Module 1

The Nature of Mathematics

Mathematics In Our World

Mathematics In The Modern World

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Overview

Humans have always used observations of patterns to help mankind survive with a better
understanding of the world in which we live. Some of these patterns seemed to have only
recreational value when first discovered, but later on they have been shown to be valuable
tools in describing weather systems, economic behaviors, biological interactions, and other
important aspects of life.
In this module, we shall talk about the nature of math, the patterns that we see in nature
and in the world in general. We shall also learn logical patterns, numerical patterns, and
isometries.

Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this module, you should be able to:

Classify patterns in nature and regularities in the world;

Explain the importance of mathematics in one’s life;

Appreciate mathematics as a human endeavor through creating self-designed patterns;

Utilize methods and approaches in proving and solving problems.

Initial activity – accessing prior knowledge

 What is mathematics?
 How do you describe mathematics?

Mathematics has been called the greatest and most original invention of the human
mind and is one of the great social institutions built up by cooperation during the long history of
civilization. It is a mode of thinking that is necessary for the evolution of the human race. It relies
on both logic and creativity, and it is pursued both for a variety of practical purposes and for its
intrinsic interest.

Those who study mathematics for intrinsic interest believe that the essence of
mathematics lies in its beauty and its intellectual challenge. As a theoretical discipline,
mathematics explores the possible relationships among abstractions without concern for
whether those abstractions have counterparts in the real world. This kind of mathematicians,
called pure mathematicians are interested only in finding a pattern or proving that there is none,
but not in what use such knowledge might have.

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Those who study mathematics for practical purposes believe that the chief value of
mathematics is how it applies to a person’s own work, like the scientists, engineers, economists,
etc. Mathematicians of this kind focus their attention on solving problems that originate in the
world of experience.

Sometimes, it takes decades or centuries before a practical mathematician discovers

the usefulness of a certain mathematical concept or theory that a pure mathematician has
introduced. Nevertheless, the discoveries of theoretical mathematicians frequently turn out to
have unanticipated practical value and the results of theoretical and applied mathematics
often influence each other. It is the pure mathematicians who set up the framework, the
structure, and the pattern that describe the tangible objects which the scientists study.

HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS

The Period of Egyptian and Babylonian Mathematics (Up to 500 BC.)

~ Mathematics was purely the study of numbers.
~ During those covilizations, mathematics consisted almost solely of arithmetics.

Around 500BC to AD 300 Era of Greek Mathematics

~ The mathematicians were primarily concerned with geometry.
~They regarded mathematics as the study of numbers and shapes.
~ Thales - introduced the idea that the precisely stated assertions of
mathematics could be logically proved by a formal argument. Marked the
Birth of Theorem, known as the bedrock of mathematics.

Middle of Seventeenth Century

~ Newton, Englishman, andf Leibniz (German Mathematicians independentyly
invented Calculus)
~ Mathematicians were able to study the motion of the planets and of falling
bodies on the earth, the workings of machinery, the flow of liquids, the
expansion of gases, physical forces such as magnetism and electricity, flight,
the growth of plants and animals, the spread of epidemics , the fluctuation of
profits, and many others.
~ Mathematics became the study of numbers, shapes, motion, change, and
space.

By the end of Nineteenth Century

~ Mathematics had become mathematical tools that are used in physics
~ Most of the mathematicians now agrees that mathematics is the “science of
patterns”.

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Why is math important in education? Why do we have to study a lot of maths?

The special role of mathematics in education is a consequence of its universal applicability.

The results of mathematics are both significant and useful; the best results are also elegant and
deep. Mathematics offers distinctive modes of thought which are both versatile and powerful,
including modeling, abstraction, optimization, logical analysis, inference from data, and use of
symbols. In short, experience with mathematical modes of thought builds mathematical power-
-a capacity of mind of increasing value in this technological age that enables us to read
critically, to identify fallacies, to detect bias, to assess risk, and to suggest alternatives.
Mathematics empowers us to understand better the information-laden world in which we live.

What is the uses of Mathematics?

i. Technology
Modern technology depends on basic research to advance. GPS devices must know the
speed of light to work, and this value is determined by math and experimentation using
statistics.

1. Predicting the Weather 9. Navigation

2. Internet and Phones 10. Speech Recognition
3. Computers 11. Breaking the Enigma
4. Reading CDs and DVDs 12. Public Transportation
5. Public Key Cryptography 13. Computer Circuits
6. Satellite Navigation 14. Movie Graphics
7. Digital Music 15. Image Compression
8. Search Engines 16. Measuring Time

ii. Engineering
In engineering, math is used to design and develop new components or products, maintain
operating components, model real-life situations for testing and learning purposes, as well
as build and maintain structures. Math is a core component of every engineering field and
is also widely used in research.

1. Construction 6. Computer Circuits

2. Automotive Design 7. Rockets & Satellites
3. Building Bridges 8. Microwaves
4. Robotics 9. Surveying
5. Roller Coaster Design

iii. Media
Mathematical concepts and themes can be found anywhere in the media. The range of
ways that math is related to the media is quite broad including the shape of camera lens,
proportion scale for movie sets, and the convincing nature of numbers used in advertising.

1. Reading CDs and DVDs 4. Movie Graphics

2. Digital Music 5. Polling and Voting
3. Making Music 6. Music Shuffling
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iv. Medicine and Health

Advanced medical devices rely on studies supported by statistics. Even consumer devices,
such as smart phones and tablet computers, are sold only when surveys and other forms of
customer feedback, which rely on math, predict that they are profitable.

1. MRI and Tomography 6. Pharmacy & Medicine

2. Neurology 7. Population Dynamics
3. Epidemics Analysis 8. Plastic Surgery
4. Crowd People 9. Counting Calories
5. Problem Solving

v. Finance and Business

Business ownership required more than the skill in creating a product or talent at providing a
service. Overseeing the finances of your company is key to survival and success.
Understanding basic business math is necessary for profitable operations and accurate
record keeping.

1. Supply Chains 6. Fraud Detection

2. Finance and Banking 7. Big Data
3. Gambling and Betting 8. Pricing Strategies
4. Insurance 9. Game Theory
5. Loans, Interests, Mortgages

A. Patterns in Nature and the World

Many of us misinterpret mathematics as the study of Did you know?

numbers and that only those who are excellent with numbers
can be called mathematicians. But it is not really numbers that
matter to a mathematician; rather, it is what they represent. The
mathematician’s true purpose is to study, discover, or create
patterns. While a scientist studies an actual object, being, or
phenomenon, the mathematician provides him/ her the
patterns, structures, and relationships involved in whatever the
scientist studies.
The wings of a butterfly often sport
Patterns provide clear insight into understanding the patches of color and stripes that
can imitate eyes or warn of toxins
natural world. While we know that animals and plants are far and therefore deter predators.
from thinking beings they do have certain habits and https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/211174958764866/

characteristics that exist in patterns. Scientists and biologists

believe that understanding these behavioral patterns will provide us a clearer understanding of
all living things.
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/21
1174958764866/

 What does the word pattern mean to you?

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Pattern – is considered as any kind of regularity that can be recognized by the mind.
These could be non-mathematical patterns; number patterns; and patterns that would be
valuable to you as you gain mathematical maturity and become a problem solver.

