EXPERIMENT 1 : SIMPLE BATCH DISTILLATION

Abstract: (Luqman)
-precise introduction, problem statement, objectives, methodologies, significant
results, conclusion

Objectives:
1. To separate an ordinary binary mixture consisting of acetic acid and water
using simple batch distillation technique.
2. To determine the composition of distillate and residual liquid.

Introduction :

A binary mixture with only two components, A and B, is referred to as an ordinary binary
mixture. A homogenous solution can be created by mixing these components in any ratio.
The more vapour-pressure- or boiling-point-sensitive substance is often represented by
component A, whereas the less vapour-sensitive substance is typically represented by
component B. Through a procedure known as distillation, we may separate the two
components by taking advantage of the differences in volatility between them. (Stojkovic et
al., 2017)

The mixture is heated during distillation to produce vapour, which often contains a higher
proportion of component A. Component B is still concentrated in the leftover liquid. Due to
the two components' various boiling temperatures and varying rates of evaporation, this
separation is possible. The desired component can then be separated by gathering the
vapour and condensing it once more into a liquid form. (Kister, 2015).

The Rayleigh equation, a mathematical procedure, is used to describe and evaluate this kind
of distillation. The Raleigh equation offers a mathematical representation of how the
constituents behave during distillation. It considers factors such the mixture's composition,
temperature, pressure, and the balance between the liquid and vapour phases. We can
predict and optimise the separation process to obtain the desired component more quickly
by comprehending and using the Rayleigh equation. (Kister, 2015)

In general, distillation of common binary mixtures offers a useful and well-liked technique for
separating constituents according to their various volatilities. It is critical to several sectors,
including chemical engineering, medicines, and oil refining, where the isolation and
purification of particular chemicals are vital to the operation of industrial processes.

List of apparatus :
Beaker, 250 mL volumetric flask, burette with clamp, pipette, suction bulb, heating mantle,
conical flask, distilling head, thermometer with adapter, retort stand with clamp, dropper,
condenser.

List of chemicals :
Acetic acid, distilled water, 2.0 M NaOH, Phenolphthalein.

Procedures :
A. Distillation
1. 40 ml acetic acid (SG=1.048) was added to 20 ml distilled water in an Enlenmeyer
flask (a conical flask in a distillation kit) to prepare an acetic acid-water.
2. The flask was put on a heating mantle. The solution was prepared for distillation
using apparatus supplied in the distillation kit.
3. The tap was turned on gently to let cooling water into the condenser. The hose for
the water outlet must be inside the sink. The inlet water was adjusted to let the
cooling water enter at a rate sufficiently high enough to cool and condense the
vapour completely but not too high as to render the equipment set-up unstable.
4. A clean and dry 150 ml beaker was weighed and positioned beneath the distillate
outlet spout to collect the distillate.
5. All connections were checked to make sure it fit snugly before the distillation process
began. The distillation was started by turning on the hot plate. The heating control
switch is positioned at 6.
6. The hot plate was turned off when the solution inside the flask was approximately
one-third vaporised.
7. The plate cools down and all the vapours condense before disassembling the
distillation equipment. While disassembling the glassware, we are careful not to spill
any distillate that might be trapped between the connections. This trapped distillate
was collected and added up to the collecting beaker.

B. Titration of Distillate
1. The collecting beaker was reweighs including its content..
 2. All distillate from the beaker was poured into a 250-ml volumetric flask. The
remaining distillate left on the beaker was washed with distilled water onto the flask.
3. Half of the flask was filled with distilled water. The cap was put onto the flask and
shaken gently a few times. Then, the flask was filled with distilled water up to the
mark. The cap was put again and the flask was turned upside down a few times for
the solution to be well-mixed.
4. 100 ml of the diluted solution was poured into a clean beaker. 20 ml of the solution
was pipetted each into 3 separated clean conical flasks. Then, 2 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator were squeezed into each flask.
5. A burette was filled with 2.0M NaOH solution and the content of each flask was
titrated with NaOH.

