Class B.

A 5th Semester Subject : History & Archaeology

Title of the Paper : History and Culture of Karnataka(From Early Times to 1336) Paper II Optional

Session: 1,2,3,4, 5, & 6.

Topic : Sources: Literary and Archaeological

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Introduction

• Sources are essential to write the History of the past. Historical facts are recorded in the past
to explain the events to the future generation.

• They are either issued by the kings or they have more written under their patronage. Hence
they have most authentic sources to understand the past.

Classification of the sources:

Sources are divided as Archaeological & Literary.

Archaeological Sources are divided as Excavation (antiquity), Inscriptions, Numismatics, &

Monuments.

Literary sources are classified as Indigenous & Foreign.

Indigenous literary sources are divided as religious and secular.

Archaeological Sources: Introduction

Archaeology means study of material remains.

Archaeological sources are as essential as literary sources.

Particular period of History is completely depending upon archaeological sources like Pre-
Historic period, by the scientific study of the ruins

Archaeological excavations provide data for the reconstruction of Prehistory & History.

Excavation - Antiquity : Introduction

Excavation in archaeology is the process of digging the site.

There are two types of Excavation 1. Vertical 2. Horizontal, it is the process of recording of
archaeological remains archaeologist recovers several types of ruins/ materials from an
excavated site like artifacts, ecofacts (organic remains). 1862 the Department of
Archaeology come into existence. Department of Archaeology conducted excavation in
various sites of Karnataka

Important Excavations
 Excavation carried out at Sangankallau Bellary District by Dr. Subba Rao, which throw light on
Mesolithic age, staff of Deccan College Poona in 1946 & Dr. Ravi Korishetter Excavated Neolithic
phase at Sangankallu. Excavation at Chandravalli Chitradurga district by K. Paddaiah, M.H.
Krishana, gives information of ancient period.The Staff of Deccan College Poona have excavated
Tekkalkote & Kappagal in 1965. This reveals Neolithic culture.Dr. H.D. Sankalia, K.V. Joshi carried
out the excavation at Anagwadi Bagalkote District Ghatprabha region. Dr. H.D. Sankalia, K.V.
Joshi continued excavation at Hunasgi Nala, Baichbal of Gulbarga district, Kibbanahalli Tumkur
district, Pattadkallu & Khyad of Bagalkote district, these all sites gives information of Paleaolithic
culture in Karnataka. Excavation at Vadagaon Madhavpur in Belgaum District brought to light the
Pre-Satavahana & Satavahana remains.Sand dunes at Talkad : the Temple buried belong to the
Ganga dynasty and some of the stone age evidences discovered by ASI. Excavation at Rajaghatta
in Banglore district revaels Buddhist structures like vihara’s and votive stupas. Excavation at
Sannati Gulburga District discovered the remains of Buddhist Stupa of Maurya and Satavahana
period it is one of the largest stupa in south India

Other Important Excavations

• Lingsugur, Maski, Piklihal Raichur district.

• Hallur Haveri district.

• T Narsipur Mysore district.

• Terdal Bagalkote district.

• Brahmagiri Chitradurga district.

These all the Neolithic, Chalcolithic & Megalithic sites of Karnataka

Antiquity :

• Hand Axes, Cleavers, choppers, Knives Scrapers potteries burial remains,

• Stupa, Temple ruins.

• Artifacts: Acheulian.

• Rock types : Quartzite, Chert (sedimentary rock), Granite, Basalt , Dolerite used to make
stone tools & implements

Introduction Epigraphy:

• Epigraphy means study of Inscriptions

• Inscriptions are the earliest writings on stone or copper plates to record the important
information by the Kings

• They are the most authentic sources, because they are issued by the administrative
authorities

• They are classified as administrative , commercial, hero stones, donatives,

Importance of Inscriptions :

Inscriptions throw light on, the extent of the empire, social customs, administration, religious
condition. The growth of scripts, languages & Literature, the evolution of sculpture and art,
Chronology of ruling dynasties and the foreign trade & commerce, Inscriptions enables in spreading
information.In addition to all these they throw light on the existence of group of scholars and
scribers (writers ) in the kingdoms. Scholars received royal patronage. They are issued only with the
consent of the kings, hence the information they carry are most authentic.