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/1829656074039318/ https://in.pinterest.com/pin/180003316332146469/

https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/:National_Aquatics_ https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/476959416760516186/
Center_Construction(cropped).jpg

We think of patterns as something that just repeats again and again throughout space
in an identical way, sort of like a wallpaper pattern. But many patterns that we see in nature
aren’t quite like that. We sense that there is something regular or at least not random about
them, but that doesn’t mean that all the elements are identical. One familiar example of that
would be the zebra’s stripes. Everyone can recognize that as a pattern, but no stripe is like any
other stripe. The patterns are just so striking, beautiful and remarkable. The beauty of natural
patterns makes us wonder: How does nature without any kind of blueprint or design put together
patterns like this?

Patterns are everywhere:

- Nature
- Science
- Man-made
- Art
- Software

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Patterns in Nature
These are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. These patterns recur in
different contexts and can sometimes be modelled mathematically.

 What are the different natural patterns?

Natural Patterns include:

1. Symmetries
2. Fractals or Trees
3. Spirals
4. Chaos, flow, meanders
5. Waves, dunes
6. Bubbles, Foam
7. Tessellations
8. Cracks
9. Spots, stripes

 Look at your face in the mirror. Imagine a vertical line going through the middle of
your face. What can you say about the left and right side of your face? Now
imagine a butterfly with wings wide spread and an imaginary vertical line going
through the center of its body. What can you say about the left and right side of
the butterfly’s body?

 What kind of pattern do the questions above show you?

This pattern is called symmetry.

1. Symmetry. Figures can have two distinct types of symmetry: reflection (mirror or bilateral)
symmetry and rotation (radial) n- fold symmetry, which we informally differentiate below.
 A figure has reflection symmetry if there is a line that can be “folded over” so that one- half
of the figure matches the other half perfectly. The “fold line” is called the figure’s line (axis) of
symmetry.
 A figure has rotation symmetry if there is a point around which the figure can be rotated, less
than a full turn, so that the image matches the original figure perfectly.

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A tiger has reflection symmetry. A starfish has rotation symmetry. A snowflake has rotation symmetry.
https://aheadforfigures.co.uk/2016/11/02/the-beauty-of-patterns/

2. Fractals or Trees. From the word fraction, or part of a whole, fractals are self-similar, iterated
mathematical constructs where shrinking and moving are applied many times. In a fractal,
you will observe that as new shapes are constructed, they are similar to each of the previous
shapes, that is, the basic components of a fractal are similar to the whole. This means that
you can zoom into forever and find exactly the same shapes.

Leaf of cow parsley Angelica flowerhead, a sphere made of spheres (self-similar)

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http://the-history-girls.blogspot.com/2017/09/wyspes-kexis-and-cokenay-in-medieval.html

Fractal spirals: Romanesco broccoli Trees: dendritic copper crystals

(microscope) Trees: Lichtenberg figure: high voltage
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https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/423690277417649466/
https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/4x4-captured-lightning-lichtenberg-1792192892

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3. Spirals. Spirals are the patterns that we see in many plants and some animals,
notably molluscs. To get a better picture, we will pay attention to a particular kind, the
nautilus shell. In a nautilus, each chamber of its shell is an approximate copy of the next one,
scaled by a constant factor and arranged in a logarithmic spiral. We can say that growth
spiral can be seen as a special case of self-similarity.

Spiral aloe Spiralling shell Spiralling shell

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4. Chaos, meanders. In mathematics, a dynamical system is chaotic if it is (highly) sensitive to

initial conditions. Meanders are sinuous bends in rivers or other channels, which form as a
fluid, most often water, flows around bends.

Chaos: shell of gastropod mollusc Meanders: sinuous snake

crawling Meanders: symmetrical brain coral
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5. Waves, dunes. Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. When winds blow
over large bodies of sand, they create dunes. Dunes may form a range of patterns including
crescents, very long straight lines, stars, domes, parabolas, and longitudinal or seif ('sword')
shapes.

Waves: breaking wave in a ship's wake Dunes: barchan crescent sand dune Wind ripples with dislocations
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6. Bubbles, foam. A soap bubble forms a sphere. Two bubbles together form a more complex
shape: the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical; these surfaces are joined by a
third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges slightly into the larger one. A foam is a
mass of bubbles.

Foam of soap bubbles: four edges meet at each vertex Equal spheres (gas bubbles) in a surface foam
https://aheadforfigures.co.uk/2016/11/02/the-beauty-of-patterns/

 Have you heard of a tessellation?

 What is a tessellation?

7. Tessellations. Tessellations are patterns formed by repeating tiles all over a flat surface.
Among animals, bony fish, reptiles like the pangolin, are protected by overlapping scales
or osteoderms, these form more-or-less exactly repeating units, though often the scales in
fact vary continuously in size.

Arrays: honeycomb is a natural tessellation Bismuth hopper crystal illustrating the stairstep crystal habit.
https://aheadforfigures.co.uk/2016/11/02/the-beauty-of-patterns/

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Tilings: overlapping scales of common roach Tessellated pavement: a rock formation on the Tasman Peninsula
https://aheadforfigures.co.uk/2016/11/02/the-beauty-of-patterns/

8. Cracks. Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress. When
an elastic material stretches or shrinks uniformly, it eventually reaches its breaking strength
and then fails suddenly in all directions. Conversely, when an inelastic material fails, straight
cracks form to relieve the stress. Further stress in the same direction would then simply open
the existing cracks; stress at right angles can create new cracks.
Thus the pattern of cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or not. In a tough
fibrous material like oak tree bark, cracks form to relieve stress as usual, but they do not grow
long as their growth is interrupted by bundles of strong elastic fibers. Since each species of
tree has its own structure at the levels of cell and of molecules, each has its own pattern of
splitting in its bark
.

Drying inelastic mud in the Drying elastic mud Palm trunk

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9. Spots, stripes. Leopards and ladybirds are spotted; angelfish and zebras are striped. These
patterns have an evolutionary explanation: they have functions which increase the
chances that the offspring of the patterned animal will survive to reproduce. One function
of animal patterns is camouflage; another function is signaling. But while these evolutionary
and functional arguments explain why these animals need their patterns, they do not explain
how the patterns are formed.

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Dirce beauty butterfly, Breeding pattern of cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis

https://aheadforfigures.co.uk/2016/11/02/the-beauty-of-patterns/

Learning check
Activity #1:
1. Name at least 7 different natural objects that seem to exhibit patterns.
2. Show a picture of each natural object and tell us which part of the object
seems to exhibit a pattern.
3. Identify the type of pattern/s each object exhibits.

B. Numerical and Logical Patterns

NUMERICAL PATTERNS
Sometimes, when we first study a math lesson, like mathematical logic, we do not realize
that it has a deep application in our lives. But uunderstanding patterns helps us improve our
mental skills. In order to recognize patterns, we need to have an understanding of critical
thinking and logic which are clearly important skills to develop. But do not worry, researchers
have found that the skill of recognizing and understanding patterns can be learned relatively
quickly. But like learning other forms of math, sometimes you really need to exert effort with
practicing it for the long term. Remember, with practice comes skill.

