Course Notes: Communication Meaning

The word communication is used in common talk, usually, to mean speaking or writing or sending a
message to another person. Communication is really much more than that. Communication is a
dynamic interactive process that involves effective transmission of ideas, thoughts, information and
values through verbal and non-verbal methods and suitable channels. It involves ensuring that your
message has reached the target audience, (that is, the persons to whom it is sent) and that the receiver
understands and responds as you want them to. It also involves ensuring that you yourself are able to
understand, interpret, and respond to messages that you receive. Communication is an important
aspect of behaviour; human communication is affected by all factors that influence human behaviour.

The crucial element is meaning. Communication has as its central objective the transmission of
meaning. The process of communication is successful only when the receiver understands an idea as
the sender intended it. Both parties must agree not only on the information transmitted but also on the
meaning of that information.

When we talk about some profession it is called a technical or professional communication. Technical
communication is about business and industry. It focuses on the information about products and
services – how to manufacture them, market them, manage them, deliver them, and use them. The
thumb rule of communication is that one should communicate to express, and not to impress, to make
understand, and not to confuse. General communication contains basically casual talks but on the
other hand technical communication contains formal talks where both the parties aware about the
specific topic of conversation. Technical Communication contains technical words and technical
message. It is mostly formal so far as organization, presentation, style, medium and language are
concerned. It follows a set pattern. It may be in both forms of communication; oral and written . It is
always for a specific audience. Thus it is usually scheduled in advance and has pre-arranged
participants and pre-set agenda like a meeting, an interview, a conference, a presentation.

In our everyday life, general communication as well as technical communication mostly depends on
language, whether it is written or spoken. One may talk about different languages, and different
vocabularies but it is almost only the knowledge of language that can decode a technocrat’s ideas.
Language in everyday contexts is natural and informal whereas the language of technical
communication is or should be characterized by formality, high stylization, accuracy, and precision.
Language is the starting and ending point for any communication. It is impossible to dissociate
language competency from any communication. So language should be used accurately and in a good
style.
 Elements of Communication

In order to analyze the activity of communication, we must know the elements involved in
the process of communication. There are seven elements or factors which make up the
process of communication:
1. Source /Sender, is the one who initiates the action of communicating
2. Audience/Receiver is the person(s) for whom the communication is intended
3. Goal/Purpose is the sender's reason for communicating, the desired result of the
communication
4. Message/ Content is the information conveyed
5. Medium /Channel is the means or method used for conveying the message
6. Feedback is the receiver's response to the communication as observed by the sender
7. Environment /Context is the background in which the communication takes place.

Process of Communication

Whether it is an informal social situation or a formal academic or professional situation, we

need to share information, ideas, and knowledge with others. However, this process of
sharing information is a symbolic interchange, which is both dynamic and interactive, and
results in an exchange of meaning and understanding. Let us look more closely at the whole
process of communication.
1. Ideation:
The process of communication begins with ideation, which refers to the formation of the idea
or selection of a message to be communicated. The sender initiates the process of
communication. The sender has to be clear about the purpose (or goal or objective) of the
communication and about the target audience (or receiver) of the communication; that is, the
sender decides why and to whom to send a message. Conscious or intended communication
has a purpose. We communicate because we want to make someone do something or take
some action, or think or feel in a certain way, that is, to influence the person.
2. Encoding:
Encoding is the next step in communication. The source has to decide what information to
convey and create the message (or content) to be conveyed by using words or other symbols
which can be understood by the intended receiver. The process of putting the idea into
symbols is called encoding; in order to encode, the sender has to select suitable symbols
which can represent the idea, and can be understood by the receiver. Also he has to select an
appropriate communication form.
3. Transmission - channel or medium:
Transmission refers to the flow of the message over the chosen channel. The sender also
chooses a suitable channel or medium (like mail, e-mail, telephone, face-to-face talk,) by
which to send the message. The choice of the medium depends on several factors like
urgency of the message, availability and effectiveness of a medium, and the relationship
between the two communicants. The medium should be free from all kinds of barriers.

4. Decoding
The process of translating or converting the message or symbols into ideas and interpreting
the message is called decoding. The receiver becomes aware that a message has arrived
when he perceives it with his senses (he may see, hear, feel, etc). The receiver attends to the
message and interprets it. Interpreting is a complex activity; it involves using knowledge of
the symbols, drawing upon previous knowledge of the subject matter, ability to understand,
attitudes and values, in order to create meaning. Meaning can not be transferred from one
person to another, the receiver has to assign meaning to a message in order to understand it.
5. Feedback or Response:
Response is the last stage in the communication process. It is the action or reaction of the
receiver to the message. Finally, the sender tries to note the effect of the message on the
receiver; that is, he checks whether the receiver has got the message, how the receiver has
responded to the message and whether he has taken the required action; this information
about the receiver's response is called feedback.

Sender's functions make up half the process of communication. The functions of the sender
are:
1. Being clear about the goal/purpose of the communication
2. Finding out about the understanding and needs of the target audience
3. Encoding the required information and ideas with symbols to create the message to suit the
receiver/ audience
4. Selecting the medium to send the message
5. Making efforts to get feedback, that is, finding out the response of the target audience
The receiver also feels a reaction to the message; this reaction may be conscious or
unconscious; it may cause some change in the receiver's facial expression. It definitely leads
the receiver to think. The receiver may take some action, if required. He may also reply to the
message. This response or reply is feedback.

Receiver's functions complete one cycle of the process of communication. The functions of
the receiver are:

1 Attending to the received message, that is, listening, reading or observing

2 Decoding the received message
3 Interpreting and understanding the meaning of the message
4 Responding to the message
5 Giving feedback to the sender of the message

This is a simplified description of a single cycle in the process of communication.

Communication really takes place in several cycles and the two persons take turns and
alternately carry out functions of sender and receiver.

