
(i) T.R. = N + n x (V.C.)
(ii) For volume:
Volume of beaker or calorimeter = internal area of cross section x depth
Diagram

Procedure
1. Determine the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e., least count of the vernier callipers
and record it stepwise.
2. Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact with the fixed jaw AC and find
the zero error. Do it three times and record it. If there is no zero error, then
record, zero error nil. Measurement of internal diameter
3. Put the jaws C and D inside the beaker or calorimeter and open them till each
of them touches the inner wall of the beaker or calorimeter, , without any undue
pressure on the walls. Tight the screw attached to the vernier scale gently.
4. Note the-position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale.
Record the main scale reading just before the zero mark of the vernier scale.
This reading (IV) is called main scale reading (M.S.R.).5. Note the number (n)
of the vernier scale division which coincides with some division of the main
scale.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the vernier callipers by 90° for
measuring internal diameter in a perpendicular direction.
7. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
Measurement of depth
8. Keep the edge of the main scale of vernier callipers on its peripheral edge.
This should be done in such a way that the tip of the strip is able to go freely
inside the beaker along its depth.
9. Keep sliding the moving jaw of the vernier callipers until the strip just
touches the bottom of the beaker. Take care that it is just perpendicular to the
bottom surface. Now tighten the screw of the vernier callipers.
10. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for four different positions along the
circumference of the upper edge of the beaker or calorimeter.
11. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
12. Take mean of two different values of internal diameter and four
different values of the depth.
13. Calculate the volume by using proper formula and show that in the result
with proper unit.
Observations
1. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the Vernier Callipers
1 M.S.D. = 1mm
10VS.D.=9M.S.D.
.-. 1 V.S.D. = 9/10 M.S.D. = 0.9 mm.
Vernier Constant, V.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D. = (1 – 0.9) mm = 0.1 mm =
0.01 cm.
Observations Table
Table for the Internal Diameter (D)
Table for the depth (d)

Calculations
Result
The volume of the beaker/calorimeter is 57.5 cm3.
Precautions
1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by oiling
if necessary).
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly
recorded.
3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently (without
undue pressure on it from the jaws).
4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least as
three different places.
Sources of Error
1. The vernier scale may be loose on main scale.
2. The jaws may not be at right angles to the main scale.
3. The graduations on scale may not be correct and clear.
4. Parallax may be there in taking observations.
EXPERIMENT NO.2
Aim To measure diameter of a given wire using screw gauge.
Apparatus Screw gauge, wire, half-metre scale and magnifying lens.
Theory
1. If with the wire between plane faces A and B, the edge of the cap lies ahead
of Mb division of linear scale.
Then, linear scale reading (L.S.R.) = N. If nth division of circular scale lies over
reference line. Then, circular scale reading (C.S.R.) = n x (L.C.) (L.C. is least
count of screw gauge) Total reading (T.R.) = L.S.R. + C.S.R. = N+n x (L.C.).
2. If D be the mean diameter and l be the mean length of the wire,Volume of the
wire,
Diagram

Procedure
1.Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D.).
2.Determine the pitch and the least count of the screw gauge and record itstep
wise.
3.Bring the plane face B in contact with plane face A and find the zero error. Do
it three times and record them. If there is no zero error, then record zero error
nil.4.Move the face B away from face A. Place the wire lengthwise over face A
and move the face B towards face A using the ratchet head R. Stop when R
turns (slips) without moving the screw.
5.Note the number of divisions of the linear scale visible and uncovered by the
edge of the cap. The reading (IV) is called linear scale reading (L.S.R.).
6.Note the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying over reference
line.
7.Repeat steps 5 and 6 after rotating the wire by 90° for measuring diameter in a
perpendicular direction.
8.Repeat steps 4, 5, 6 and 7 for five different positions separated equally
throughout the length of the wire. Record the observations in each set in a
tabular form.
9.Find total reading and apply zero correction in each case.
10. Take mean of different values of diameter.
11. Measure the length of the wire by stretching it along a half-metre scale.
Keeping one end of wire at a known mark, note the position of other end.
Difference in position of the two ends of the wire gives the length of the wire.
Do it three times and record them.
Observations
1.Determination of Least Count of the Screw Gauge . 1 L.S.D. = 1 mm
Number of full rotations given to screw = 4
Distance moved by the screw = 4 mm
Hence, pitch p = 4 mm/4 = 1 mm
Number of divisions on circular scale = 100
Hence, least count, =1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm.
Observations Table
Calculations
Result- Diameter of the wire is 1.36mm.