C. Titration of Liquid Residue

1. Steps 1 to steps 5 in Part B were repeated for the liquid residue.
Results:

A. Distillation

Residue Distillate

Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of

Mass of Mass of
empty beaker beaker + empty beaker beaker +
residue (g) distillate (g)
(g) residue (g) (g) distillate (g)

57.7736 90.9342 33.1606 58.0019 84.0177 26.0158

B. Titration of distillate

Erlenmeyer flask 1 2 3

Initial burette reading (mL) 0 13.7 27.1

Final burette reading (mL) 13.7 27.1 40.2

Volume of NaOH used (mL) 13.7 13.4 13.1

Average of NaOH used 13.4

(mL)

C. Titration of residue

Erlenmeyer flask 1 2 3

Initial burette reading (mL) 0 21.3 0

Final burette reading (mL) 21.3 42.7 20.8

Volume of NaOH used (mL) 21.3 21.4 20.8

Average of NaOH used 21.2

(mL)
Questions/Calculation : (mumum)
1. Calculate the molar composition of feed solution.

Mass of acetic acid + H2O = 33.1606 g + 26.0158 g = 59.1764 g

33.1606 𝑔
Molar composition acetic acid = 59.1764 𝑔
x 100% = 56.04%

26.0158 𝑔
Molar composition H2O = 59.1764 𝑔
x 100% = 43.96%

2. From titration data, determine the composition of the distillate.

Volume of NaOH used = 13.4 mL

1.048 𝑔
Mass = 𝑚𝐿
x 13.4 mL

= 14.0432 g

Acetic acid = 14.0432 g

H2O = 11.9726 g

14.0432 𝑔
Composition of acetic acid = 14.0432 𝑔 + 11.9726 𝑔
x 100%

= 53.98%

11.9726 𝑔
Composition of water = 14.0432 𝑔 + 11.9726 𝑔
x 100%

= 46.02%

3. From titration data, determine the composition of the residue liquid.

Volume of NaOH used = 21.2 mL

1.048 𝑔
Mass = 𝑚𝐿
x 21.2 mL

= 22.2176 g

Acetic acid = 22.2176 g

H2O = 10.943 g

22.2176 𝑔
Composition of acetic acid = 22.2176 𝑔 + 10.943 𝑔
x 100%

= 67.0%
 10.943 𝑔
Composition of water = 22.2176 𝑔 + 10.943 𝑔
x 100%

= 33.0 %

Discussions : (aqish)
The purpose of this experiment was to separate an ordinary binary mixture consisting of
acetic acid and water using simple batch distillation technique and to determine the
composition of distillate and residual liquid. In this experiment, water should be distillate
since water is more volatile than acetic acid. So, the composition of water at distillate is
higher than acetic acid. However, based on data obtained, the composition of distillate is
46.02% water and 53.98% acetic acid. This shows that the composition of acetic acid is
higher than water. It may be due to adding too much titrant and missing the endpoint when
titrating the distillate. This affects the calculation of acetic acid since the volume of NaOH
used to titrate the distillate is used to measure how much acetic acid is in the distillate liquid.
The higher volume of NaOH used to neutralize the acid shows that the acetic acid in the
liquid is higher. Residue liquid should contain a higher composition of less volatile
components which is acetic acid. The composition of residue is 67.0% acetic acid and 33.0%
water.

Overshoot during titration can be improved by repeating the titration for about three times.
Plus, the flask should be placed on white paper to make sure the endpoint is easier to
observe. When reading the volume of the burette, the meniscus should be on eye level.
When the temporary colour change in the liquid appears, the titrant should be added in
smaller quantities and added dropwise when it is very close to the endpoint. When a
permanent colour change is observed, that is a signal of the endpoint.

In simple batch distillation, the mixture is exposed to high temperatures for a long time. The
risk of thermal degradation or decomposition of the substances will increase. It also requires
a higher energy than continuous distillation.
Conclusions : (mumum)

References :
Kister, H. Z. (2015). Distillation: Design and control using Aspen simulation. John Wiley &
Sons.
Stojkovic, M., Gerbaud, V., & Shcherbakova, N. (2017). Batch distillation of binary
mixtures: preliminary analysis of optimal control. IFAC-PapersOnLine, 50(1),
4899–4904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2017.08.743
EXPERIMENT 2 : SINGLE STAGE EXTRACTION (LIQUID-LIQUID
EXTRACTION)

Abstract: (aqish)
Objectives:
1. To perform a single stage extraction to separate acetic acid from
its solution.
2. To determine the acid contents in the raffinate and extract phase.