Practice Tests: Find the next number in each of the following:

1. 3 10 13 23 36 ______
2. 2 4 4 16 16 ______
3. 3 9 6 15 9 ______
4. ¼ ½ 1 2 4 ______
5. 729 243 81 27 9 ______
6. 1 3 4 7 11 ______
7. 2 4 7 11 16 ______
8. 6 11 21 41 81 ______
9. 2 3 5 9 17 ______
10. 1 4 9 16 25 ______
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LOGICAL PATTERNS
The three figures or symbols in each problem set are related to each other in a certain
way.

Practice Tests: Draw the next shape in each of the following picture patterns.

1.

2.

3.

4.
1
1 1
1 3 1
1 5 5 1
5. 1 7 13 7 1
1 9 25 25 9 1
? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Learning check
Activity: Answer the Logical Pattern (Abstract Reasoning Problems)

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Which figure completes the series? For items number 1 through 10.
1.)

2.)

3.)

4.)

5.)

6.)

7.)

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8.)

9.)

10.)

Which figure is the odd one out? For items number 11 through 14.
11.)

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12.)

13.)

14.)

Which figure completes the series? For items number 15 through 16.
15.)

16.)

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Which belongs in neither group? For items number 17 through 18.

17.)

18.)

19.) Which one completes the series?

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20.) Which is the odd one out?

C. Figurative Number Patterns, Sequences and Series

FIGURATIVE NUMBER PATTERNS

Among the many relationships of numbers that have fascinated and intrigued
mathematicians are those that were derived from the arrangement of points
representing numbers into a series of geometrical figures. These numbers are known as
figurate or figurative numbers which appeared in 15th-century arithmetic books and
were probably known to the ancient Chinese but were of special interest to the ancient
Greek mathematicians. To them, everything could be explained by numbers, and
numbers have specific characteristics and personalities. Among other properties of
numbers, they say that numbers had “shapes.” That’s why figurate numbers are
sometimes called polygonal numbers because they are points, or dots, arranged to
form various regular shape polygons, such as a triangle or a pentagon.

Examples:
Consider the triangular figures below.

Show how these triangular numbers are formed

The first four triangular numbers based on the number of dots are 1, 3, 6, and 10.

What is the next triangular number? Can you draw it? Answer: 15

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Try this.
1. Use dots to form the first four square figures, and write their corresponding square
numbers.
2. Based on the four square numbers on item #1, what is the next square number?

Learning check
Seatwork:
1. a. Use dots to form the first four pentagonal numbers.
b. Write the first four pentagonal numbers.
c. What is the next pentagonal number?

2. Write a number in each circle from 1 through 6, and connect them with nodes/ lines to
construct a mapping diagram that will satisfy the given set of relations. The value of all
nodes connected to a certain number must add up to the same value on the right side
of that number in the given relation.
1 = 12
2=4
3 = 12
4=8
5=8
6=3

NUMBER SEQUENCE

A pattern of numbers arranged in a particular order is called a sequence, and the

individual numbers in the sequence are called terms of the sequence. For example, the
counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, … , form a number sequence. An ellipsis, the three periods after the
4, means “and so on”. Several examples of number sequences follow.

Sequence Name
2, 4, 6, 8, … the even counting numbers
1, 3, 5, 7, … the odd counting numbers
1, 4, 9, 16, …. the square counting numbers
1, 3, 32 , 33 the powers of three
1,1, 2, 3, 5, 8, … the Fibonacci sequence

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Practice exercise 1. Describe the following pattern:

1+0∙9 = 1
2 + 1 ∙ 9 = 11
3 + 12 ∙ 9 = 111
4 + 123 ∙ 9 = 1,111
5 + 1234 ∙ 9 = 11,111

Does the pattern continue? Why or why not? (Try continuing the pattern.)

Practice exercise 2. Shade squares in a square array.

Do you observe any pattern?

(Draw the next square array and complete the table that follows.)

Squares on a side 1 2 3 4 5 6 … 𝑛
Shaded squares (SS) …
Unshaded squares (US) …

Practice exercise 3. Following is a pattern of circular shapes:

If you make this pattern until you have 10 shaded circles in a row, how many
unshaded circles and how many shaded circles will you need?

Practice exercise 4. Observe the following pattern:

1 + 3 = 22
1 + 3 + 5 = 32
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 42

a. State the generalization based on this pattern.

b. Based on your generalization in (a), find 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + 35
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ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE

A sequence is an ordered collection of objects. Some special sequences can be

classified by the way their terms are found. In the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, …, each term
after the first can be found by adding 2 to the preceding term. This type of sequence,
in which successive terms differ by the same number, is called an arithmetic
sequence. Using variables, an arithmetic sequence has the form a, a + d, a + 2d, ….

Here "a" is the initial term and "d" is the amount by which successive terms differ.
The number "d" is called the common difference of the sequence.

In the sequence 1, 3, 9, 27, …, each term after the first can be found by
multiplying the preceding term by 3. This is an example of a geometric sequence. By
using variables, a geometric sequence has the form a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , …

The number “r" by which each successive term is multiplied, is called the common
ratio of the sequence.

The table below displays the terms for general arithmetic and geometric
sequences.

The General Rule or nth Term of the Sequence

𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 1 2 3 4 … 𝑛 …

𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 𝑎+𝑑 𝑎 + 2𝑑 𝑎 + 3𝑑 … 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 …

𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟 2 𝑎𝑟 3 … 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 …

A. An Arithmetic Sequence with common difference d

I. The Linear Form: an= an + b

n 0 1
Diff. b a+b

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Example:
Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence:
1. 20, 18, 16, 14, 12, …
Solution:
Sequence 22 20 18 16 14 12

First Difference -2 -2 -2 -2 -2

Hence, 𝒂 = −𝟐, and 𝒃 = 𝟐𝟐

General Rule: 𝒂𝒏 = − 𝟐𝒏 + 𝟐𝟐

II. The Quadratic Form: an = an2 + bn + c

n: 0 1 2
an = an2 + bn + c c a+b+c 4a+2b+c

First Difference: a+b 3a + b

Second Difference: 2a

Example:
Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence.
1. 5, 12, 21, 32, 45, …
Solution:
Sequence 0 5 12 21 32 45

First Difference 5 7 9 11 13

Second Difference 2 2 2 2

Hence, 𝟐𝒂 = 𝟐, 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟓, and 𝒄 = 𝟎

Therefore, 𝒂 = 𝟏, 𝒃 = 𝟒, and 𝒄 = 𝟎
General Rule: 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒏𝟐 + 𝟒𝒏 + 𝟎 or 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏𝟐 + 𝟒𝒏

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III. The Cubic Form: an = an3 + bn2 + cn + d

n: 0 1 2 3
d a+b+c+d 8a+4b+2c+d 27a+9b+3c+d

First Difference: a+b+c 7a+3b+c 19a+5b+c

Second Difference: 6a+2b 12a+2b

Third Difference: 6a

Example:
Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence.
1. 6, 15, 36, 76, 138, . . .