This one-way routine is only a part of the communication process. For the communication to
be complete, the sender must know whether the receiver has got the message, understood it in
the way it was intended, and has received it well. The sender can find out this only on getting
a chance to note the reaction and response of the receiver. The response may be in words
(spoken or written), signs, or behaviour, both conscious and unconscious. The response or
return message is feedback. When the feedback is got by the sender, one cycle of
communication is complete. This may be represented roughly by the following diagram.
Communication must be Demographic (know the need of reader): Technical
communication should be demographic. Here the term demographic is selective for the study
of audience/reader concerned. A technical writer / speaker should know well before
communicating that his/her reader is familiar or unfamiliar with the subject. The writer has to
classify that the reader is an expert or layperson. Then, according to the sensibility of the
reader the language should be used. For effective communication an audience can, be
analyzed as follows;

A = Analyze. Who is/are the recipients of your message?

U = Understand. What is their knowledge about your intended message
D = Demographics. What is their age, gender, education level, position?
I = Interest. What is their level of interest in your message (What’s in it for them?)
E = Environment. Is there a shared contextual understanding? What is their likely attitude to
your message? Have you taken cultural differences into consideration?
N = Need. What information does your audience need?
C = Customize. How do you adjust your message to your audience?
E = Expectations. What are your audience’s expectations?

Types of Communication

Communication takes many forms according to the occasion and situation, the relationship
between the persons, the medium and the symbols used the style of expression, and such
other factors.
1. Based on media:
1.1 Verbal Communication and non-Verbal Communication
Communication through words and language is called verbal communication; communication
through other symbols than words and language is called non-verbal communication.
The term 'verbal' is colloquially used to mean oral but in communication studies, 'verbal'
means by using words and language. It includes both written and oral. Most of our
communication is done by using language; we speak and write whenever we have to convey
information and ideas, to discuss, to motivate, to appreciate, or to warn, reprimand, complain,
and so on. We may do any of these things orally or in writing.
Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal methods of communication include all things, other than words and language,
that can convey meaning. For example, graphics like pictures, maps, charts, graphs and
diagrams in a written document, and body language and voice qualities in speech, are non-
verbal communication.
Non-verbal communication can be independent of verbal communication; but verbal
communication is always accompanied by non-verbal communication. Non verbal methods
can be used as a substitute for words like the red colour at traffic lights to mean stop, or
nodding the head to mean "yes”
Sometimes, our body language or voice, or untidy typing may convey something opposite of
what we want to convey. This discordant or inconsistent relation between verbal and non-
verbal communication occurs when the person is not comfortable or is trying to say
something different from what he or she really feels. Non-verbal communication is mostly
involuntary and unconscious and difficult to control; it may sometimes reveal the truth which
the speaker/writer is hiding behind the words. It is said, "non-verbal communication speaks
louder than words." Thus, there can be unintended and unconscious non-verbal
communication. On the other hand, non verbal methods can be consciously created and used
with both written and oral communication.
Body Language always conveys meaning. It is:
• Omnipresent: it always accompanies spoken communication
• Emotionally expressive: it expresses mainly the feelings of the speaker and also of
the listener
• Dominates interaction: it is more communicative than words
• Seems trustable: it is usually felt to be more truthful than spoken words

Various forms of non-verbal communication:

Kinesics: kinesics refers to the communication through the body language of the parties
communicating. As when a boss gestures a thumbs up it could mean liking the idea or go
ahead, pounding of the table express anger or disagreement, staring of father that you have
done something inappropriate, nodding delivers the positive message without words, during
an interview shaking legs shows nervousness.
Paralinguistics:
A term used variously in the study of human communication to refer to aspects of vocal or
bodily expression that convey meaning. Characteristics of the voice, apart from the words
spoken, which can communicate something about the speaker’s attitude, are known as
paralanguage. It is the study of spoken communication throw changes in the rate of speech,
accent, volume, voice modulation, pitch and fluency. It includes the qualities of the voice, the
way we use our voice, as well as the sounds we make without uttering words. It is possible to
control and use paralanguage effectively by becoming aware of it and paying attention to
one's voice and speech.
Voice has characteristics like tone, volume, and pitch. Tone is the quality of the voice.
Volume is the loudness or softness, which can be consciously adjusted to the number of
persons in the audience and the distance between the speaker and the listeners; speaking too
loud shows lack of self-command or abrasive nature. Pitch is the high or low note on the
scale; a high-pitched voice is often unpleasant, and suggests immaturity or emotional
disturbance; a frightened person speaks in a high-pitched voice. It is better to begin softly, in
a low pitch and raise the volume and pitch as required. For example, a simple sentence like
‘come here’ can be said authoritatively or endearingly, depending on the tone of the voice of
the sender.
Haptics (Touch):
It is a subcategory of Body Language, and the study of touching as such, handshakes,
holding hands, back slapping, high fives, brushing up against someone or patting someone
all have meaning. Touching is the most developed sense at birth and formulates our initial
views of the world. Touching can be used to sooth, for amusement during play, to flirt, to
express power and maintain bonds between people, such as with baby and mother.