Introduction :
Liquid-liquid extraction is a mass transfer operation in which a liquid solution (the feed) is in
contact with a solvent that has a preferred affinity or selectivity for one or more components
in the feed and is immiscible or virtually immiscible. One of the two most important industrial
separation techniques, along with distillation, it is an established and age-old process.
(Thornton, 2011) The solvent rich solution contains the desired extracted solute known as
extract and the residual fee solution contains little solute known as raffinate.

The simplest extraction process is single-contact batch extraction, which involves

mixing the initial feed solution with a suitable solvent until it separates into two phases,
allowing it to extract the solute, and then decanting the solvent. (Thornton, 2011) A type of
liquid-liquid extraction known as single-stage extraction only has a single extraction stage. It
is used when the solute needs to be extracted from the feed solution just once. Calculations
for single-stage extraction involve figuring out how much solvent is needed to extract a
specific amount of solute from the feed solution. (Single-Stage Extraction Calculations,
2018)

List of apparatus :
Separating funnel, conical flask, burette, pipette, retort stand, retort clamp, o-ring

List of chemicals :
Acetic acid, Chloroform, phenolphthalein, distilled water
Procedures :
1. A binary acetic acid-chloroform solution was prepared by adding 4 ml acetic acid to 5
ml chloroform in separating funnel.
2. The mixture was gently swirled with the funnel mouth still open to mix it well into a
homogenous binary solution. This is the feed solution.
3. The acid from the binary solution was extracted using equal mass of an extraction
solvent which is water. 10 ml distilled water was measured and was poured into the
funnel.
4. Hand glove was put on. The funnel was gently shaken with the stopper on and then
the stopcock was opened to release any build-up pressure. Continued shaking and
vented for about 5 minutes.
5. The funnel was put on the o-ring support and the content settled into phases. Waited
for about 5-10 minutes to allow the heavy and light phases to reach their equilibrium.
6. Two clean empty conical flasks were weighed and were transferred each phase into
each flask. The beaker was reweighed.
7. About two drops of phenolphthalein were put into each flask and titrated using 2.0 M
NaOH (aq). The endpoint is when the solution turns colour.

Results :

Extraction

Raffinate Phase Extract Phase

Mass of empty conical flask (g) 110.4057 108.7789

Mass of empty conical flask + solution

123.6717 113.2134
(g)

Mass of solution (g) 13.266 4.4345

Titration

Raffinate Phase Extract Phase

Initial burette reading (mL) 0 8.6

Final burette reading (mL) 47.7 12.2

Volume of NaOH used (mL) 47.7 3.6

Questions/Calculation : (LUQMAN)
Using the ternary phase equilibrium curve provided in Appendix 1, determine the
theoretical mass fractions of acid in the raffinate and extract phases and compare to
those obtained by this experiment.

Appendix 1: Ternary Diagram of Acetic Acid-Chloroform-Water at

1atm
 Density of chloroform 1.483 g/mL

Density of acetic acid 1.049 g/mL

Density of water 1.000 g/mL

1. Mass of feed (F) and extracting solvent (S) solution

Feed solution :

(4mL x 1.049 g/mL) + (5mL x 1.483 g/mL)