Your solution:

𝑎2
B. A Geometric Sequence with common ratio 𝑟, 𝑟 ≠ 1. 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1 ; 𝑟1 =
𝑎1
Example:
Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence
1, - 2, 4, - 8, 16, ___, ___, ___, … , ___

Solution:
Solution:
−𝟏
Sequence 1 -2 4 -8 16
−2 𝟐
𝑟1 = = −2
1
𝑟2 =
4
= −2 Common ratio (r) -2 -2 -2 -2 -2
−2
8
𝑟3 = − = −2 Hence, 𝒓 = −𝟐
4
16
𝑟4 = = −2
−8
General Rule: 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟏(−𝟐𝒏−𝟏 ) or 𝒂𝒏 = (−𝟐𝒏−𝟏 )

Thus, a6 = 1(- 2)6-1 = - 32

a7 = (-2)7-1 = 64
a8 = (-2)8-1 = -128
a20 = (-2)20-1 = - 524,288

Practice exercise 5. Examine the sequence 20, 18, 16, 14, 12 …

a. what is the next term?
b. what formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?

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Practice exercise 6. Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence
7, 20, 33, 46, 59, …

Practice exercise 7. Analyze the given sequence for its rule and identify the next three terms.
1, 10, 100, 1,000, …

Practice exercise 8. Extend the sequence below for three more terms then find an expression
for the nth term.
1, -2, 4, -8, 16, __, __,__,…__

Practice exercise 9. Examine the sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, …

a. what is the next term?
b. what formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?

Practice exercise 10. Write down the nth term of this quadratic number sequence.
-3, 8, 23, 42, 65, …

Practice exercise 11. Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence
5, 12, 21, 32, 45, …

Practice exercise 12. Analyze the given sequence for its rule and identify the next three terms.
2, 5, 9, 14, 20, …

Learning check
Activity:
1. Examine the sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, …
a. What is the next term?
b. What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?
2. Write down the nth term of this quadratic number sequence. – 3, 8, 23, 42, 65, …
3. Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence 5, 12, 21, 32, 45, …
4. Analyze the given sequence for its rule and identify the next three terms.
2, 5, 9, 14, 20, …

23
 The Nature of Mathematics


ARITHMETIC SERIES AND GEOMETRIC SERIES

An arithmetic series is the sum of the terms in an arithmetic sequence.

A geometric series is the sum of the terms in a geometric sequence.

SUM OF AN ARITHMETIC SERIES

If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 form an arithmetic sequence with common difference d, then the
sum 𝑆𝑛 of these n terms is given by the following:
𝑛(𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
2

SUM OF A GEOMETRIC SERIES

If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 form a geometric sequence with common ratio 𝑟 ≠ 1, then the sum
𝑆𝑛 of these n terms is given by the following:
𝑎 − 𝑟𝑎𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 1
1−𝑟

Example: Find the sum of the terms of a Pascal Triangle up to 10th row

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Learning check
Solve the following problems.
1. Write the first five terms of an = 1 + (- 1)n+1 , where i = √- 1
2. Find the nth term of the sequence 6, 9, 27 , . . .
3. For the arithmetic sequence 45, 60, 75, 90, . . . find a 50.
4. Find p so that p+ 7, 3p + 9, p + 3, . . . form an arithmetic sequence.
5. Find the sum of all even numbers between 35 and 427.
6. Rectangle ABCD has dimensions 1 by 2. The next rectangle PQRS has dimensions ½
by 1. In like manner each rectangle has dimensions half of the size of the preceding
rectangle. If this sequence of rectangles continues endlessly, what is the sum of the
areas of all the rectangles?
7. The total seating capacity in an auditorium is 1065. The first row has 21 seats and
each row has one seat more than the row in front of it. How many rows of seat are
there in the auditorium?

24
 The Nature of Mathematics


D. The Fibonacci Sequence And The Golden Ratio

The Fibonacci sequence and the related topic of the golden ratio appear in many
places in nature and play an important role in geometry, art, and music.
The discussion of sequence would not be complete without mentioning a sequence
known as the Fibonacci sequence.
The sequence is named after Leonardo of Pisa, also known as Fibonacci as one of the
best-known mathematicians of Medieval Europe. This sequence was best explained by
Fibonacci that concerns the birth rate of rabbits.
Statement of Fibonacci’s rabbit problem: At the beginning of a month, you are given a
pair of newborn rabbits. After a month, the rabbits have produced no offspring; however, every
month thereafter, the pair of rabbits produces another pair of rabbits. The offspring reproduce
in exactly the same manner. If none of the rabbits dies, how many pairs of rabbits will there be
at the start of each succeeding month?

Leonardo of Pisa (aka Fibonacci)

Leonardo was born in Pisa, Italy around 1170. He is considered one

of the most distinguished mathematicians of the Middle Ages. His
father Guglielmo del Bonacci was a wealthy Pisan merchant who
took Leonardo with him when he traveled because he wanted his
son to become a merchant, too. Leonardo was sent by his father
to study mathematics with an Arab master (teacher), who guided
him in learning calculation techniques, especially those
https://www.storyofmathematics.c concerning Hindu- Arabic numbers, which was not yet introduced
om/medieval_fibonacci.html in Europe at that time. Fibonacci’s education started in Bejaia
and continued also in Egypt, Syria, and Greece, places he visited with his father along the trade
routes, before returning permanently to Pisa. For the next 25 years, Fibonacci dedicated himself
to writing mathematical manuscripts. When he began writing, he referred to himself as
Fibonacci, which roughly means “son of Bonacci”- the name by which he is known today. In
addition to the famous sequence bearing his name, Fibonacci is also credited with introducing
the Hindu- Arabic number system in Europe. His 1202 book, Liber Abacci (Book of the Abacus),
explained the use of this number system and emphasized the importance of the number zero.
Leonardo’s reputation as a mathematician became so great that Emperor Federico II asked an
audience while in Pisa in 1225. After 1228, not much is known of Leonardo’s life, except that he
was awarded the title of “Discretus et sapiens magister Leonardo Bigollo” in recognition of the
great progress he made to mathematics. Fibonacci died sometime after 1240, presumably in
Pisa.

25
 The Nature of Mathematics


THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

An interesting problem which was contained in Fibonacci’s book Liber Abacci went like
this: A certain man put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall.

How many pairs of rabbits can be produced from that pair in a year if it is assumed
that every month each pair begets a new pair which from the second month
becomes productive?

The solution to this problem led to the development of the sequence that bears its
author’s name: the Fibonacci sequence.

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, …,

In the Fibonacci sequence, the first and second terms are 1. The sum of these two terms
is the third term. The sum of the second and third terms is the fourth term, and so on.