Precautions
1.To avoid undue pressure; the screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and
not by cap K.
2.The screw should move freely without friction.
3.The zero correction, with proper sign should be noted very carefully and
added algebraically.
4.For same set of observations, the screw should be moved in the same direction
to avoid back-lash error of the screw.
5.At each place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two
perpendicular directions and then the mean of the two be taken.
6.Readings should be taken at least for five different places equally spaced
along the whole length of the wire.
7.Error due to parallax should be avoided.
Sources of error
1.The screw may have friction.
2.The screw gauge may have back-lash error.
3.Circular scale divisions may not be of equal size.
4.The wire may not be uniform.
EXPERIMENT NO. 3

Aim
Using a simple pendulum, plot L-T and L-T2 graphs and use it to find the
effective length of the second’s pendulum.

Apparatus and Material Required

 Clamp stand
 Split Cork
 Heavy metallic spherical bob with a hook
 Long and strong cotton thread
 Stopwatch
 Meter scale
 Graph Paper
 Pencil Eraser

Principle
The simple pendulum exhibits Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) as the
acceleration of the pendulum bob is directly proportional to the displacement
from the mean position and is always directed towards it. The time period (T) of
a simple pendulum for oscillations of small amplitude, is given by the relation
T = 2 π √ (L/g)
T2 = (4π2/g) x L or T2 = KL (K= constant)

and, g = 4π2(L/T2)

Where L is the length of the pendulum and g is the acceleration of gravity

Procedure

1. Place the clamp stand on the table. Tie the hook attached to the pendulum
bob, to one end of the string of about 150 cm in length and the other end
of the string through two half-pieces of a split cork.
2. Clamp the split cork firmly to the clamp stand such that the line of
separation between the two pieces of the split cork is at right angles to the
line OA along which the pendulum oscillates as given in the figure. Mark
the edge of the table a vertical line parallel to and just behind the vertical
thread OA, the position of the bob at rest. Take care that the bob hangs
 vertically (about 2 cm above the floor) beyond the edge of the table so
that it is free to oscillate.
3. Measure the effective length of the simple pendulum as shown in the
figure.

1. Displace the bob not more than 15 degrees from the vertical position OA
and then gently release it. If you notice the stand to be shaky, put a heavy
object on its base. Make sure that the bob oscillates in a vertical plane
about its rest and does not (i) spin about its own axis (ii) move up and
down while oscillating (iii)revolve in an elliptic path around its mean
position.
2. Keep the pendulum oscillating for a few minutes. After the completion of
few oscillations, start the stopwatch as the thread attached to the bob
crosses the mean position. Consider it as a zero oscillation.
3. Keep counting the oscillation 1,2,3…n every time the bob crosses the
mean position. Stop the stopwatch at the count of n oscillations. For
better results, n should be chosen such that the time taken to complete n
oscillations is 50 s or more. Read the total time taken for n oscillations.
Repeat the observation a few times by noting down the time for the
same n number of oscillations. Once noted down, take the mean of the
readings. Calculate the time for one oscillation, i.e., the time
period T ( = t/n) of the pendulum.
4. Change the length of the pendulum, by about 10 cm. Repeat step 6 again
for finding the time (t) for about 20 oscillations or more for the new
length and find the mean time period. Take 5 or 6 more observations for
different lengths of the pendulum and find the mean time period in each
case.
 5. Report observations in tabular form with proper units and significant
figures.
6. Take effective length L along the x-axis and T2 (or T) along the y-axis,
using the observed values from the table. Choose suitable scales on these
axes to represent L and T2 (or T). Plot a graph between L and T2 as
shown in figure 2 and also between L and T as shown in figure 1.

Observation
The radius of the pendulum of the bob = ….. cm
Length of the hook = ….. cm
Least count of the meter scale = ….. mm
Least count of the stopwatch = ….. s

S. Length of the Effective Number of Time for n oscillations t Time

No string from the length, oscillations (s) period
top of the bob counted, n
to the point of L= T (=
suspension l (l+r+e) t/n)

cm m (i) (ii) (iii) Meant (s)

Plotting Graph
(i) L vs T Graph
Plot a graph between L versus T from observations recorded in the table above,
taking L along x-axis and T along the y-axis. You will find that this graph is a
curve, which is part of a parabola as shown in Figure 1.
(ii) L vs T2 Graph
Plot a graph between L versus T2 from observations recorded in the table,
taking L along the x-axis and T2 along the y-axis. You will find that the graph
is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in figure 2.

(iii) From the L versus T2 graph, determine the effective length of the second’s
pendulum for T2
Result
The graph L versus T is curved, convex upwards.
The graph L versus T2 is a straight line.
The effective length of the second’s pendulum from the L versus T2 graph is …
cm.
EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Aim- To find the weight of a given body using the parallelogram law of vectors.