= 4.196 g + 7.415 g
= 11.61 g

Solvent solution

10mL x 1.000 g/mL

= 10 g
2. Mass fraction, XF in feed solution

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑

= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

4.196 𝑔
= 11.611 𝑔

= 0.3614

3. Total material balance

F+S=M
11.611 + 10.000 = M
∴ M = 21.611 g

Acetic acid material balance

XF(F) + YS(S) = XM(M)
0.3614(11.611) + 0(10) = XM(21.611)
0.3614(11.611)
XM =
21.611

XM = 0.1942

4. Mass fractions of acetic acid in raffinate and extract phase

a) Raffinate phase
Discussions :
The purpose of this experiment was to perform a single stage extraction to separate acetic
acid from its solution and determine the acid contents in the raffinate and extract phase. In
this experiment, water serves as the solvent C and chloroform serves as the diluent B, with
acetic acid serving as the solute A. So this experiment was designed to discover a bimodal
solubility curve, lines, and the plait point for an acetic acid-chloroform-water combination at
room temperature and atmospheric pressure. It can then separate acetic acid from its
chloroform solution using water as an extraction solvent.
Furthermore, this process will generate two layers: a heavy phase that is a mixture of
solid and feed solution, and a light phase that is solvent. Heavy phase can be observed at
the bottom of the separating funnel and light phase at the top of the separating funnel
because heavy phase is more concentrated and has a higher density than light phase.
Acetic acid, chloroform, and water will be used in this experiment. Despite the addition of
three components (acetic acid, chloroform, and water), there are only two observable
phases: extract and raffinate. This is due to the fact that acetic acid and water only react with
one other and not with chloroform.
The phenolphthalein indicator's hue changed from colourless to pink at the
completion of the titration. Because to acetic acid evaporation into the environment, the
mass of acetic acid in the extract phase is … than the theoretical value (.... 3.705). Titration
mistake and the presence of random error both contributed to the inaccuracy.
In general, extraction is used when distillation would be undesirable because the
components are close-boiling or have weak relative volatilities and when the elements to be
extracted are heat-sensitive or nonvolatile.Extraction separates components based on their
respective solubilities in two immiscible liquids as opposed to distillation, which is based on
variations in boiling points. Due to its simplicity, low cost, applicability for thermally labile and
high-boiling chemicals, and ease of scalability, liquid-liquid extraction is a separation method
that is frequently employed in industrial processes as well as on a laboratory scale.

Conclusions : (LUQMAN)
References :
https://www.aiche.org/resources/publications/cep/2015/november/design-principles-li
quid-liquid-extraction#:~:text=Unlike%20distillation%2C%20which%20is%20based,or
%20even%20possible%2C%20with%20distillation.
https://www.thermopedia.com/content/752/#:~:text=In%20general%2C%20extraction%
20is%20applied,relative%20volatilities%20or%20form%20azeotropes.
EXPERIMENT 4 : GAS ABSORPTION COLUMN

Abstract: (mumum)

Objectives:
1. To determine the air pressure differential across the column as a function
of air flow rate.

2. To examine the air pressure across the column as a function of air flow
rate for different water flow rates down the column.

Introduction :
Introduction of a gas absorption column experiment involves introducing a solvent
counter-currently to an incoming gas stream where chemical and physical absorption occur
in a packing material in the centre of the column. The purpose of the experiment is to
determine the absorption rate of a gas, such as CO2, in water and its dependence on gas
and liquid flow rate. In the experiment, a CO2 -air mixture flows up a packed column where it
comes in continuous contact with water travelling downward. A sample of the outlet gas
mixture is taken and titrated for concentration of absorbed CO2, and the outlet liquid leaves
the system from the bottom of the column. The experiment can be performed using an
Armfield gas absorption column or a similar setup.
The experiment enables the investigation of many operational factors that affect the
gas absorption procedure. The efficiency of absorption can be considerably impacted by
variables like temperature, pressure, the type of absorbent used, and liquid and gas flow
rates. The experiment allows for the evaluation of these variables' impacts on the absorption
process and the discovery of ideal circumstances.
As a whole, the gas absorption column experiment provides a platform for
investigating the basic ideas behind gas absorption and evaluating the impact of various
variables on the effectiveness of the procedure. The outcomes of this experiment aid in the
comprehension and improvement of gas-liquid separation procedures in a variety of
industrial applications, such as environmental regulation, chemical synthesis, and gas
purification.
List of apparatus : Gas Absorption packed column

Procedures :
A : AIR PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL ACROSS DRY COLUMN
1. The column is dried by blowing in the highest air flow which is 160 l/min until there is
no longer any sign of moisture in the packing.
2. Valves had been adjusted such that the two manometers showed the differential
pressures in the top and bottom regions of the column.
3. For a wide range of air flow rates, manometer readings of the pressure difference
throughout the column have been collected. The difference between the differential
across the top and bottom of the column, or subtracting the reading from the two
water manometers, is the overall pressure differential.
4. Steps 1 to 3 is repeated with different air flow rate which are 140l /min,120l /min,100l
/min,80l /min,60l /min,40l /min,20l /min