Types of Inscriptions :

1. Donative Inscriptions- gives information about donations by the kings, Queens, ministers,
merchants etc.

2. Hero Stones- Erected to commemorate heroic activities of both man & Women (Sati stones),

3. Nishadi Stone- belonged to Jainism to commemorate the Sallekhana rites. (fasting to death

Important Inscriptions :

Halmidi Inscription:

Halmidi is a small village in Belur taluk of Hassan disrict. 450 A.D.This is the first
Kannada inscription found so far in Karnataka belonged to king Kakusthavarama of
Kadambas of Banavasi. Durimg his period Mrugendra and Nag were administering from
Naridavale Nadu.They defeated of Pallavas and Kekeyas. Hence they got Halimidi and
Muruvalli as gift. It bears the title of Dushtanigrhaha and Shishtanugraha.

Talagunda Inscription of Kakusthavarama :

This is in front of Pranaveswara temple at Talagunda and in Sanskrit language. It gives us

information about the early political history up to Kakusthavarama of the Kadamba dynasty.
Poet Kubja composed the inscription. The name Kadamba came to the dynasty by the
Kadamba tree grown in front of the house of the Brahmins. Mayursharma went to Kanchi
the then famous Ghatika for education. There he was insulted and fought with them and
after getting victory came to Banavasi and set up a new dynasty.

Aihole Inscription :

Aihole is a small village in Hungund taluk of Bagalkot district. It is in sanskrit language and
written by Ravikirti a court poet of Pulkesi II. This is in both rose and poetry form, so it is
known as Prasasti.It explains about the victories of Pulkesi II. Narmada Battle with
Harshavardhana in which he was defeated, Kosala, Kalinga, Pishtapura and Kanchi are
mentioned. He assumed the title Patheswara (i.e. Lord of India). It explains about the
genealogy of the dynasty and the titles of Pulkesi II.
Badami Inscription of Kirtivarmana I :

This sanskrit inscription of Kirtivarman I is in Vishnu Cave at Badami. The Vishnu statue was
installed by the king in the Sanctum (Garbagraha). At that time 16 Brahmins were honoured
by the king. Narayana Bali system of cremation at the time of natural death is also
mentioned here.

Inscription of Kappe Arebetta :

This is at Tattukoti near Badami discovered by John F. Fleet British Epigraphist in 1881.This
is in Tripadi style of Kannada literature. It is in poetry form and in both Kannada and Sanskrit
languages. The theme is nature of the people of Chalukya kingdom. It says they were good
for good and bad for bad. They are great warriors fought without caring for their lives. Shri
Akshara merur was the composer of the inscription. The time of the inscription is of 8th
Century.

Copper Plate inscription of Govind III (804 A.D.) :

This inscription belongs to Govinda III of Rashtrakuta dynasty this is in three plates, the script
of the plate is Telagu and Kannada, but the language is Kannada today the plates are in
British Museum.

The theme is once King halted on the bank of river Tunga and met a Shaiva saint at
Rameswara. He granted land to him as token of respect.

Satenahalli Inscription of Vikarmaditya VI :

Satenahalli is in Hirekerur Taluk of Haveri district. it explains the titles of Vikarmaditya VI

Samastahuvanashraya, Prithivavallabha. Kalyana was his capital. He captured Banavasi
12000, Nagarakhan-700 and Pergade. The leader of Kundageri village donated land for the
expenditure of worship of Gundeswara temple.

Other important inscriptions

• Chandravalli inscription of Mayurvarma.

• Malavalli inscription of Kadambas.

• Banvasi Pillar inscription of Mrigeshvarma.

• Gudnapur inscription of Kadamba Ravivarma.

• Badami Cliff inscription of Pulkeshi I.

• Yekkeri inscription of Pulkeshi II.

• Kanchi inscription of Vikramaditya II.

• Jura Prasasti inscription of Krishan III.

• Wadageri inscription of Vikramaditya VI.

Introduction of Numismatics :

Numismatics means study of Coins, ancient coins are the valuable source which gives us
historical information. Coins contain the name, date, emblem, figure of a king, and some
coins gives information of Victories of a King. (Gautamiputra Satakarni restruck the coins of
Nahapana after defeating him) coins reflect economic condition. Roman coins found at
Devanahalli & Chandravalli reveals the trade relation.