Proxemics: Proxemics refers to the use of physical space to communicate. it is the study of
the amount of the space that people feel it necessary to set between themselves. Some people
stand very close to another person while talking. Some people may be okay with it, while
others may take offence. This aspect of communication is called proxemics.
This aspect of communication goes as far as to study the impact of objects around the room
where people are communicating. For example, if during a meeting, a fountain is kept in the
room, people may get distracted.
Not only the objects in a room, the room itself can have an impact on a conversation. Imagine
an interview taking place in an office cafeteria. How comfortable would the interviewee be?
Compare this situation to giving an interview in a closed room only in the presence of the
interviewer. Thus, the three main aspects of proxemics that are used for communication are
territory, things, and personal zones.
Chronemics: Chronemics refers to communication using time as a factor. Let us understand
this with the help of an example. A boss who comes to office on time every day, subtly
communicates it to his/her employees that they too are expected to be on time every day.
An understanding of non-verbal methods and aspects of communication helps a person to
improve oral and written presentation by using the methods and by gaining control over body
language.
There are formats and structures for verbal communication in different types of situations.
For example, documents used in business have names and formats; letters, reports, memos,
minutes have their own formats and layout. For oral communication we have the formats of
presentations (or speeches), interviews, meetings of various types, negotiations and so on.
The effectiveness of verbal communication depends on a person's skill in the use of language.
A rich vocabulary, command of a variety of sentence structures, clarity in thinking, and focus
on the audience are necessary for effective verbal communication.
1.2 Spoken and Written Communication
Spoken or oral and written communications are both forms of verbal communication. Oral
communication is more natural and immediate. It is natural to speak when the other person is
present; we speak to communicate in natural and informal situations. We also speak in formal
and official situations such as making a presentation or taking an interview when the target
audience is present.
Written communication has to be used when the other person is not present and is not
available on the telephone. Long and complex messages are best conveyed in writing. A
written message can go beyond time limitations since it can be preserved and can wait for the
attention of the intended receiver. Written communication is separated from the sender and
has no support from the sender's personality and voice. This requires different kinds of skills
in both the sender and the receiver. Oral and written communications have different qualities
which must be taken into account in choosing which one to use in a particular situation.
We communicate by exchanging symbols to describe our ideas and experience. Language is a
common symbol system which we use for sharing our experience with others.
Communication through words is called verbal communication; communication through
other symbols is called non-verbal communication.
Attributes of Spoken and Written Communication
Oral and written communications have different attributes which have to be taken into
account in choosing which one to use in a particular situation. Some of the attributes are
discussed below.
Speed: Written communication is slower in preparation, in conveyance and in reception; it
takes more time to draft, type, dispatch, and to receive and read a letter than it takes to speak,
hear and understand an oral message.
Record: Written communication serves as a record and can be used for future reference. It is
a documentary proof, and can be used as legal evidence. Oral communication may be taped
for later reference, but the authenticity of the voice can be questioned; moreover, tapes can be
edited and the message distorted. Written records and documents are more reliable and
acceptable.
Precision and accuracy: Written communication is more precise and accurate than oral.
Choice of words is possible in written communication because the writer has the time to look
for suitable words and phrases, and to revise the draft, if necessary. Accuracy is necessary in
written communication because the receiver is not present to ask for clarification. In oral
communication, it is not always possible to be so precise in the choice of words. There is also
no time to seek and consider words while speaking; however, the receiver can seek
clarification on the spot. Besides, oral communication has the support of body language and
paralanguage which enrich the meaning of the words.
Length: A written message is usually shorter than an oral communication. The situation of
oral communication requires some preliminary and closing remarks, while for written
messages there are standard formats for opening and closing which can keep the message
short.
Body Language: Oral communication is supported by the speaker's body language and
paralanguage. The speaker can control the style of delivery, giving meaning to words and
sentences by voice inflexion and facial expressions and gestures. Written communication is
separated from the writer's bodily presence and is more in the control of the reader. The
reader can give to the words the sound, inflexion and stress as he chooses; and this may be
affected by the reader's mood and state of mind at the time of reading.
Features of Spoken Language
Paralinguistic elements: A term used variously in the study of human communication to
refer to aspects of vocal or bodily expression that convey meaning. Characteristics of the
voice, apart from the words spoken, which can communicate something about the speaker’s
attitude, are known as paralanguage. It is the study of spoken communication throw changes
in the rate of speech, accent, volume, voice modulation, pitch and fluency. It includes the
qualities of the voice, the way we use our voice, as well as the sounds we make without
uttering words. It is possible to control and use paralanguage effectively by becoming aware
of it and paying attention to one's voice and speech. The actual phonetic realization of
language elements is only one component of face-to-face communication.
Normal non-fluency or voice dynamics: Spoken discourse is generally characterized by
normal non-fluency or voice dynamics. Normal non-fluency results from the unprepared
nature of speech and refers to phenomena such as hesitation, unintended repetitions (e.g. I
I ..), false starts, fillers (e.g. um, er), grammatical blends and unfinished sentences. A blend
occurs where a sentence 'swaps horses' ie beginning in one way and ending in another; for
example, in “Would you mind telling me what's the time?” the sentence begins as an indirect
question, but ends as a direct question. This is slightly different from a 'false start', where a
sentence is broken off mid-way as a result of a change of mind; for example, “You really
ought - well do it your own way.” These phenomena are edited out in written language,
which consequently appears more fluent. We may also note the apparent fluency of fictional
speech that appears in literature.
Monitoring features: Spoken language is a dialogue, with a physically present addressee so
there are monitoring features that indicate the speaker’s awareness of the addressee’s
presence and reactions.
In a speech situation there is a constant interchange between the participants, each playing the
role of speaker in turn. What the speaker says is controlled by the reactions of the listener
expressed either by linguistic or by paralinguistic means, either by what the other says, or by
the non-linguistic sounds he makes. The reactions of the listener provide feedback to the
speaker who modifies what he says. In communication by speech there are always two
participants actively involved, each monitoring the other.

Feedback: Feedback is the receiver’s reply to the sender either by linguistic or by

paralinguistic means. Oral communication allows immediate feedback; the listener's face
gives some feedback and the speaker can modify the message on the spot. Clarifications can
be sought and given at once. A conversation can be brought to a satisfactory conclusion by
continuous exchange of ideas and views. In written communication the feedback is delayed;
the reader's facial expressions cannot be seen by the writer; the reader's response is known to
the writer only when the reader replies. The reader may give a cautious and guarded reply
without letting the other see the really felt reaction.
Formality: Spoken language tends to be less formal than written language. When a language
is spoken, there are abbreviations and dropping of some sounds, as in can't, won't, don't, I'll,
we'll. The vocabulary used in written English is also more formal than in spoken English.