Materials Required

1. Gravesand’s apparatus which is a parallelogram law of forces apparatus

2. Plumb line
3. Two hangers with slotted weights
4. A body whose weight is to be determined
5. Thin strong thread
6. White drawing paper
7. Drawing pins
8. Mirror strip
9. Sharp pencil
10. Half-meter scale
11. Set squares
12. Protractor

Theory -If an unknown weight body S is suspended from the middle of the
hanger, and P and Q are the two balance weights from the other two ends of the
hanger, then the unknown weight is calculated using the below equation:
Where,

 S is the unknown weight

 P and Q are the balance weight
Where,

Diagram
Procedure-

1. Set up the Grave sand's apparatus with its board vertical and with the help
of a plumb line.
2. Oil the pulleys P1 and P2 if they are not friction-less.
3. With the help of drawing pins, fix the white sheet on the board.
4. Let O be the knot made from three-piece of strong thread.
5. Let P and Q be the weights that are tied at both the ends of the hanger and
S be the given body tied to the third end.
6. Let the third weight S be vertically in the middle of the board and weights
P and Q are passed over the pulley.
7. Junction O should be maintained at equilibrium by adjusting weights P
and Q.
8. All the three weights P, Q and S act as three forces,

P→,Q→and S→.

9. All three weights should hang freely without touching the board or table.
10. With a sharp pencil, mark the position of junction O.
11. Disturb the weights P and Q and leave them free.
12. The position of junction O will be closer to the earlier position.
13. Let P1 and P2 be the position of P, Q1 and Q2 be the position of Q and
S1 and S2 be the position of S which are taken down with the help of the
mirror.
14. Remove the paper from the board.
15. Using half-meter scale draw lines through P1 and P2, Q1 and Q2 and
S1 and S2 represent P, Q, and S respectively. All these lines should meet
at point O.
16. Taking a scale, 1 cm = 50 g, OA = 3 cm and OB = 3 cm to represent P
=150g and Q = 150g.
17. R is represented by completing the parallelogram OACB and by joining
OC with the help of set squares.
18. When OC is measured, it comes to 3.9 cm.
19. P and Q can be changed for different sets.
20. By using spring balance, find the weight of the wooden box.

Observation
Least count of spring balance = …… g
Zero error of spring balance = …….. g
Weight of unknown body by spring balance = …….g
Scale used: Let 1 cm = 50 g
Scale used: Let 1 cm = 50 g

Sl. Forces Sides Resultant Unknown Weight Error

no force R (g weight S (g by spring (g wt)
wt) wt) balance
P (g Q OA OB OC (g wt)
wt) (g (cm) (cm) (cm)
wt)

1. 100 100 2 2 3.1 155g 155g 160g 5

2.

3.

Calculations
OC = 3.1 cm, R = 50 × 3.1 = 155 g
Unknown weight, S = 155g
Mean unknown weight,
S=S1+S2+S3+S4=152.5g

Weight by spring balance = 160 g

Difference = 5 g

Result
The unknown weight of given body = 152.5 g
The error is within limits of experimental error.

Precautions

1. The board should be stable and placed vertically.

2. There shouldn’t be any friction in the pulleys.
3. The board or the table should not be in touch with the hangers.
4. The middle of the paper should have junction O.
5. When the weights are at rest, the points should be marked.
6. A sharp pencil should be used to mark the points.
7. To show the direction of forces, arrows should be marked.
8. To make a fairly big parallelogram, a proper scale should be taken.

Sources Of Error

1. There might be friction in the pulleys.

2. Weights might not be accurate.
3. Points marked may be correct.
4. Weight measured by spring balance may not be accurate.
SECTION B
EXPERIMENT NO.1
Aim - To determine Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material of a given
wire.

Materials Required

1. Searle’s apparatus
2. Two long steel wires of the same length and diameter
3. A meter scale
4. A screw gauge
5. Eight 0.5 kg slotted weights
6. 1 kg hanger

Theory

The normal stress for a wire with length L and the radius r is loaded with
weight Mg where l represents the increase in length, then normal stress is given
as:

Normal stress = Mg/ πr2

Longitudinal strain = l/L

Thus, Young’s modulus = Normal stress/ longitudinal strain Y = (Mg/ πr2)/(l/L)

Y = MgL/ πr2l

Y can be calculated as the values of L and r are known and l is found by

known Mg value.