Important Coins :

Satavahana’s issued golden coins Suvarna, Dinara, lead coins which bears legends & names
of the king.

Earliest Padma-Tanka issued by Kadamaba’s. Kadamba’s were the first to mint the Padma-
Tanka coins. Gold & Silver coins also circulated during the Kadamba’s.

Gangas of Talkadu minted golden coins Pagoda with Kannada and Nagari legends. Coins
consist of the image of an elephant on the obverse and floral petal symbols on the reverse.

Chalukyas of Badami were issued Gold & Silver coins Varaha, Pagoda, Huna (Honnu) Fana or
fanam (old Kannada represent money). Varaha- Boar, Pagoda having the symbol of temple
on the obverse lotus.

Rastrakutas Coins : Suvarna, Gadyana, Dramma, Kalanju, Dharana, these coins contain the
figures of God & Goddess & the names of the Kings,

Introduction of Monuments :

Monuments: means buildings / structures of ancient times that are useful to reconstruct the
history of the past, they includes Forts, Wells, Tanks, Palaces, Houses, Temples, Chaitya,
Stupas, Cave temples, public buildings, etc.

They were built by Kings and his subordinate officials for public purposes, these monuments
throw light on different aspects such as engineering skills, technology, social, economic and
religious conditions of the past

Types of Monuments

Monuments mean buildings or structures constructed in the past by the Kings, Queens,
Ministers or Merchants for the use of society; they can be classified as Religious and Non-
Religious Monuments. Among Religious Monuments Temples, Mosques, Churches, and Non-
Religious Monuments are Forts, Palaces, Houses, Swimming Pools, Wells, Tanks, Gateways,
etc.

Importance of Monuments :

Historical Monuments throw light on, Religious Condition & Beliefs, Political Condition & royal
patronage, Social Condition & Customs, Development of technology, Evolution of Art,
Architecture and sculpture, Extension of Kingdom, Economic condition of the past.
 Important of Monuments :

Kadambas : Madhukesvara Temple:

This temple is at Banavasi which is bank of river varadha, the sanctum, Pillared hall.
Decorated Pillars, Shivalinga and Nandi statues are the main features of the temple. The
monolithic Nandi and Shivalinga are excellent in their design. Maximum numbers of pillars
are in this temple of different design. The roof is slope to protect from the heavy rain of the
region. The main temple is surrounded by Prakara. The temple has sub temple in its complex
other temples at Banavasi, Shiva Temple of Talagunda, Kalleshwara temple of Halasi, Jaina
Basadi’s.

Gangas : Bhoga Nandishwara temples at Nandi, Tirthankara statues & Bahubali

(Gommateshwara) Statue, Talkadu, Chaundraya Basdi at Shravanbelgola, Mahabaleshwara
Temple at Talkadu,

Monuments of Chalukyas of Badami :

Chalukyas of Badami constructed temples at Badami, Pattadakallu, Aihole, Mahakuta, the

temples are Nagara and Rekha nagara style. Kings, Queens, Ministers and Princesses
constructed temples. Papanatheshwar, Malikarjuna, Virupaksha, Sangmeshwar temples at
Pattadakallu, Durga, Ladkhan, Huchchimalligudi, Meghuti Jaina temples at Aihole,

Malagitti Shivalaya

This is another temple found at Badami. According to inscription this temple was
constructed by Aryaminchi Upadhya in 8th Century. The sculptures of Shiva & Vishnu are
carved on the outer wall of the temple. Different music instruments are depicted on the
walls shows that music was part of life & culture. Jalandra (window of stone in wall),
sculpture of Kama-Rati, Garuda bird can be seen here.

Caves of Badami :

For the first time the cave temples are constructed at Badami, the temples are belonged to
Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism. The first three caves have three parts the Mukha
Mantapa, Mantapa and Sanctum. There are four caves carved at a stretch in a hill, design
and Planning is excellent. Statues of Ganesh, Shanmukha, Mahishurmardini, Nataraja with
18 hands, Ardhanarishwara, Harihara are the main statues of these carved on the wall.
There was a linga in the Sanctum. The pillars of the Mukka Mantapa are decorative. The
pillars of the mantapa are simple in their style. Small sanctum is there without linga which is
destroyed.