The Fibonacci Sequence in Nature

 Seed arrangement of many species of plants: When the flowering head of the sunflower
matures to seed, the seeds’ spiral arrangements become clearly visible. A typical count
of these spirals may give 89 steeply curving to the right, 55 curving more shallowly to the
left, and 34 again shallowly to the right. These numbers are consecutive terms of the
Fibonacci sequence. The largest known specimen to be examined had spiral counts of
144 right, 89 left, and 55 right (which are also consecutive terms of the Fibonacci
sequence).
 Petal counts of various flowers surrounding the central disk:
- some daisies contain 21 petals, 34, 55, or 89 petals
- the iris has 3 petals
- the columbine has 5 petals
- the delphiniums have 8 petals
- the ragwort has 13 petals
- the aster has 21 petals
- the pytethrum has 34 petals
26
 The Nature of Mathematics


 The structure of pinecones: The tablike or scalelike structures that make up the main body
of the pinecone form a set of spirals that start from the cone’s attachment to the branch.
A count on the steep spiral will reveal a Fibonacci number, and a count on the gradual
one will reveal the adjacent smaller Fibonacci number, or if not, the next smaller
Fibonacci number. One investigation of 4,290 pinecones from 10 species of pine trees
found in California revealed that only 74 cones, or merely 1.7%, deviated from this
Fibonacci pattern.
 The structure of pineapples: Pineapple scales are roughly hexagonal in shape, which
means that three distinct sets of spirals can be counted. Generally, the number of
pineapple scales in each spiral are Fibonacci numbers.
 The number of ancestors of a male bee: In bee family, a female bee can either be a
queen or a worker. If the female bee is fertile, she is a queen. If the female bee is infertile,
she is a worker. When a queen bee mates with a male bee, the offspring is always a
female bee (either a worker or a future queen). But a queen bee can also produce an
offspring even without mating with a male bee, in which case, the offspring is always a
male bee. In essence then, female bees have two parents, whereas male bees only have
one parent. We can see the Fibonacci sequence as we move back through the male
bees’ generations. (Verify this by drawing a family tree for a male bee.)
 The Fibonacci sequence can also be seen in the way (some) tree branches form or split.
A main trunk will grow until it produces a branch, which creates two growth points. Then,
one of the new stems branches into two, while the other one lies dormant. This pattern of
branching is repeated for each of the new stems.

Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Number (𝝓, 𝒑𝒉𝒊)

In 1753, while studying the Fibonacci sequence, Robert Simson, a mathematician at the
University of Glasgow, noticed that when he took the ratio of any term to the term that
immediately preceded it, the value he obtained remained in the vicinity of one specific
number. To illustrate this, let’s complete the table on the following page.

Numbers Ratio
1
1, 1 =
1
2
1, 2 =
1
3
2, 3 =
2
5
3, 5 =
3
8
5, 8 =
5
13
8, 13 =
8
21
13, 21 ≈
13

27
 The Nature of Mathematics


34
21, 34 ≈
21
55
34, 55 ≈
34
89
55, 89 ≈
55

Simson proved that the ratio of the (n+1) term to the nth term as n gets larger and larger
√5+1
is the irrational number , which begins 1.61803… This number was already well known to
2
mathematicians at that time as the golden number.

 Many years earlier, Bavarian astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler

wrote that for him the golden number symbolized the Creator’s intention “to
create like from like”.
 The ancient Greeks, in about the sixth century B.C., sought unifying principles of
beauty and perfection, which they believed could be described by using
mathematics. In their study of beauty, the Greeks used the term golden ratio.

The Golden Ratio and the Golden (Divine) Proportion

A C B

When this line segment is divided at a point C such that the ration of the whole, AB, to
the larger part, AC, is equal to the ratio of the larger part, AC, to the smaller part, CB, each ratio
AB AC √5+1
and is referred to as a golden ratio, each equal to the golden number, . The
AC CB 2
AB AC
proportion these ratios form, = , is called the golden proportion.
AC CB

AB AC √5+1
That is, = = ≈ 1.618.
AC CB 2

28
 The Nature of Mathematics


THE GOLDEN RATIO

In mathematics and the arts, two quantities are Did you know?
in a golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of
their sum to the larger of the two quantities. If you only
examine the dimension of things around us like the
screen of your cell phones, tablets, computers, or
television, notice that the quotient of its length and
width is close to 1.61803… This is because, some artists,
architects, and manufacturers believe that rectangles
whose areas are close to the golden ratio is pleasing
to look at. Supermodel Bella Hadid has been declared the
most beautiful woman in the world after she
passed a science test that determines what
During the ancient times, Greeks set their obra constitutes the 'perfect face'. The 23-year-old
maestro to this proportion to make their artworks was found to be 94.35% 'accurate' to the
Golden Ratio of Beauty Phi - a measure of
visually pleasing to others.
physical perfection.

The golden ratio is often symbolized by the https://www.cnn.ph/entertainment/2019/10/18/Bella-

Greek letter phi (). It is the number  = 1.61803… and Hadid-science-face.html

1+√5
the irrational number .
2

It is sometimes called the “divine proportion” because of its frequency in the natural
world.
𝑎 𝑎+𝑏
In symbols, a and b, where a > b and b > o, are in a golden ratio if = .
𝑏 𝑎

a b

a+b

Examples of objects with divine proportions are faces of both human and non-human. The
mouth and nose are each positioned at golden sections of the distance between the eyes and
the bottom of the chin. Similar proportions can be seen from the side, and even the eye and
ear itself.

29
 The Nature of Mathematics


https://www.google.com/search?q=golden+ratio+in+human+body&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMtICf6pnmAh
WSHqYKHUUSBTEQ_AUoAXoECA8QAw&biw=1536&bih=754&dpr=1.25#imgrc=WjEHAg17IOFxqM:

According to Dr. Stefan Markuort’s theory, you can see how beautiful face is if its
characteristics are arranged according to the golden ratio – a ratio equal to 1.618 : 1. The
golden ratio is the basis that most people use in determining what they perceive to be beautiful.
However, this is done on a subconscious level by some people who are inclined to arts such as
artists or architects who purposefully designed the object to reflect mathematical proportions.
Here are some other examples showing the divine proportion in nature:

https://www.google.com/search?q=golden+ratio&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKsODe8JnmAhXdxosBHd83C4Q
Q_AUoAXoECBEQAw&biw=1536&bih=754&dpr=1.25#imgdii=ttyCeJxYVCL93M:&imgrc=i-BdKeN4Ae41XM:

 The Great Pyramid of Gizeh in Egypt, built about 2600 B.C., is the earliest known example
of use of the golden ratio in architecture. The ratio of any of its sides of the square base
(775.75 ft) to its altitude (481.4 ft) is about 1.611.

 In the 19th century, German physicist and psychologist Gustav Fechner tried to determine
which dimensions were most pleasing to the eye. Fechner, along with psychologist
Wilhelm Wundt, found that most people do unconsciously favor the golden dimensions
when purchasing greeting cards, mirrors, and other rectangular objects. This discovery
has been widely used by commercial manufacturers in their packaging and labeling
designs, by retailers in their store displays, and in other areas of business and advertising.

30
 The Nature of Mathematics


 Twentieth- century architect Le Corbusier developed a scale of proportions for the

human body that he called the Modulor.

The measurement from the navel to the floor and the top of the head to the navel is the
golden ratio. Animal bodies exhibit similar tendencies, including dolphins (the eye, fins, and tail
all fall at Golden sections).

You Do the Math!

The Golden Ratio and the Human Body

1. With your partner, get the measurement (in inches) of the following:
a. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus.
b. Distance from your navel to the top of your head.
c. Distance from the ground to your knees.
d. Distance from your wrist to your elbow.
e. Length of your hand.