Diagram
 Diagram

Observations

The Length of experimental wire AB, L = ….. cm = ……m

The Measurement of diameter of the wire

The Pitch of the screw gauge (p) = 0.1 cm

Number of divisions on the circular scale = 100

Least count of screw gauge (L.C) = 0.1/100 = 0.001 cm

Zero error of screw gauge (e) = …….cm

Zero error of screw gauge (e) = -e = ……cm

Diameter of the experimental wire:

 Diameter of the
experimental wire

Measurement for extension of the wire:

Breaking stress for steel from a table, B = ….. Nm-2

Area of a cross-section of a wire, πr2 = ….. cm2 = …….m2

Breaking load = Bπr2 = …. N

Bπr2/9.8 = …. Kg

1/3rd of the breaking load = ….kg

Pitch of the spherometer screw, (p) = 0.1 cm

Number of divisions in the disc = 100

Least count of spherometer (LC) = 0.1/100 = 0.001 cm

Load and extension:

 Load and
extention

Calculations

From table 1

d = (d0 + c) = ……cm = ……m

Mean radius of wire,

r = d/2 = ……m

From table 2

Mean extension for 2.5 kg load,

l = l1 + l2 + l3 + l4/ 4 = ….. Cm = ….. m

From formula,

Y = MgL/ πr2l = 2.5 x 9.8 x l/ πr2l Nm-2

Results

1. As determined by Searle’s apparatus, the Young’s modulus for steel =

…….. Nm-2
2. Straight-line graph between load and extension displays that stress ∝
strain, which verifies Hooke’s law.

Percentage error

Actual value of Y for steel =…… Nm-2

Difference in values =……… Nm-2

Percentage error = (difference in values)/(actual value) = …….%

EXPERIMENT NO .2

Aim
To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time by
plotting the cooling curve.

Apparatus and Materials Required

 Newton’s law of cooling apparatus (copper calorimeter with a wooden lid

having two holes for inserting a thermometer and a stirrer and an open
double – walled vessel)
 Two thermometers
 Stop clock
 Heater
 Burner
 Water
 Clamp Stand
 Two rubber stoppers with holes
 Strong cotton threads
 Beaker

Diagram

Theory
Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of cooling of a body is directly
proportional to the temperature difference between the body and the
surrounding, provided the temperature difference is small.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as follows:
dQ/dt∝(T1−T2)

For a body of mass m, specific heat c, with a temperature T kept in the

surrounding of temperature T0, the heat energy is given as follows:
Rate of cooling,
dQ/dt=msdT/dt

Hence,
msdT/dt∝(T−T0)

ms is a constant,
dT/dt∝(T−T0)

From the above relation, it is clear that as time increases, T decreases, (T–T0)
decreases, as result the fall of temperature (dT/dt) must also decrease.

Procedure

1. Fill the space between the double wall of the enclosure with water and
keep it on top of a table.
2. Fill two-thirds of the calorimeter with water heated to about 80 °C.
3. Suspend the calorimeter inside the enclosure with a thermometer in it.
Cover it with a wooden lid with a hole in the middle.
4. Suspend a thermometer from the clamp and stand into the enclosure
water and the other thermometer in calorimeter water.
5. Note the least count of thermometers.
6. Set the stop clock to zero and note down its least count.
7. Note the temperature T0 of water in the enclosure.
8. Start stirring the water in calorimeter so that it cools uniformly.
9. When the calorimeter has convenient temperature reading, note it down
and start and stop the clock watch
10. Continue stirring and note the temperature after every few minutes. The
temperature falls quickly in the first few minutes
11. Note down the enclosure water temperature every five minutes.
 12. When the temperature fall becomes slow, note down the temperature at
an interval of two minutes for ten minutes and then an interval of 5
minutes.
13. Stop when the fall of temperature becomes very slow.
14. Record your observation as given in the table below

Observation
The Least count of enclosure water thermometer = _____ °C
The Least count of calorimeter water thermometer = _____ °C
The Least count of stop clock watch = _____ s

S.No of Time For Temperature of Temperature of Difference in

observations Cooling water in water in temperature
calorimeter enclosure
t T – T0 °C
(T °C) (T0 °C)

Calculation

1. The temperature of water in the enclosure will be found to be the same. If

not, then take its mean.
2. Find the temperature difference (T – T0)
 3. Plot a graph between temperature T and time t as shown below.

Result
The temperature is seen to fall quickly in the beginning and then the difference
in temperature slowly decreases. This is in agreement with Newton’s law of
cooling.

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Aim : To determine specific heat capacity of a given solid by method of
mixtures.
Apparatus A hypsometer, calorimeter, stirrer, a lid and outer jacket,
given solid in power form or in small pieces, balance, weight box, two
half degree thermometer, cold water, clamp stand.
Theory
In hypsometer, the solid is heated uniformly above room temperature up to a
xed temperature and then solid is added to cold water in calorimeter.
Heat lost by solid = Heat gain by the water and calorimeter.