Vaishnava Cave

The construction of the cave initiated by Pulkesi I and continued by his successors. The 2nd &
3rd caves are belonged to Vaishnavism and bigger than 1st and 4th caves. The statues of
Varaha, Trivikrama are about 7feet tall. The other statues are of Vishnu, swastika,
Sheshachala and leelas of Krishna are found in the 2nd cave. On the top of the pillars
sculptures of lion, elephant and yali can be seen.
 3rd Cave (Vishnu Cave)

This was constructed by Mangalesha in 578 A.D. Trivikrama small statues of different styles,
Narasimha, Harihara and Varaha are also beautiful in their structure. On the ceiling of the
cave scultpures of Gandhrva couples, Bramha-Karthikeya, Indra & Varuna are carved. This
cave is the biggest cave and beautiful in its structure. Caves are inly in Badami. This
experiment was done by the Tamil artisans. The sculptures are of same found in
Tiruchinapalli in Tamilnadu.

4th Cave of Jainism

This is smallest cave. The statue of Mahaveera is in the sanctum. This is highly decorated
cave. The pillars, walls are decorated with the statues of Tirthanakara. Chavalisha
Tirthankara images can be seen in one pillar which are very minute. Standng image of
Parsvanataha (with Yaksha & Yakshini) smiling statue of Bahubali and 7 feet sculpture of
mahaveera are superb in their style. Thus the caves are unique in their art &architecture,
design and planning. The royal patronage extended for the construction of the caves.

Monuments of Rastrakutas :

Kalasanatha temple at Ellora, Elephanata Trimurti Cave temples, Shiva temples at Mudhol,
Lakshmeshwar, Sandur ect.

Monuments of Chalukyas of Kalyana :

Vishweshwara temple at akkundi, Mahadeva temple Itagi, Mallikarjuna temple at Kuruvatti,

Trikuteshwara, Saraswathi, someshwara temple Gadag.

Monuments of Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra:

Channakeshava temple at Belur, Hosaleshwar temple at Halebidu, Keshava temple at

somanathapura, ect.

Literary Sources of Karnataka History

Sources are essential to write the History of the past. Historical facts are recorded in literary
works to explain the events to the future generation. Today let us understand about literary
sources of Karnataka history. These books were written by the kings, queens and scholars
patronized by the kings. Even foreign travelers who came to India also wrote their travel
accounts which throw light on the History of Karnataka.

Classification Literary Sources

Based on the author of the literary works they are classified as

1. Indigenous Literary Sources

 2. Foreign Literary Sources.

Indigenous sources further can be classified as Religious and Non-Religious Literary Sources

Importance of Literary Sources

Literary Sources throw light on, Growth of different scripts and languages society, economy,
polity, administration, religion, heritage & culture of ancient Karnataka. The growth of
literature, the evolution of scripts and languages

Important Indigenous Literary Sources :

1. Gathasapatasati of Hala

2. Bhruhatakataha of Gunadya

3. Shabdavatara of Durvinita

4. Gajashastra of Sripurusha

5. Gajashtaka of Shivamara

6. Chavundaraya Purana of Chavundaraya

7. Vikramarjuna Vijaya/ Sahas Bhima Vijaya of Pampa (941 A.D.)

8. Shahasabhimavijaya of Ranna 990 A.D.

9. Vikramanka Devachariata of Bilhana- This is an important source to understand the life and
achievements of Vikramaditya VI (1077-1127 of chalukyas of Kalyana. Bilhana court poet was
a Pandit from Kashmir. He also wrote Bilhana Kavya collection of poems

10. Mitakshara of Vijnaneshwara a treatise on Hindu law. It is a commentary on

Yajnavalkyasmriti of Yajnavalkya. He was a judge in the Court of Someswara III. This was
major source on law subject during the period of British.

11. Abhilashathartha Chintamani or Mansollasa of Someswara III, Chalukya king wrote a book in
sanskrit called Abhilashathartha Chintamani or Mansollasa. It is an Encyclopedia, gives
information about polity, governance, ethics, rhetoric, veterinary medicine, horticulture,
astrology, Vastu, food, perfu,mes, sports, painting, poetry, music, economics and art &
architecture. This is a valuable source of socio-cultural information on 11th &12th century
hence he had a title called Sarvajna chakravarti. It is written in 1129 CE by the king. This is
divided into five sub-books with 100 chapters. Major part of the book dedicated to music
and music instruments.