31
 The Nature of Mathematics


2. Calculate the following ratios:

a. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus__
Distance from your navel to the top of your head

b. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus_ __

Distance from the ground to your knees

c. Distance from your wrist to your elbow __

Length of your hand

Can you see anything special about these ratios?

 Face, both human and nonhuman, abounds with examples of the Golden Ratio. The
mouth and nose are each positioned at the golden sections of the distance between
the eyes and the bottom of the chin. Similar proportions can be seen from the side, and
even the eye and ear itself.

 The uterus: According to Jasper Veguts, a gynaecologist at the University Hospital Leuven
in Belgium, doctors can tell whether a uterus looks normal and healthy based on its
relative dimensions- dimensions that approximate the golden ratio. He had measured the
uteruses of 5,000 women using ultrasound and drawn up a table of the average ratio of
a uterus’s length to its width for different age bands. The data showed that this ratio is
about 2 at birth, and then it steadily decreases through a woman’s life to 1.46 when she
is in old age. Dr. Verguts was thrilled to discover that when women are at their most fertile,
between the ages of 16 and 20, the ratio of length to width of a uterus is 1.6- a very good
approximation to the golden ratio.

 It has been said that the more closely our proportions adhere to phi, the more “attractive”
those traits are perceived. It’s quite possible that, from an evo- psych perspective, we
are primed to like physical forms that adhere to the golden ratio- a potential indicator of
reproductive fitness and health.

 The DNA molecule measures 34 angstroms long by 21 angstroms wide for each full cycle
of its double helix spiral.

In medieval times, people referred to the golden proportion as the divine proportion,
reflecting their belief in its relationship to the will of God.

32
 The Nature of Mathematics


THE GOLDEN RATIO AND GOLDEN RECTANGLE

From the golden proportion, the golden rectangle can be formed. (The teacher will show
the derivation of the golden rectangle.)
A C B

a a

a b

Note that when a square is cut off one end of a golden rectangle (see previous figure),
the rectangle has the same properties as the original golden rectangle (creating “like from like”
as Johannes Kepler had written) and is therefore itself a golden rectangle.

Furthermore, the curve derived from a succession of diminishing golden rectangles (see
the four figures above) is the same as the spiral curve of the chambered nautilus. The same
curve appears on the horns of rams and some animals, in sunflowers and other flower heads,
pinecones and pineapples, and others.

The Golden Ratio, Golden Rectangle, and Fibonacci Numbers in Art

(Please check the internet for the artworks mentioned here.)
 Ancient Greek civilization used the golden rectangle in art and architecture. The main
measurements of many buildings of antiquity, including the Parthenon in Athens, are
governed by golden ratios and golden rectangles. Greek statues, vases, urns, and other
works of art also exhibit characteristics of the golden ratio. It is for Phidas, considered the
greatest of Greek sculptors, that the golden ratio was named “phi.” The golden
proportion can be found abundantly in his work.

 The golden rectangle can be seen in the painting Invitation to the Slideshow (La Parade
de Cirque), 1887, by George Seurat, a French neoimpressionist artist.

33
 The Nature of Mathematics


 Fibonacci’s Garden, an artwork made by Caryl Bryer Fallert, 1995, which is a quilt
constructed from two separate fabrics that are put together in a pattern based on the
Fibonacci sequence.

 In music, particularly on the piano keyboard: An octave on a keyboard has 13 keys: 8

white keys and 5 black keys (the black keys are in one group of 2 and one group of 3).

 In a study, the musical interval considered by many to be the most pleasing to the ear
5 8
are the major sixth and minor sixth, whose ratio of vibration reduces to and ,
3 5
respectively. (The numbers involved in the ratio are 2 consecutive terms in the Fibonacci
sequence.)

 Patterns that can be expressed mathematically in terms of Fibonacci relationships have

been found in Gregorian chants and works of many composers, including Bach,
Beethoven, and Bartok.

 A number of studies have tried to explain why the Fibonacci sequence and related items
are linked to so many real- life situations. It appears that the Fibonacci numbers are part
of a natural harmony that is pleasing to both the eyes and the ear.

THE FIBONACCI NUMBERS

F1 = 1, F2 = 1, and Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 for n ≥ 3.

Example: Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the seventh and eight Fibonacci
numbers.

Binet’s Formula
The following formula is known as Binet’s formula for the nth Fibonacci number.
n n
1 1+√5 1−√5
Fn = [( ) −( ) ]
√5 2 2

The advantage of this formula over the recursive formula Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 is that you can
determine the nth Fibonacci number without finding the two preceding Fibonacci numbers.

34
 The Nature of Mathematics


Example: Use Binet’s formula and a calculator to find the 20th, 30th, and 40th Fibonacci numbers.

Binet’s Formula Simplified

Binet’s formula can be simplified if you round your calculator results to the nearest integer.
In the following formula, nint is an abbreviation for “the nearest integer of.”
n
1 1+√5
fn = nint [ ( ) ]
√5 2

Example: Use the above form of Binet’s formula and a calculator to find the 16 th, 21st, and 32nd
Fibonacci numbers.

Learning check
Activity:
Bee Genealogy: In the study of Biology, one learns that a male bee has only one
Parent, his mother. A female bee has both father and mother. Complete the picture
of the family tree of a male bee, where δ (Mars) represents male and Ꝗ (Venus)
represents female up to 5th generation. Do you notice any relationship between
Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . . and
1. The number of ancestors in each generation?
2. The number of male ancestors in each generation?
3. The number of female ancestors in each generation?
4. Without drawing up to 21th generation, how many ancestors does a male bee
have, and how many ancestors does a male bee have, and how many of
these are male bees?

Learning check
Activity:
Let Fn be the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence, with F 1 = 1, F2 = 1, F3 = 2, and so on,
find:
1. F8
2. F19
3. If F22 = 17,711 and F24 = 46,368, what is F23?

 The mathematician of the Golden Ratio and the Fibonacci sequence are intimately
interconnected. The Golden Ratio is arrived at through the ratios of successive
Fibonacci numbers which is approximately equal to 1.618

“Derivation of the Golden Ration from Golden Rectangle and Golden triangle”
35
 The Nature of Mathematics


Learning check
Activity:
Let’s see if the Golden Ratio is somewhere in each of us. Form groups of five. Make
a table like the one below. Write the name of each person in your group.

Name B/N F/K L/H A/E X/Y

1. Measure the height (B) and the navel Height (N) of each member of your
group. Calculate the ratios B/N. Record them in your table.
2. Measure the length (F) of an index finger and the distance (K) from the finger
tip to the big knuckle of each member of your group. Calculate the ratios F/K.
Record them in your table.
3. Measure the length (L) of a leg and the distance (H) from the lip of the to the
kneecap of everyone in your group. Calculate and record the ratios L/H.
4. Measure the length (A) of an arm and the distance (E) from the finger tips to
the elbow of everyone in your group. Calculate and record the ratios A/E.
5. Select another pair of length (X and Y) on the body that you suspect may be
in the golden ratio. Measure the lengths and calculate the ratios (large to
small) and record them.