Procedure
1. Put two thermometer A and B in a beaker containing water and note their
reading. Take one of them, say A to be standard and and find the correction to
be applied to the other, say B.
2. Put thermometer B in copper tube of hypsometer containing the power of
given solid . Put sufficient water in hypsometer and place it on a burner.
3. Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer and lid over it by the physical balance .
Record it.
4. Fill about half of calorimeter with water at about temperature 5 to 8°C below
room temperature . Now, weigh it again and record it.
5. Heat the hypsometer about 10 minutes till the temperature of solid remains
steady.
6. Note the temperature of water in the calorimeter. Now, transfer the solid from
hypsometer to the calorimeter quickly. Stir the contents and record the final
temperature of the mixture
7. Remove the thermometer A from calorimeter and weigh the calorimeter with
its contents and lid.
Observations :
Calculations

SAMPLE READING
 Result :
Specific heat of given solid by method of mixture is……………
Precautions :
1. Sufficient solid power should be taken to cover the tip of thermometer
properly.
2. Sufficient water should be taken in hypsometer.
3. Solid should be dropped quickly and gently.
4. Calorimeter should be polished from outside to avoid excessive radiation
5. Temperature of cold water should not be below the dew

Sources of error :
1. Some heat is lost while transferring hot solid into calorimeter.
2. Some heat is lost in conduction, convection and r
3. The bulbs of the thermometer may not be well inside the calorimeter.
EXPERIMENT NO.4

AIM -To study the relationship between the length of a given wire and tension
for constant frequency using a sonometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED- Sonometer, tuning fork of known frequency,

meter scale, rubber pad, paper rider, hanger with half – kilogram masses,
wooden bridges.

FORMULA

The frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration of a string is given by,

If n is a constant, for a given wire (m is constant)

√T/l is constant.

Where

n → Frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration of a string (Hz)

m → Mass per unit length of string (kg m–1)

T → Tension in the string (including the weight of the hanger) = Mg (N)

l → Length of the string between the wedges ( metre )

M → Mass suspended, including the mass of the hanger (kg)

DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE

· Set up the sonometer on the table and clean the groove on the pulley to
ensure that it has minimum friction.

· Set a tuning fork of known frequency into vibration by striking it against

the rubber pad. Plug the sonometer wire and compare the sound due to the
vibration of tuning fork and the plugged wire.

· Adjust the vibrating length of the wire by the adjusting the bridge B till
the two sounds appear alike.

· Place a mass of 1 kg for initial reading in the load hanger.

· For final adjustment place a small paper rider R in the middle of the wire
AB.

· Now, strike the tuning fork and place its shank stem on the bridge A and
then slowly adjust the position of the bridge B till the paper rider is agitated
violently (might eventually falls) indicating resonance.

· Measure the length of the wire between wedges at A and B which is the
fundamental mode corresponding to the frequency of the tuning fork.

· Increase the load on the hanger in steps of 0.5 kg and each time find the
resonating length as done before with the same tuning fork.

· Record the observations in the tabular column.

MODEL GRAPH

OBSERVATIONS

Frequency of the tuning fork = ________ Hz

CALCULATION

Calculate the value √T/l for the tension applied in each case.

RESULT -The resonating length varies as square root of tension for a given
frequency of vibration of a stretched string.

√T/l is found to be a constant.

ACTIVITIES -SECTION A

ACTIVITY NO.1

Aim

To make a paper scale of given least count, e.g., 0.2 cm, 0.5 cm.

Apparatus

A thick white paper sheet, pencil, scale with sharp edge marked in cm and mm,
fevicol,

a pair of scissors, a paper cutter, thick ivory sheet used by engineering students.

Theory

Least count. The minimum observation that can be measured by the instrument

accurately is called the least count of instrument.

Range of an instrument. The maximum observation that can be measured by

instrument is called its range.

Diagram

Procedure
(A) Paper scale of least count 0.2 cm

1. Fold a white paper sheet in the middle along lengthwise.2. Mark in the upper
half along the length a line PQ 15 cm long by a sharp pencil

(Fig. A).

3. Take P as zero mark points on PQ at a distance of 1.0 cm and write as 0,1,

2,……up to 15.

4. Mark the vertical lines to line PQ at the position of each mark 0, 1, 2,……up
to 15.

5. Draw another sharp line RS which is parallel to PQ at a distance of 8 mm.

6. Draw another line XY parallel to PQ at a distance of about 25 mm. And

complete the rectangle ABXY.

7. Now divide each 1.0 cm interval into five equal divisions on PQ by marking
points at every interval of 2 mm. Mark these points up to 15 cm mark.

8. Now draw sharp small lines about 3 mm long perpendicular to PQ on each of

the point which is separated by 2 mm.

9. Draw another line AB parallel to PQ at a gap of 3 mm.

10.Darken each line and division by the sharp black pen, and write 1,2,……15
at each cm mark.