2. Based on formality:
Formal or Informal communication
Formal communication means exchange of ideas and information which is done under the
planned organizational structure. The difference between "formal" and "informal" is not the
same as the difference between "grammatical" and "ungrammatical." The difference is in the
"register" which includes specific way, use and purpose, tone of voice, vocabulary and
syntax. Varieties of language associated with specific uses and communicative purposes are
called registers. In writing as well as speaking, we use a variety of registers. We use different
registers for writing an assignment, for writing to a friend, for writing to a prospective
employer, for conversation with a friend, and for making a presentation. Writing is usually
more formal than speaking. The register we use in a given situation is determined by the
social code and not the grammatical code. The relation between writer/speaker and audience
is a social relation and we maintain it in the style of writing and speaking.
Formal register follows certain conventions:
Conservative language: In formal style, we are careful about noun-pronoun agreement as in
"Everyone has his or her weakness" but in an informal situation we may say, "Everyone has
their weakness."
No contractions: In instruction manuals, ''You don't want to offend your reader," sounds
more comfortable than the formal ''You do not want to offend your reader." But in formal
prose, contractions can give the impression that the writer is being casual.
Restrained style: Slang and colloquial terms suggest a casual rather than a serious approach.
They are not used in formal communication. Gestures and movements are also restrained in a
formal speech.
Formal communication is usually scheduled in advance and has pre-arranged participants and
pre-set agenda like a meeting, an interview, a conference, a presentation. The language used
is formal.
2.1 Formal Channels: Formal communication is the process of exchanging information
by following the prescribed or official rules, procedures, systems formalities, chain of
command etc. in the organizational structure. Formal channels of communication are closely
related with the formal organization structure. In an organisation, formal communication is a
means of controlling activities through circulation of authoritative policies and procedures
stating what is to be done when, where, how, and by whom. Formal communication moves
along the established "channels" of communication within the organisation. It is impersonal
(desk to desk), official, and, in most cases, written. Formal meetings are documented by
writing summaries and minutes. The purposes of formal communication are to command, to
instruct, and to finalise matters through the application of regulations. Formal communication
is needed in organisations. Since it is official, it is binding and more likely to be obeyed. It
establishes responsibility of the sender and receiver. The formal channels are as follows;

(a) Upward Communication

(b) Downward Communication
(c) Horizontal Communication
2.2 Informal communication is the process of spontaneous exchange of information
among various people of different status in the organizational structure. Informal
communication refers to communication among people through informal contacts. Informal
communication is known as Grapevine because it is related to personal rather than positional
matters and free from all formalities planned in an organization. It arises due to informal
relations. It is the result of social interaction of people. It takes place an account of natural
desire of people to communicate with other. The informal communication system is built
around the social relationship or the members of the organization. Informal communication
may be unscheduled, with random participants, no pre-set agenda. It is likely to be interactive
and richer than formal communication. The style is informal and may be conversational.
Informal communication is personal, unofficial, and mostly oral. It is based on the realisation
that personal interaction among employees is healthy for an organisation. The purposes of
informal communication are to educate through information sharing, to motivate through
personal contacts, and to resolve conflicts through participation and friendship. It maintains
enthusiasm, loyalty, and commitment by involving employees in organisational matters. The
informal channels are as follows;
 (a) Diagonal Communication or Grapevine

Difference between the formal and informal channels of communication

Formal Communication Informal Communication

1. Formal communication is based on 1. Informal communication is not based

formal organizational relationships. on formal organizational relationships.
It is free from formalities.
2. Formal communication is mostly in 2. Informal communication is normally
written form. the exchange of verbal talks.
3. Chances of distortion of information 3. Chances of distortion of informal are
are very few. very high.

4. The subject matter, chain of command 4. In informal communication news

and authority etc. are all passes through different ways, because
predetermined. it depends on nearness of contacts and
not on status of persons in the
organization.
5. In case of formal communication, 5. In case of informal communication,
status or position of the person is very status or position of the person has no
important. relevance.
6. Formal communication takes place 6. Where there is informal relationship
while carrying out their duties and between sender and receiver the
responsibilities. communication happening in between
them is called.

7. The channels of communication are 7. The channels of communication are

preplanned. not preplanned.

8. Only prescribed and predetermined 8. Informal communication consists of

informal are exchanged in this rumours and misconceptions.
communication.

9. Formal communication is rigid as deviations 9. Informal communication is flexible.

are not allowed.

10 Organizational hierarchy system is 10. Informal communication spreads like

. followed i.e. upward to downward. wild fire.

11 Formal communication is slow as it 11. Informal communication is very fast

. has to follow the path laid down by the as it is not supported to follow a
management. particular path.

3. Based on parties:
3.1 Internal: Communication can also be categorised on the basis of location. Any
communication done within an organisation or a department or even a team, is
internal communication. Internal communication can be both, formal and informal.
Note: Following types of communication are discussed under the section “Flows of
Communication.”

3.1.a Vertical Communication:

3.1.a.1 Upward Communication:
3.1.a.2 Downward Communication
3.1.a.3 Diagonal Communication or Grapevine
3.1.b Horizontal Communication
3.2 External: Any communication done with people outside an organization is external
communication. External communication is always formal because in these types of
communications, a person deals with external parties that may quote the person later
on. On the other hand, internal communication can be both, formal and informal.
4 Intentional or Unintentional Communication
We do not always convey exactly what we want to; the targeted receiver may receive less or
more than what we intended to convey. A casual observer (unintentional receiver) may
receive information or ideas which we did not intend for him/her. Our non-verbal behaviour
conveys something about us; what we speak or write is accompanied by non-verbal
behaviour. At times we don’t want to communicate some facts but the very facts to which we
want to hide are communicated by non-verbal methods.