E. Isometry

Terminologies:

Image – the motion by establishing a correspondence between the points of the original
pattern and the points of the new pattern.

Transformation – each point of a plane figure can be paired with exactly one point of
its image on the plane, and vice versa.

Isometry – a special transformation that preserves size and shape. In isometry, the image
of the figure is always congruent to the original shape.

36
 The Nature of Mathematics


Types of Isometries:
1. Translation – slide
2. Rotation – turn
3. Reflection - flip

 Translation
o is a rigid transformation of the plane that moves every point of a pre-image a
constant distance in a specified direction.
o When working in the plane this is usually represented by an arrow, the arrow provides
both distance and direction of the translation.
o When working in the coordinate plane, a vector (V) is used to describe the fixed
distance and the given direction often denoted by (x, y). The x-value describes the
effect on the x-coordinates (right or left) and the y-value describes the effect on the
y-coordinates (up or down).

Properties:
1. Distance (lengths of segments are the same)
2. Angle measure (angles stay the same)
3. Parallelism (things that were parallel are still parallel)
4. Collinearity (points on a line, remain on the line)

Note: After a translation, the pre-image and the image are identical.\

 Rotation
o Is a rigid transformation or isometry because the image is the same size and shape
as the pre-image.
o A rotation θ degrees (rotationc,θ) is a transformation which turns a figure about a
fixed point, C called the center of rotation.

Properties:
1. Distance (lengths of segments are the same)
2. Angle measure (angles stay the same)
3. Parallelism (parallel lines remain parallel)
4. Collinearity (points on a line, remain on the line)
5. Orientation (lettering order remains the same)

 Reflection
o Is a rigid transformation (isometry) that maps every point P in the plane to point P’,
across a line of reflection.
o A Reflection is an example of transformation that takes a shape (called the image).
By examining the coordinates of the reflected image, you can determine the line

37
 The Nature of Mathematics


of reflection. The most common lines of reflection are the x-axis, y-axis, or the lines
y = x or y = - x.
o A line of reflection is the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining every point
and its image.

Properties:
1. Distance (lengths of segments are the same)
2. Angle measure (angles stay the same)
3. Parallelism (parallel lines remain parallel)
4. Collinearity (points on a line, remain on the line)

Note: After a reflection, the pre-image and image are identical.

ISOMETRIES
From our first lesson, we know that a figure has reflection symmetry if
there is a line that
can be “folded over” so that one- half of the figure matches the other
half perfectly. The “fold line” is called the figure’s line (axis) of symmetry.
In the figure on the left, notice that when we fold the figure along the
line in the middle, we are actually forming a one- to- one
correspondence between the points of the figure. For example, points
A and C correspond to each other, points D and E correspond to each
other, and points along segments ̅̅̅̅ AB and ̅̅̅̅
CB correspond. If a point lies
on the axis of symmetry then it corresponds to itself, like the point B here in the figure.

In this handouts, you will learn about a special kind of transformation, called isometry. A
transformation is a one- to- one correspondence between points in the plane such that each
point P is associated with a unique point P’, called the image of P. We can describe a
transformation as an operation that moves, flips, or changes a shape (preimage) to create a
new shape (image). An isometry is a kind of transformation that preserves the size and shape of
a geometric figure. The word isometry comes from the words “iso”, meaning “same”, and
“metry” meaning “measure”. Sometimes isometry is called rigid motion.
There are three types of isometries: translation, reflection, and rotation.

Translation Reflection Rotation

38
 The Nature of Mathematics


Translations. A transformation that acts like a “slide” or “shift” is called translation. Here,
orientation is preserved. In a slide, points in the original figure move an identical distance along
parallel paths to the image of the figure. The arrow, called a translation vector, shows distance
and direction. The length of the translation vector from the starting location to tip represents the
distance, while the direction that the arrow is pointing represents the direction the object is to
be translated.

Definition
Suppose that A and B are points in the plane. The
translation associated with directed line segment AB⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the
transformation that maps each point P to the point P’ such
that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PP′ is equivalent to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB.

Practice exercise 1: Translate the given triangle ABC three units to the right and two units down.
(Write the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle to clearly see the change in the coordinates
after translation. The dashed triangle is the image. )

Coordinate plane rules: (𝐱, 𝐲) → (𝐱 ± 𝐡, 𝐲 ± 𝐤) where h and k

are the horizontal and vertical shifts.

Note: If movement is left, then h is negative. If movement is

down, then k is negative.

Practice exercise 2. The vertices of the preimage triangle are A(1, 2), B(2, 5), and C(5, 2). Sketch
the preimage on the coordinate system and find the image by sliding the figure 3 spaces to the
right on the horizontal axis and 3 spaces up on the vertical axis.

Practice exercise 3. The vector PQ= 〈4,1〉 describes the translation of A(-1,w) onto A’(2x+1, 4)
and B(8y-1, 1) onto B’(3, 3z). Find the values of w, x, y, and z.

Reflections. A reflection is a transformation that takes a shape and flips it across a line (called
the line of reflection) to create a new shape. Reflections do not preserve orientation. By
examining the coordinates of the reflected image, you can determine the line of reflection. The
most common lines of reflection are the x- axis, the y- axis, the line y = x, and the line y = −x.

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Definition

Suppose that l is a line in the plane. The reflection in

line l, denotedMl , is the transformation that maps points as
follows:1. Each point P not on line l, is mapped to the point
P’ such that l, is the perpendicular bisector of segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PP′.2.
Each point Q on line l is mapped to itself.

Practice exercise 4. Determine the line of reflection of the triangle below. The preimage is the
triangle with solid lines. (Write the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle to clearly see the
change in the coordinates after reflection.)

All of the x- coordinates have been multiplied by -1. This means that the preimage has been
reflected across the y- axis. This reflection can be denoted by:
𝐫𝐲−𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 (𝐱, 𝐲) → (−𝐱, 𝐲)

Notice that the notation tells you exactly how each (x, y) changes as a result of the
transformation.

Coordinate plane rules and notations: Over the x- axis: 𝐫𝐱−𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 (𝐱, 𝐲) → (𝐱, −𝐲)
Over the y- axis: 𝐫𝐲−𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 (𝐱, 𝐲) → (−𝐱, 𝐲)
Over the line 𝐲 = 𝐱: 𝐫𝐲=𝐱 (𝐱, 𝐲) → (𝐲, 𝐱)
Over the line 𝐲 = −𝐱: 𝐫𝐲=−𝐱 (𝐱, 𝐲) → (−𝐲, −𝐱)

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Practice exercise 5. Find the image of the point (3, 2) that has undergone a reflection across the
following lines:
a. the x- axis b. the y-axis c. the line y=x d. the line y=-x

Practice exercise 6. Reflect Image A in the diagram below across the following lines and write
the notation for each reflection.
1. Across the y-axis and label it B.

2. Across the x-axis and label it C.

3. Across the line y=x and label it D.

4. Across the line y=x and label it E.

Practice exercise 7. Write the notation that represents the reflection of the preimage to the
image in the diagram below:

Practice exercise 8. Write the mapping rule for the reflection of Image A to Image B.