11.Cut the rectangular scale by a sharp paper cutter and paste it on a thick ivory

sheet and cut the sheet along the boundary of the rectangle with the help of

scissors.

12.Paper scale of least count 0.2 mm and of the range of 15 cm is ready.

(B) Paper scale of least count 0.5 cm

1. Repeat steps 1 to 6 as in part A of the above activity.

2. Divide each 1.0 cm interval into two equal divisions on PQ by marking points
at every interval of 5 mm and mark these points up to 15 cm mark (Fig. B).
3. Draw sharp small lines about 3 mm long perpendicular to PQ on each of the
point which is separated by 5 mm.

4. Draw another line AB parallel to PQ at a gap of 3 mm.

5. Darken each line and division by the sharp black pen and write 1,2,…….15 at

each cm mark.

6. Repeat the step 11 as in part A of the Activity 1.

7. Paper scale of least count 0.5 cm and of the range of 15 cm is ready.

(C) Measure the length of pencil with the paper scale

1. Place one end A of the pencil along the scale (A) in such a way so that A lies
at full mark say 1 cm and read the position of the other end. Repeat the
observation by placing the one end A of the pencil at 2 cm mark and take the
reading of the

other end.

2. Use the second scale (B) of least count 0.5 cm in the similar manner as
explained

in step 1 and record the observations.

Observations

Least count of the scale (A) = ……..0.2 cm.

Table for length of the pencil using scale (A)Mean length of the pencil
=………..cm.

Table for length of the pencil using scale (A)

Mean length of the pencil =………..cm.

Table for length of the pencil using scale (B)

Result

1. The scales of the least count 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm have been made.

2. The length of the pencil, using scale (A) = …….cm.

The length of the pencil, using scale (B) = ……….cm.

Precautions

1. The cm markings should be longer than 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm markings.

2. Final lines and marking should be drawn by using fine tipped black ink pen.

3. Paper scale should be pasted on the thick ivory paper.

4. Use very sharp pencil for the graduation marks.

Sources of error

1. Graduation marks may not be equally separated.

2. The lines showing graduations may not be sharp as required.

ACTIVITY NO. 2

Aim
To determine mass of a given body using a metre scale by principle of
moments.

Apparatus
A metre scale, a broad heavy wedge with sharp edge, a weight box, a body of
unknown mass.
Theory
If m and M be the mass of the body and mass of the weight used and a1 and
a2 be the distances of their loops from wedge. Then, power (mass) arm = a1,
weight arm = a2
From principle of moments mg a1 = Mg a2
or m=Ma1/a1 which can be calculated.
Two Different Methods
(i) Arm lengths fixed and equal, weight adjustable.
The thread loops are suspended at positions forming both arm of equal length.
Weights in the paper pan are adjusted till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
(Fig. 3).
In this case a1= a2 = a
Hence, mg a1= Mg a2
or m = M
A physical balance makes use of this method.
(ii) Masses and power arm fixed, weight arm adjustable.
Mass is suspended at a fixed distance a1 .
Length of power arm is adjusted by moving weight loop thread in and out till
the metre scale become horizontal (Fig. 4).
In this case a1 = a, a2 = A
Hence mg a1 = Mg a2, becomes mg a = Mg A
or m= M A/a

Diagram

Procedure
1. Arrange the metre scale horizontally by supporting it at the sharp edge of the
broad heavy wedge at 50 cm mark.
2. Suspended the body of unknown mass by a loop thread at a fixed mark on the
left of the wedge.
3. Suspended paper pan at same distance on the right of the wedge with some
weights in it.
4. Adjust the weights in the paper pan till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
5. Note the mass of the weights in the pan.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5, three times by increasing the length of the arms in equal
steps keeping the lengths equal.
7. Record the observations as given in the following table.

Observations and calculations

Result
The unknown mass of the body, m =…………g.

Precautions

1. The wedge should be broad and heavy with sharp edge.

2. Metre scale should have uniform mass distribution.
3. Threads used for loops should be thin, light and strong,

Sources of error

1. The wedge may not be sharp.

2. Metre scale may have faulty calibration.
3. The threads used for loops may be thick and heavy.
 ACTIVITY NO. 3

To Plot a Graph for a Given set of Data, with Proper Choice of Scales and
Error Bars

Aim
To plot a graph for a given set of data, with proper choice of scales and error
bars.

Apparatus
Graph paper, scale, rubber, pencil.