12. Kavirajamarga (Royal Path for poets) 850 A.D. of Shrivijaya author was the court poet of
Amoghavarsha, Rashtrakuta king. The first Kannada book found so far on grammar, poetics
and rhetoric in Kannada. It explains about the boundary of the Rashtrakuta Kingdom, which
spreads between river Godavari in the north to Kaveri in the South as Kannada country in
which towns like Vakkund, Puligere (Laxmeshawara), Mahakompana (Koppal) and Kisuvolalu
 (Pattadakallu) were existed. It dealt with earlier forms of literature such as the
Gadyakataha, the Chattana the Bedande. The names of several Kannada writers such as
Vimalachandra, Udaya, Nagarajuna, Jayabandhu, Kavisvara, Chandra Pandita and Lokapala
are mentioned here. But their works are either mentioned or found. It mentioned about the
titles of the kings like Nitinirantara, Krutakatyamalla,Viranarayana,Nityamallavallabha,
Naralokachandra etc.

Other works :

• Yashastlaka of Somadevasuri,

• Dhavala & Jayadhavala jointly written by Virasena & Jinasena on Jainism.

• Jinasena also wrote Adipurana & Parsvabhudaya,

• Asaga wrote Vardhamana Purana,

• Gunavarma wrote Alankarashastra and Neminatha Puran.

• Shivakotacharaya wrote a book called Vaddaradhane which is dealt with life & teachings of
24 Tirthanakaras.

 Nyayaviischaya Tika of Vasiraja a Jaina Poet. This is a commentary on Nyayanischaya written

by Akalnka

 Kaumudimahotsava of Vijayabhattarike or Vajjika

(She was wife of Chandraditya the son of Pulakeshi II. She is called as Saraswati of
Karnataka/ Abhianava Saraswati).

 Jinendra Vyakarana of Pujyapada Devanandi

 Kantarasutra of Durgasimha

 Shabdanushasana (Grammar) of Shakatayana

 Nalachamapau Kavya of Trivikrama

 Prashnottara Ratnamailka of Nrupatunga

 Ganiatasarasangarajha (science) of Mahavira

 Halayudha (dictionary) of Kavirahashya

Foreign Literary Sources of Karnataka History :

Foreign Literary Sources constitute important aspects of literary sources; they confirm the
information revealed in the indigenous literary source. Sometimes these foreign literary
sources are thronging light on the events which have not been mentioned in the indigenous
 literary sources. The Foreign accounts have left interesting and instructive information on
the history of Karnataka.

Classification Foreign Literary Sources:

Based on the author’s country Foreign literary works are classified as

1. Greeks

2. Roman

3. Chinese

4. Arab

Important Foreign Literary Sources:

Periplus of the Erythrean Sea by an unknown author, it is in Greek language. It describes

about navigation and trading opportunities with Indian Ocean especially with southwestern
port towns of India, and other port towns of the world. This book also dealt with
commercial, ethnological and political conditions.

Ptolemy a Greek Geographer/ Astronomer wrote a book called Geography, which dealt with
flora & fauna of Western Ghats section, it reveals the commercial and maritime activities of
the Romans.

Strabo Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian. His work throw light on the maritime
activities of Satavahana period

Pliny Roman author, a naturalist and natural philosopher, he wrote Naturalis Historia. his
work throw light on the maritime trade activities.

Huien Tsang/ Yuan Chwang (602-664) a Chinese pilgrim, visited India for the study on
Buddhism, he visited Badami, Banavasi of Karnataka in 641-42. He wrote Siyuki, it gives
information about Chalukayas of Badami

Sulaiman Soudagar Arab merchant, traveler and writer of 9th century,he visited Rastrakuta
empire during the time of Amoghavarsha. in 851 AD. He described Amoghavarsha as one of
the four great kings of the world

Other foreign literary sources

Arab scholars : Tabari, Al-Masudi, Al-Estarkhri, Ifn Hankal.

Their accounts describes about Rastrakutas. Ibn Batuta a Morocco traveler describes about
Hoysala Ballala III.