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Practice exercise 9. Thomas describes a reflection as point J moving from J(−2,6) to J′(−2,−6).
Write the notation to describe this reflection for Thomas.

Practice exercise 10. Write the notation that represents the reflection of the yellow diamond
(left) to the reflected green diamond (right) in the diagram below.

Practice exercise 11. Karen was playing around with a drawing program on her computer. She
created the following diagrams and then wanted to determine the transformations. Write the
notation rule that represents the transformation of the purple and blue diagram (right) to the
orange and blue diagram (left).

Practice exercise 12. Write the notation to describe the movement of the points in each of the
reflections below.
1. S(1,5)→S′(−1,5) 5. A(3,5)→A′(−3,5) 9. W(−5,−1)→W′(5,−1)

2. C(1,2)→C′(2,1) 6. (2,−5)→Q′(2,5) 10. D(2,−5)→D′(5,−2)

3. M(4,3)→M′(−3,−4) 7. E(3,1)→E′(−3,1) 11. B(−4,−2)→B′(−2,−4)

4. 11. G(1,3)→G′(1,−3) 8. F(−4,2)→F′(−4,−2)

Practice exercise 13 (a-d). Write the notation that represents the reflection of the preimage
image for each diagram below.

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13a. 13b.

13c. 13d.

Rotations. A rotation is a translation that corresponds to turning the plane around a fixed point,
called the center of rotation. Rays drawn from the center of rotation to a point and its image
form an angle called the angle of rotation. (See figure below.)

Rotations do not preserve orientation unless the rotation is 360° or exhibit rotational symmetry
back onto itself. Rotations of 180° are equivalent to a reflection through the origin.

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Definition
The rotation with center O and angle with measure a,
denoted R O,a , is the transformation that maps each point P
other than O to the point P’ such that
1. the measure of directed angle ∡POP′ is a, and
2. OP ′ = OP. 2. Point O is mapped to itself by R O,a .

Note: If the angle of rotation is positive, the rotation is done counterclockwise, and if the angle
of rotation is negative, the rotation is done clockwise. Intuitively, point P is “turned” by R O,a
around the center, O, through a directed angle of measure a to point P’.

Coordinate plane rules:

Center of Angle of Preimage Rotated Notation
Rotation Rotation (Point P) (Point P’) (Point P’)
(0,0) 90° (or −270°) (x, y) (-y, x) (x, y) → (-y, x)
(0,0) 180° (or −180°) (x, y) (-x, -y) (x, y) → (-x, -y)
(0,0) 270° (or −90°) (x, y) (y, -x) (x, y) → (y, -x)

Practice exercise 14. Find an image of the point (3, 2) that has undergone a counterclockwise
rotation:
a. about the origin at 90° b. about the origin at 180° c. about the origin at 270°

Write the notation to describe the rotation. The first one has been done for you.
Solutions: a. about the origin at 90° R 0,90 (3, 2) → (−2, 3)
b. about the origin at 180°
c. about the origin at 270°
Practice exercise 15. Describe the rotation in words, or with notation.

Practice exercise 16. Write the mapping rule for the rotation of Image A to Image B.

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Practice exercise 17. Rotate A in the diagram below:

a. about the origin at 90° and label it B.

b. about the origin at 180° and label it C.

c. about the origin at 270° and label it D.

Write notation for each transformation to indicate the type of rotation.

Practice exercise 18. Write the notation that represents the rotation of the preimage A to the
rotated image J in the diagram below.

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Practice exercise 19. Thomas describes a rotation as point J moving from J(-2,6) to J’(6, 2). Write
the notation to describe the rotation for Thomas.

Practice exercise 20.

Practice exercise 21. Complete the following table:

Starting point 90° rotation 180° rotation 270° rotation 360° rotation
1. (1, 4)
2. (4, 2)
3. (2, 0)
4. (-1, 2)
5. (-2, -3)

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Practice exercise 22 (a-j). Write the notation that represents the rotation of the preimage to the
image for each diagram below.

a. b.

c. d.

e. f.

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g. h.

i. j.

Practice exercise 23. The vertices of a triangle are A(1, 2), B(2, 5), and C(5, 2). Sketch the figure
and turn it 135° with (0, 0) as the angle of rotation. Label the vertices of the image after rotation
using A’, B’, and C’ respectively and determine the respective coordinates.

Properties of Isometries
1. Isometries map lines to lines, segments to segments, rays to rays, angles to angles, and
polygons to polygons.
2. Isometries preserve angle measure.
3. Isometries map triangles to congruent triangles.
4. Isometries preserve parallelism.

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Glide Reflection. This is a transformation that is a combination of a translation and a reflection.

Definition
Suppose that A and B are different points in the plane
and that line l is parallel to directed line segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB.
The combination of the translation followed by the
reflection is called the glide reflection determined by
AB and glide axis l. That is, P is first is mapped to P* by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
translation. Then P* is mapped to P’ by reflection. The
combination of translation followed by reflection maps
P to P’.

Learning check
Activity:
1. Translate the triangle ABC whose vertices are:
a. A(-3, 2), B(-2, 4), and C(-1, 1); three units to the right and two units down.
b. A(5,9), B(1, 6), and C(4, 4); 6 units to the left and 4 units down.
2. Rotate the following into 900, 1800, and 2700.
a. Triangle ABC (4, 6), (6, 3), (10, 4)
b. Triangle XYZ (-2, -4), (-4, 5), (1, 3)
3. Reflect the figure with the given vertices below, across x-axis, y-axis, y = x, and
y = -x.
a. Triangle LMN (5, 1), (2, 2), (4, 4)
b. A(- 12, 5), B(- 12, 2), C(- 8, 5), D(- 5, 2), E(- 8.5, 0.5), F(- 10.5, 3)

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Reflection

What ideas about mathematics did your learn?

What is it about mathematics that might have changed your thoughts about it?
What is the most useful about mathematics for humankind?

Learning check
Construct a short – response focusing on only one of the following aspects of
mathematics.(5 points)

i. Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world.

ii. Mathematics helps predict the behaviour of nature and phenomena in the world.
iii. Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our own ends.

Evaluation

References

1. Aufmann, R. er.al. (2018). Mathematical in the Modern World Excursions. Manila,

Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc.
2. Bluman, A. G. (2003). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach. 5 th Ed. McGraw Hill,
Inc.
3. CENGAGE (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.
4. DS Malik, MK Sen. Discrete Mathematical Structures.
5. Johnsonbaugh, R. Discrete Mathematics.
6. Guillermo, R.M. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Quezon City: Nieme Publishing
House Co. Ltd.
7. Lactuan, I. R. et. al. (2018). Instructional Material in Mathematics in the Modern World.
Puerto Princesa City: Palawan State University.
8. Nocon, R. C. & E. G. Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World. C & E
Publishing, Inc.
9. Nocon and Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World.
10. Stewart, I. Nature’s Numbers. http://ian-stewart-numerele-naturii.pdf
11. Walpole, M. and M. (2002). Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists. 7th Ed.
Prentice Hall Int’l. Inc.
12. wac.colostate.edu http://wac.colostate.edu/docs/llad/v4n1/jamison.pdf
13. https://problem-solving_by_Loren%20C.%20Larson.pdf

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