Data

Procedure
(a) To identify dependent and independent variable
1. The load is taken as independent variable and should be taken on X-axis. The
extension is taken as dependent variable and should be taken on Y-axis.
(b) To select proper scale for load and extension
2. Find the range of load i.e., 350 -50 = 300 gf and extension i.e., 0.57 – 0.08 =
0.49 cm.
Since the range of load is greater than extension, then load-axis is taken parallel
to longer side and extension axis is taken to smaller side of graph paper.
3. Since, the data have the positive values, then origin is taken at the lower left
comer of the graph paper.
4. Along the load-axis (X-axis), one small division (1 S.D.) = 5 gf and along the
extension axis (Y-axis).
1 S.D. = 0.01 cm.
(c) To plot the data with error bars
5. Mark the points 50, 100, 150, 350 gf on the load axis and the points 0.10,
0.20,
0. 30 0.60 cm on the extension-axis of the graph paper.
6. For the first data point, the value of load is 50 gf and extension is 0.08 cm
measured with an accuracy of ± 0,2 cm. Mark the dot on the graph paper against
the load 50 gf and extension 0.08 cm and surround it by a small circle as
Corresponding to the load of 50 gf, the error bars are indicated against the upper
and lower limiting values of the extension as 0.08 – 0.02 and 0.08 + 0.02 i.e.,
0.06 and 0.10 cm. The first data point is then completely plotted as

7. Similarly, plot the remaining data points, all the data points should lie in a
straight line.
In general, a few data points may be of the expected straight line graph.
8. Draw a straight line joining the data points, taking care that the points, which
do not lie on the straight line graph are distributed evenly above and below it.
9. Write down the title of the graph i.e., ‘Graph between load and extension’
and the scales used along the two axes on the graph-paper.

Result
The graph between load and extension for the given set of data along with the
error bars is as shown in Graph.

Precautions

1. The scale along the two axes should be properly selected.

2. The data points should be joined with a smooth curve or a straight line (as
the case may be), so as to pass through the maximum number of points
and the points, which do not lie on the graph, should be distributed evenly
above and below it.
SECTION B

ACTIVITY 1
Aim

To observe change of state and plot a cooling curve for molten wax.

Apparatus

A uniform straight wooden metre rod (scale). Two G clamp, pointer

pin, thread, slotted weights of 50 g each, wax, vertical scale, clamp

stand.

Theory

(а) For cooling

(b) For change of state

When molten wax cools down to its freezing point, it starts solidifying and the
temperature becomes constant.

The curve becomes horizontal thereafter (parallel to time-axis) as shown in

Graph

Graph
Procedure

1.Calorimeter is filled two third by molten wax (in place of water)

2. When temperature of wax falls to about 80°C note it and start the

stop clock.

3. Continue stirring and note temperature after every one minute.

4. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.

5. When fall of temperature stops, remove the lid and note that the wax in
calorimeter starts solidifying. Temperature remains same till all the wax in
calorimeter solidifies.

6. Watch the constant temperature for some minutes.

7. Record your observations as given below.

Observations

Least count of enclosure thermometer = ……….°C.

Constant temperature of enclosure, θ0= ……….°C

Least count of calorimeter-wax thermometer = …………°C.

Least count of stop clock/watch = ………..s.

Table for time and temperature

Plot a graph between time t and temperature 0, taking t along X-axis and 0
along Y-axis. The decreasing slope curve is called cooling curve of molten wax.

The horizontal straight line is called freezing curve of the wax.

Result

1. The temperature falls quickly in the beginning and then slowly.

2. When wax starts freezing, the temperature does not fall further. The freezing
point comes to be 50°C as calculated from graph.

Precautions 1. The metre scale should be straight and uniform and clamped
firmly.
2. The tip of pointer should not touch the vertical scale.

3. The scale should not be loaded beyond the elastic limit.

4. Reading on metre scale should be taken carefully.

Sources of error

1. The metre scale may be non-uniform.

2. The tip of pointer may not be very sharp.

ACTIVITY 2

Aim

To study the factors affecting the rate of loss of heat of a liquid.

Apparatus

Two calorimeters A and B of different areas, two thermometers, two

stands, stopwatch, wooden lids, burner and liquid (water).

Theory

According to Newton’s Law of cooling, rate of cooling (i.e., heat lost

per sec) of a body is directly proportional to the difference of

temperature of the body and the surrounding.

(i) Nature of surface.

(ii) Area of surface.

(iii) Nature of material of body.

Then, for same difference of temperature, rate of cooling also

depends upon :

(i) Area of the surface of the body.

(ii) Nature of the surface of the body.

(iii) Material of the surface of the body (material effects conductivity through
walls of the body)
Diagram

Procedure

1.Fill the space between double wall of the enclosure with water and

put the enclosure on a laboratory table.

2.Fill the calorimeter two-third with water heated to about 80°C.

3.Suspend the calorimeter inside the enclosure along with a stirrer in

it. Cover it with a wooden lid having a hole in its middle.