5 One-way and Two-way

In one-way communication information is always transferred in only one direction from the
source to the target audience. With one-way communication there is no direct interaction
between the persons involved. The receiver has no chance to get clarification or to question
the information received. One-way communication follows the linear Source-Message-
Channel-Receiver (S-M-C-R) model of communication. Since there is no feedback, the
source cannot find out whether the receiver has understood the message. Examples of one-
way communications systems are radio and television broadcasts, newspapers,
advertisements and other mass media. Within an organisation, the notice board and public
address system are one-way systems.
Two-way communication is interactive. It involves both persons fully. In a normal two-way
conversation, the persons constantly alternate between being source and receiver. The
receiver can ask for clarification or challenge the source or add one's own ideas and views to
the conversation. At the end of such a conversation, both gain information on the issue talked
about as well as about each other.
Communication is much more complex than the simple model of source sending a message
over a channel to a receiver. The sender and the receiver both actively play a role. They
function within their respective frames of reference, their social situations, and their
relationship to one another. What the receiver brings to the communication situation is as
important as (perhaps even more important than) what the sender brings. It is a reciprocal
process of exchanging signals to inform, instruct, or persuade. Two-way communication
requires interpersonal skills. It takes more time than one-way communication, but it is more
satisfying and brings about a better understanding and agreement between the parties
involved.

6. Intrapersonal Communication:
Intrapersonal communication is communication within oneself. Man uses his senses to
understand the environment around him and to perceive, to judge and to act accordingly. For
example, when it is hot man seek for shade, when it is rainy man seek for cover, when it is
cold man seek for fire, etc. All these are a result of communication taking place within the
individual. Intrapersonal communication, thus, forms the basis of all other forms of
communication. Effective intrapersonal communication is required for effective functioning
of an individual in its environment. The information received through senses forms the basis
of decision-making in this type of communication system. For example, when we watch TV,
our eyes and ears receive information and transmit the same to our brain. If we like what we
see or hear, our intrapersonal communication system makes sure that we attend to it. On the
other hand, if we don’t like it, our brain sends a message to our muscles that result in a
decision to change station. Thus, we can see that in intrapersonal communication, our eyes
and ears become the senders, electrochemical impulses become the message, nerve system
become the medium and the brain becomes the receiver. Also, the additional impulses
transmitted by the brain to the muscles become the feedback which produces the desires
result of changing the station.

7. Interpersonal Communication:
Interpersonal communication is a face-to-face communication between two persons. It
includes most of the informal and formal exchanges that we engage in throughout the day.

8. Extra Personal:
Communication between human beings and non-human entities is extra personal. For
example, your pet dog comes to you wagging its tail as soon as you return home from work.
A parrot responding to your greeting is another example.
9. Group Communication:
Group communication occurs essentially between three or more people who see themselves
as belonging to, or being identified with, a group. The size of the group decides the level of
interaction and intimacy within it. Larger groups provide less time for personal and intimate
exchanges. As a matter of fact, communication becomes difficult and more of a monologue
with the increase in size of the group.
10. Public Communication:
It generally occurs within a formal and structured setting and is different from small group
communication in this respect. However, in this type of communication, one person plays the
part of the speaker and the rest of the persons serve as listeners or audience. Speaker speaks
for the most of the time and the listeners are not generally allowed to contribute through
verbal messages except for the question-and-answer session following the speech. However,
listeners contribute through nonverbal messages such as applauses, laughter, etc. throughout
the speech. Still the balance of message sending is quite uneven with speaker being dominant.
Despite the imbalance, public communication is effective because of the simple fact that it
occurs face-to-face. Also, we find ourselves participating in it as either speakers or listeners.
Public communication always takes place in public places rather than private places.
Auditoriums, conference and seminar rooms, classrooms, etc. are a few examples of public
places.
11. Mass Communication:
It involves transmission of information to a sizable and diversified audience through the use
of appropriate media. It is much more complex than any other form of communication. The
communicator addresses a large number of people at a time. This makes it difficult for him to
address and meet individual needs. An approach that convinces one part of the audience may
left another part of the audience completely uncertain. Thus, the communicator must find the
correct method and expression to correlate with the largest possible number of people in the
audience.
A communicator must know what to deliver and how to deliver so that he can create
maximum impact. Message should be well-structured, easy to understand and clear. The
message must be presented in such a way that it leaves a long-lasting impression. However,
this requires an understanding of audience’s profile. Wright defined audience of mass
communication as ‘relatively large, heterogeneous and anonymous to the source. The
experience is public and rapid. The source works through a complex organization rather than
in isolation and the message may represent the efforts of many different people.’

Flows of Communication
Communication is essential for the internal functioning of any organization. The interaction
between the different individuals working in a company takes place through different
channels. These channels could be both informal and informal. According to the flow of
message towards the hierarchy communication is described as follows;

Vertical communication: Vertical communication is the communication where

information or messages flows between or among the subordinates and superiors of
the organization.

(A) Downward Communication: As the main function of downward communication is

providing a control, it refers to communication from the higher level in managerial hierarchy
to the lower ones. A communication from the general manager of a company to the branch
managers is an example of downward communication.
(B) Upward Communication: As the main purpose of communication is to provide
feedback on several areas of organizational functioning, it refers to communication from
subordinates to superiors. A business report from the branch manager or a company to the
managing director of the company is an example of upward communication.
Horizontal Communication: Horizontal communication is the communication where
information or messages flows between or among the parallel or same level or statuses
people of the organizational structure.

The main objectives of horizontal communication are developing teamwork, and promoting
group coordination within an organization. It takes place between professional peer groups or
people working on the same level of hierarchy. Horizontal communication is less formal and
structured than both downward communication and upward communication, and may be
carried out through informal discussion, management gossip, telephone calls,
teleconferencing, videoconferencing, memos, routine meetings, and so on.
Diagonal /Grapevine Communication: Diagonal communication is the produce of modern
changes in information technology and management and is the result of the growing
realization of fraternity and equality in the corporate channel occurs between people who do
not have to follow rigid norms of communication protocol, it flows in all directions. Informal
channels transmit official news through unofficial and informal communicative interactions
known as the grapevine. Such channels are more active in organisations that are not
transparent. As employees want to know what is going on in their organization. As tea time
gossip, casual gatherings, lunch time meeting.