B : AIR PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL ACROSS WET COLUMN

1. The sum is filled to three-quarters full with tap water. The valve is set so that the
differential pressures in the top and bottom sections of the column are indicated on
the two-water manometer.
2. The water pump is switched on to give a flow rate of say 3l/min down the column.
3. The pump is switched off after 30 seconds and the column is allowed to drain for 5
minutes.
4. The air pressure differential across the wet column is measured as a function of the
air flow rate.
5. Step 2 to 4 are repeated with different water flow rates.
Results :
A: Air Pressure Differential Across Dry Column

Air Flow Rate (l /min) 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20

Total Pressure
Differential (mm 21 16 12 8 6 2 0 -1
H20)

Questions/Calculation :
Explain if have any problems encounter during experiment in your discussion. The
following questions can be used as your guideline in writing discussion

1. Plot the total pressure differential as a function of air flow rate on log-log
graph paper and establish the relationship between these variables.

Log Air Flow Rate

2.20 2.14 2.07 2.00 1.90 1.77 1.60 1.30
(l /min)

Log Total Pressure

Differential 1.32 1.20 1.07 0.90 0.77 0.30 - -
(mm H20)

The total pressure differential increases as if the air flow rate increases.
 B : Air Pressure Differential Across Wet Column

Pressure differential (mm water)

Water Flow Air flow rate (L/min)

rate (l /min)
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

1.0 0 0 2 7 11 17 18 24 25

2.0 1 2 6 11 14 22 27 36 46

3.0 1 1 7 7 20 28 34 47 66

4.0 -2 1 7 16 24 37 50 73 148

5.0 5 10 17 30 41 63 138 256 350

6.0 65 83 85 93 111 174 F F F

7.0 159 167 173 193 207 F F F F

8.0 224 269 273 275 F F F F F

9.0 324 336 428 F F F F F F

10.0 411 511 F F F F F F F

The range of possible air flow rates will decrease with increasing water flow rate due
to onset of ‘flooding’ of the column, which should be noted.
 Questions/Calculation :
1. Plot the total pressure differential should be plotted as a function of air
flow rate on log-log graph paper for each water flow rate.

Water Flow Air flow rate (L/min)

rate (l /min)
1.30 1.60 1.77 1.90 2.00 2.07 2.14 2.20 2.25

0.00 - - 0.30 0.84 1.04 1.23 1.25 1.38 1.39

0.30 0 0.30 0.77 1.04 1.14 1.34 1.43 1.55 1.66

0.47 0 0 0.84 0.84 1.30 1.44 1.53 1.67 1.81

0.60 - 0 0.84 1.20 1.38 1.56 1.69 1.86 2.17

0.69 0.69 1 1.23 1.47 1.61 1.79 2.13 2.40 2.54

0.77 1.81 1.91 1.92 1.96 2.04 2.24 F F F

0.84 2.20 2.22 2.23 2.28 2.31 F F F F

0.90 2.35 2.42 2.43 2.43 F F F F F

0.95 2.51 2.52 2.63 F F F F F F

1.00 2.61 2.70 F F F F F F F

Discussions :
The comparison that can be made from the standard diagram for total pressure
differential vs log air flow rate with the experimental one for both dry column and wet
column are the slope for both diagrams and also the shift in intercept. First, for dry
column slope for the standard diagram is 23.29 which is 21.637 different from the
experimental one. The experimental slope obtained is 1.65. This might be due to a
leakage in the column during the experiment. Next, the shift of the intercept for both
diagrams is also one of the factors that can be compared for standard diagrams with
experimental ones. As for shifts in the intercept have a value of -33.22 which the
standard diagram is -2.399 and experimental is -35.62. The difference of both
intercepts might consider its shift in the intercept. Thus, the value of the standard
diagram is higher than the experimental. This might be due to the limitations of the
system in the gas absorption. The slope for wet column can be seen that it is
increasing for ever water flow rate. The increasing in the slope shows that the
experiment had been conducted correctly. Thus, the positive outcome had been
obtained. Next, the shift in the intercept also shows that it is increasing for every
water flow rate and had a positive shift. Thus, the precision of the data can be seen
as good outcome as for accuracy of the data can be slightly good outcome. This
might be due to the limitations of the instrument used.