4.Suspend from clamp and stand, one thermometer in enclosure

water and the other in calorimeter water.

5.Note least count of the thermometers.

6. Set the stop clock/watch at zero and note its least count.

7. Note temperature (T0) of water in enclosure.

8. Start stirring the water in calorimeter to make it cool uniformly.

9. Just when calorimeter water has some convenient temperature

reading (say 70°C), note it and start the stop clock/watch.

10. Continue stirring and note temperature after every one minute.

The temperature falls quickly in the beginning.

11. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.

12. When fall of temperature becomes slow note temperature at interval of two
minutes for 10 minutes and then at interval of 5 minutes.

13. Stop when fall of temperature becomes very slow.

14. Record your observations as given ahead.

Case I. Take same volume of same liquid in calorimeter of small and large
cross¬section (nature and material of surface same).

Case II. Take same volume of same liquid in similar calorimeter

having black painted and polished outer surface (area and material of

surface same).

Case III. Take same volume of same liquid in similar calorimeter of

different materials (area and nature of surface same).

Observations

Least count of enclosure water thermometer =……………..°C.

Least count of calorimeter water thermometer = …………..°C.

Least count of stop clock/watch = ………….s.

Table for time and temperature

(Note. The ideal observations given above are as sample.)

Graph

Comparison of graphs

Case I. Cooling is fast from more surface area.

Cooling is slow from less surface area.

Case II. Cooling is fast from black painted surface and slow from

polished surface of the calorimeter.

Case III. Cooling is fast from calorimeter having more conducting

material and slow from calorimeter having less conducting material.

Result

Case I. Rate of cooling depends upon the area of the surface through

which heat is lost. More area of surface causes higher rate of cooling.

Case II. Rate of cooling depends upon the nature of the surface

through which heat is lost. Black painted surface causes higher rate

of cooling.

Case III. Rate of cooling depends upon the material of the surface.

More conducting surface causes higher rate of cooling

.Precautions

1. Double-walled enclosure should be used to maintain

surrounding at a constant temperature.

2. Stirring should remain continuous for uniform cooling.

3. Same volume of same liquid should be taken in all cases.

4. Graphs of one case should be plotted on same graph paper on

same scale.

Activity – 6

Aim

To observe and explain the effect of heating on a bi-metallic strip.

Apparatus
A bi-metallic strip (made of iron and brass bars), a board with clamp screw on
one side and vertical scale on the other side, electric heating arrangement, or a
burner thermometer.

Short Description of a Bi-metallic Strip

It is a strip made up of two bars of different metals but same

dimensions, put together lengthwise and ripetted at their ends. The strip is
straight at room temperature.

When the bi-metallic strip is heated both bars expand differently. Since they are
ripetted at their ends, their ends stay together. The bimetallic strip bends
keeping more expanding bar on its convex side. More is heating, more is the
bending. In case of an iron-brass bi-metallic strip, the bent strip will have brass
bar on its convex side.

Theory

If two rods of different metals have same length L1 at temperature t1°C, their
length at higher temperature t2 °C will be different. The rod of a metal having
more value of ‘ coefficient of linear expansion will have more length than the
other rod

Diagram

Procedure

1. Clamp one end of the brass-iron bi-metallic strip, keeping brass bar on the
lower side.
2. Keep the strip horizontal rested on a vertical support.

3. Fix a vertical scale near the free end of the bi-metallic strip.

4. Suspend a thermometer with its bulb touching the strip in the middle.

5. Note the initial temperature of the strip.

6. Note the vertical scale division coinciding with the upper edge of the strip.

7. Heat the strip by passing electric current through it or by using a burner. The
thermometer will show a rise of temperature.

8. Watch the movement of the free end of the strip. The strip bends upwards
(towards iron bar side) and position of upper edge of the strip changes.

9. Note the temperature after each rise of temperature by 2°C and also the
position of the upper edge at that temperature.

10. Record your observations as given below.

Observations

Room temperature = 30°C (say)

Least count of vertical scale = 1 mm.

Table for temperature and vertical scale reading

Calculations

1. Find the amount of bending by taking difference of position with initial

position.
2. It is found that amount of bending increases as temperature rises.

Result

1. Bi-metallic strip bends more and more as its temperature rises.

2. Since brass bar is on convex side and iron bar on concave side of bent bi-
metallic strip, brass bar expands more than the iron bar. Hence brass has larger
linear expansion.

Precautions

1. The two bars should be firmly ripetted near their ends.

2. Brass bar should be kept on the lower side.

3. One end of the bi-metallic strip should be screw clamped.

4. Heating of whole bi-metallic strip should be uniform.

Sources of error

1. The ripettes may be loose.

2. Heating of strip may not be uniform.