Barriers to communication
Communication is not always successful several things can prevent the message from reaching
the intended recipient or gaining from the desired effect on the recipient. There may be some
faults in the communication system which prevents the message from reaching. Some of these
defects are in the mechanical devices used for transmitting, that is, the medium. Some are in the
symbols we use for communicating, that is, language or other symbols used for encoding.
Some are in the nature of the persons who are engaged in communication, that is, the sender
and the receiver. In an organisation, these barriers can become quite complicated and can cause
information gaps leading to problems in its working.
Barriers can be divided into broad groups: Physical barriers, Semantic and Language barriers,
Socio-psychological barriers and organisational barriers. Besides, there are Cross-cultural
barriers which distort communication between persons or groups belonging to a different
cultural background.
1. Physical Barriers
Obstacles that prevent a message from reaching the intended recipient may be outside and
beyond the control of the persons concerned. Some can be controlled by the management; some
cannot be controlled because they are in the environment.
Defects in the Medium.
Defects in the devices used for transmitting messages are external, and usually not within the
control of the parties engaged in communication. The telephone, the postal system, the
courier service, or electronic media may fail. Messages can get delayed, distorted and even
lost while being transmitted.
A partial failure of the mechanical equipment _ is more harmful than a total failure because a
partial failure may carry an incomplete or distorted message. A fax message can be wrongly
delivered as a wrong number can get dialled on the telephone. The printout may not be clear
at all. It is advisable to call up and check that the fax has been received.
Noise in the Environment
Noise is any disturbance which occurs in the transmission process. In face-to face
communication which is carried by air vibration, the air may be disturbed by noise such as
traffic, factory work, or people talking. In a factory, oral communication is very difficult
because of the noise of the machines.
Information Overload
When there is too much information, some of it is blocked in transit and may not reach the
intended audience. Advertising and sales information is an example of overload; so much
communication about products floats through so many media that a good deal of it-does not
reach the potential buyer.

2. Semantic and Language Barriers

Semantic means pertaining to 'or 'arising from the different meanings of words or other
symbols. Language is our most important and powerful tool of communication; and yet it is a
tricky tool that needs skill in handling. First of all, many words have multiple meanings. The
meaning that comes to your mind first depends on your occupation ("charge" may mean
electrical charge to an engineering student, but fee/rent to a commerce student).
The word ‘current’ has different meaning in different context, as for an electric engineering
student, for a commerce student, for a bank manager.
The word ‘housewife’ has different meaning with different pronunciation.
Housewife /ˈhaʊs.waɪf/ a married woman whose main occupation is caring for her family.
Housewife /ˈhʌz.ɪf/ a small case for needles and other sewing items.

Emotional and cultural attitudes towards something can evoke different responses in people.
Sentences can convey entirely different meanings depending on how they are spoken due to the
Position of focus ie End-focus and contrastive focus. Consider the sentence, “I did not tell
John you were late.” It means something different with every shift of emphasis/focus from one
word to another. In oral communication, the speaker can signify the meaning by emphasising
particular words; but in written communication, the reader is in his own control and may read with
different emphasis.

Placement of Emphasis Signifying Meaning

I did not tell John you were Someone else told John you
late. were late.
I did not tell John you were This did not happen.
late.
I did not tell John you were I may have implied it.
late.
I did not tell John you were But maybe I told Sharon and
late. José.
I did not tell John you were I was talking about someone
late. else.
I did not tell John you were I told him you still are late.
late.
I did not tell John you were I told him you were attending
late. another meeting.

Technical terms can be a barrier to communication. Such terms are limited to the group of
persons who work together, or work in the same kind of occupation; they need to use
technical terms in their work. Often, these words have other meanings in ordinary language,
and are differently understood by people who do not belong to that occupational group. New
words are being coined almost everyday; everyone does not understand them and many of
them are not in the dictionaries yet. More importantly, semantic barriers arise because words
mean different things to different persons.
It is' said, "meaning is in people, not in words." Age, education, cultural background and
many other factors influence the meaning we give to words.

3. Socio-Psychological Barriers
Any socio-psychological or emotional disturbance can prove to be a barrier to effective
communication because it leads to lack of interest and concentration. The emotional
disturbance may adversely affect both encoding and decoding. All persons are not skilled
communicators. Skill in communicating has to be cultivated. Most people have problems
which come in the way of good communication. People have personal feelings, desires, fears
and hopes, likes and dislikes, attitudes, views and opinions. Some of these are formed by
family background and social environment; some are formed by the individual's own
intelligence, inherited qualities, education, and personal experiences.
Most of the socio-psychological barriers discussed below operate at the emotional level.
Self-centred Attitudes: We tend to see and hear everything in the light of our own interests
and needs and desires.
Group Identification: Our values and opinions are influenced, by the group to which we
belong.
Self-Image: We have a certain idea of our self; some persons even take care to project an
image of themselves
Selective Perception: Sometimes, we fail to get the complete message which is sent to us.
Defensiveness: If we feel threatened by a message, we become defensive and respond in
such ways that reduce understanding.
Status Block: A "boss" who is conscious of status finds it difficult to receive any suggestions
from subordinates.
Resistance to Change: This is a serious psychological barrier. Some people strongly resist
new ideas which are against their established opinions or traditions or social customs. They
may avoid new ideas because they feel insecure or afraid of changes in methods or situations.
Closed Mind: Limited intellectual background, limited reading and narrow interests can
cause a person's mind to be narrow.
Poor Communication Skills: Lack of skill in writing and in speaking prevents a person from
framing the message properly.
State of Health: Physical condition can affect communication efficiency. Pain or fever
certainly makes a person disinclined to engage in communication; but even if the general
state of health is poor, communicating ability is reduced.

4. Organisational Barriers
In an organisation, the information gaps and barriers become more complex. The movement
of papers and of information gets held up by the system itself. Editing and filtering may also
create barriers. A great deal of loss of information occurs as a message moves from senior
management to lower levels. If a message passes down through many levels of authority,
there may be much distortion in the message. Loss or distortion of information as it moves
downward may be caused by misinterpretation, lack of understanding, and neglect of
messages by some of the members of the organisation.
Over-dependence on written communication is one of the reasons for communication gaps.
Circulars, bulletins, notices and even letters are not always read carefully. Many employees
are unable to read and understand long messages.

5. Inter-Cultural Barriers
Even in the best of conditions, communication can be difficult. Cross cultural factors naturally
increase the possible problems of communication. If for historical or political reasons, the
relationships between two countries are not friendly, there can be even greater problems of
communication. Culture is a shared set of values and attributes of a group; it is the sum total of
the ways of living built up by a group and transmitted from one generation to another. Culture is
so much a part of an individual's manner of talking, behaving and thinking, that communication
style and competence are influenced by it.
The Language of any group directly reflects their culture. You only have to think of some of
the sayings or proverbs or idiomatic expressions in an Indian language and in English to see
that translation from one to the other is nearly impossible. Such culture-bound word as
Jalebi, Sherwani certainly can't convey the same notion with other language equivalents.
Many words cannot be translated exactly. Even among countries that speak the same
language like the British and the Australians, a word may not have the same significance.
Non-verbal behaviour is another area of trouble in cross-cultural communication. Body language
is a major factor that varies between cultures. Not only are gestures understood differently, but the
amount of use of gesture varies. Indians use much more natural gesture than the British; the
Japanese have many formal gestures for social interaction but less free body movements.
Paralanguage
Cross-cultural confusion arises from the way we use our voice. People in many countries are
put off by loud Indian voices, and noisy Indian tourists. Some Western cultures speak in such
low voices that we can hardly hear them, and may wonder if they intend to be secretive.
Difference between cultures in speed of talking makes the faster talking people consider the
slow talking cultures as slow and lax. Some cultures expect formality and formal tone at work
and are embarrassed or put off by the informal tone of another culture. The amount of silence
that is considered as right during a conversation can cause confusion.
Perception is influenced by culture. We perceive some things and ignore others; we
particularly perceive what is contrary to our own culture and what makes us uncomfortable.
What smells "good" or "bad" is perceived differently. Rain means something different for
Indians from what it means for the British. Differences of perception of the world can be
amazing. Our world view and attitudes to life affect our meanings.
6. Gender barriers
Gender barrier is also a type of barrier, such as male and female work in an organization.
Societal stereotypes, assumed gender roles, and interpersonal differences can contribute to a
communication gap between the gender and there is a rift between people due to gender.

Overcoming Barriers
Constant organisational effort is needed to overcome the barriers which are unconsciously
built up by different people in the organisation. Persons in positions of authority, as well as
subordinates, can be helped to overcome these barriers by training in effective
communication.
The responsibility for overcoming barriers to personal communication and ensuring the
success of every communication activity falls upon the senior and the better trained person.
The higher your position, the greater is your need for effective communication. You have to
cultivate all the communication skills including getting feedback and non-verbal
communication. The external barriers of defective channels and faulty organisational systems
are the Management's responsibility within the organisation. The channels must be kept in
good working condition; the intercoms, notice-boards, information meetings must be kept up-
to-date.
Semantic and language barriers can be overcome only by being careful with the use of
language, and by using words which have clear meaning, by using short and simple
sentences, and also by using visual aid whenever possible. Whenever possible, feedback must
be got and given to ensure that there is common understanding of a message.
Personal barriers can be overcome only by making a conscious effort, and by training for
better communication. Persons in responsible positions are expected to improve their
communication skills and overcome their particular blocks. Many companies organize
training sessions for their staff for better communication skills.
Barriers can develop unexpectedly since emotions play a large part in communication. It is
not easy to overcome all barriers; everyone has to make efforts to be aware of them and take
care to avoid them.

Basics / Characteristics / Qualities / CS of Professional Communication

Our everyday life in general communication as well as in technical communication is

(almost) entirely dependent on language, both written language and spoken language. One
may talk about different languages, and different vocabularies but it is almost only the
knowledge of language that can decode a technocrat’s ideas. Language in everyday contexts
is natural, informal and constantly evolving whereas the language of technical writing is or
should be characterized by formality, high stylization, accuracy, and precision. Language is
the starting and ending point for any writing. It is impossible to dissociate language
competency from any writing. So language should be used accurately and in a good style.

Style: a style clad in good uniform of thoughts must work sooner or later. Style and thought
are two cardinal virtues of writing; these are the sinews of fame, as of eternity. A single word
can earn or mar a user’s reputation. Words are like gravel for the writing journey that leads to
the palace of wisdom. Technical communication art is born of the right choice of words. The
ignorance of the choice of words is not innocence but sin that only ruins one’s writing.
Jonathan Swift’s definition is succinct: “Proper words in proper places make the true
definition of a style.” When proper words prevail ambiguity flees away so a technocrat has to
endeavour a lot to achieve immaculateness. A technical writer very nicely must know his art
and re-examines it with a true critic’s skill.
Stylistics is not a stylish word, but it is well connected. The true nature of it is elusive and
needs subtler net to catch the mistakes and ambiguities. Choose a simple word rather than a
difficult one, a concrete word in preference to an abstract one, a familiar word instead of a
rare one. Complex, hard-to-understand sentences are rarely good sentences. Good technical
writing communicates in simple terms, even though the subject may be complicated.
Repeated use of unnecessary, difficult, and abstract words and phrases makes the subject hard
to understand.

Verbosity should be avoided. It means to say a thing in a complicated way, with lots of
words, usually to make it sound more important, this is a poor style. Technical writing should
be impersonal and formal at the expense of readability and clarity. The rhythm and smooth
flow of language is important in technical writing.
Descriptive writing: technical writing should be descriptive. The term descriptive here does
not refer to detail and length of a document, but to cover each aspect of the topic described.
Language should be used to create an image in reader’s mind so that every concept should be
clear.
Demographic writing or know the need of reader: Technical writing should be
demographic. Here the term demographic is selective for the study of audience/reader
concerned. A technical writer should know well before writing that his/her reader is familiar
or unfamiliar with the subject. The writer has to classify that the reader is an expert or
layperson. Then, according to the sensibility of the reader the language should be used.

Technical writing is a process of giving a voice to one’s thoughts. It is not meant to be showy
or entertaining or showing writer’s knowledge; its intent is to provide clear and concise
information to the reader. It should not be written to impress but to make understand and
establish strong good will. Both the use of language and presentation should be of attract
attention. Also the presentation should be functional and understandable. There should occur
an image from words on the page during every illustration. Clear, concise writing gives the
impression of confidence and knowledge, credibility and authority. Followings are the basic
characteristics of basics of professional communication.
Basics / Characteristics / Qualities / CS of professional communication.

Clarity: it exists in using simple, familiar, concrete, specific words and expression and clear
references.
Tactless Version Tactful Version

You are advised to send us a few important Please send us details regarding your service
doubtful points as early as possible. Such as charges, methods of payment, concession
your service charges, methods of payment, schemes, and so on.
concession schemes, and so on.

Courtesy: the technical writing must reflect courtesy and consideration, as the reader is
under no obligation to do what the writer write for. Positive and encouraging phrases should
be used and irritating phrases and expressions should be avoided.
Tactless Version Tactful Version

You must send the refund without delay to at Please send the refund to me at the address
 the address below. below.

Conciseness: technical writing should be concise and direct so unnecessary words, wordy
expressions; empty words, wordy compounds, repetitions, and redundancies must be avoided.
Indirect expressions, rhetoric, and exaggeration should be avoided. Conciseness should not be
on the cost of clarity.
Tactless Version Tactful Version

I am very happy to inform you that the report Enclosed please find the report on student
on student involvement in academic decision- involvement in academic decision-making,
making that was completed for your research completed for your research department.
department is being sent to you along with
this letter of mine.

Correct Tone: tone in a technical writing refers to the manner or mood of expression. It
helps establish the relationship that the writer wishes to establish with the reader. The tone
should be formal, tactful, personal, and positive. A tactless or negative tone can lead to
misunderstanding, resulting in negative response from the reader.
Tactless Version Tactful Version

Your project is so complex and your demand To complete the project report to the best of
of satisfaction are so ambitious that it cannot your satisfaction, please give us an extension
be completed on stated time-span so we need of 3 days.
more time to complete the project report.

Correct Attitude: attitude in a technical writing refers to the reflection of the opinion of the
writer on the reader. To establish goodwill and a long-term relationship with the reader, avoid
a poor and negative language.
Tactless Version Tactful Version

We will not be able to process your order Please send us your specific and clear
because your business terms are too vague business term so that we can process your
and are unacceptable to us. order.

Correct language: correct, accurate and simple language should be used in a technical
writing. The use of careless and incorrect use of language not only leaves a bad impression
on reader about the writer but also it misleads the meaning.
Tactless Version Tactful Version

You were sold a watch by me on 10 I sold a watch to you on 10 September 2020.

September 2020.
 Time Management

Time is referred as a measurable period during which an action, process or condition occurs.
Time Management refers to managing time effectively so that the right time is allocated to
the right activity. Effective time management allows individuals to assign specific time slots
to activities as per their importance. Time Management refers to making the best use of time
as time is always limited. Time Management plays a very important role not only in
organizations but in our personal lives also.

A plan is what, a schedule is when. Result is attained when goal is targeted. It takes both a
plan and a schedule to get things done timely and effectively. Success is always attained by
time management. The importance of time management exists in the statement “I wasted
time, and now doth time waste me” by W. Shakespeare. One may delay, but time never waits.
A man who dares to waste one hour of life has not discovered the value of life. Lack of
achievement is not lack of time; all we have twenty-four hour a day. One should never be
busy without work; it is but wasting of time.

Time management refers to the development of processes and tools that increase efficiency
and productivity. Time management is about effectiveness and efficiency of what you are
doing and how you do it. Time management is a process that is constituted with a series of
steps which involves the analysis of our time habits, clarification of our objectives,
establishment of our priorities, planning for appropriate results and taking positive action
against time wasters.

Organizing the daily schedule with a strong focus on the goals which have to be
accomplished will definitely assist employees to become time masters. Without goals, time
management is like a hammer without a nail. With goal, however, time management becomes
a magic key to success.

Time Management includes:

i. Analyzing time use: Discover what is happening and what should be changed
ii. Effective Planning.
iii. Setting goals and objectives.
iv. Prioritizing activities as per their importance.
v. Delegation / allocation of responsibilities.
vi. Setting deadlines: Never take a chance to be reminded as it is the waste of time of
both the parties and it also increase the stress.
vii. Spending the right time on the right activity: Make sure that activities land to the
stated objectives.
viii. Evaluating progress: Determine if things are working out well.

The key components of a total time plan can be marked as follows

Time Plan Work Plan

Time Estimate + Goal = Total Time Plan
Schedules Activities
Flexibility Priorities
The concept of time is an integral part of one personality. Time is very precious resource for
an individual as well as for an organization. Unlike other resources time cannot be reviewed
or replaced. While raw materials supply can be increased, more workers can be hired and
additional capital can be raised, the supply of time cannot be increased over twenty-four a
day. In every time span being spent by individuals on their business matters, they must
develop or gain something that can be regarded as a profit to them.