In a dry column, there is no loading and flooding point due to the there is no
water flow in the column. Thus, there is no resistance for the gas to flow over the
column. Compared to wet column, there is loading and flooding point. The loading
point in the wet column can be seen when the liquid is assembled at the bottom of
the column due to the higher gas flow over the column. Thus, increase the
resistance for the water to flow over the column. The loading point in this experiment
is at 1.77 l/min air flow rate and 1.00 l/min water flow rate. Next, the flooding point is
when the water had been flooded the column due to the higher gas velocity in the
column. In this experiment, the flooding point is at 2.25 l/min air flow rate and 0.69
l/min water flow rate. In this experiment there are few weaknesses that have been
identified which are that the readings during the experiment are not very accurate
due to the instrument not being well maintained which causes the reading to be
inconsistent. Thus, the graph for the experiment might be affected. Next, the
condition of the instrument itself. This is because during the experiment there is a
leakage from the instrument that might affect the data. Ways to improve the data
obtained between standard diagram and experimental are by putting the instrument
under maintenance every semester. This can increase the accuracy of the results
obtained in the future. Next, incorporate feedback by asking any peers or colleagues
to review the experiment to address the limitations of the instrument in the
experiment. Based on the observation, from the graph obtained. There is no loading
and flooding point exist in dry packed column. This is because in dry packed
columns there is no liquid flow, thus the pressure differential is increased with the
gas velocity.

Conclusions : (aqish)
In conclusion, the objectives of this experiment were achieved. When the tower
packing is dry, pressure drop increases as air flow rate increases. In a wet column, as the
water flow rate increases, the pressure drop also increases. The flooding occurs when air
flow rate is very high at higher water flow rate. This experiment is successfully conducted.

References :
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/proctech2ec3labmanual/chapter/experiment-7-co2-a
bsorption/
https://www.slideshare.net/HadeerKhalid1/armfield-gas-absorption-column-experiment
https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/AA/00/06/89/82/00001/CO2_Gas_Absorption_Report.pdf
EXPERIMENT 5 : THE ACCURACY OF A BOURDON PRESSURE GAUGE

Abstract: (aqish)

Objectives:
To calculate the accuracy of the Bourdon Pressure Gauge using dead weight tester.

Introduction :
A Bourdon pressure gauge is a particular kind of pressure gauge that shows the reading on
a dial by using a curved tube that straightens under pressure. It measures the gauge
pressure of gases and liquids and is the most popular kind of pressure gauge. (Kolstad,
2022) The following are some essential qualities of Bourdon pressure gauges:

● High accuracy : The Bourdon tube pressure gauge has a great sensitivity to pressure
fluctuations, resulting in readings that are usually accurate to within 2% of full scale.
(Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge - How It Works, n.d.)

● High precision : Due to flexibility, high precision, and sensitivity, Bourdon tubes are
widely employed as pressure gauges in several sectors. (Kolstad, 2022)

● Resistance to vibration : Bourdon tubes are made to function well when there is a lot
of vibration. (Kolstad, 2022)

● Easy maintenance : It is simple to maintain Bourdon tubes because they are

mechanical and do not operate with an electrical signal. (Kolstad, 2022)

Bourdon tubes have a measurement range of 0.6 to 7,000 bar, or 8 to 1,000 pounds per
square inch (psi), for fluid pressure. Bourdon tube pressure gauges have dial sizes that vary
from 1 to 16, or a range of 25 millimetres (mm) to 406 mm. (Kolstad, 2022) Up to 50 MPa
(10,000 psi), Bourdon tubes can be used. The appropriate pressure gauge should be
selected based on the system's maximum and minimum working pressure, and users should
take readability and space constraints into account when selecting a dial size. (Kolstad,
2022) A standard plunge type gauge you would buy, on average, will be accurate to + or – 3
psi when it is brand-new.
List of apparatus :
Bourdon type pressure gauge (specification as follows):

Pressure range: 0 – 200 kN/m2

Area of piston: 246.0x10-6 m2
Mass of piston: 0.557 kg
Dead weight tester (0.25 kg, 0.5 kg, 1.0 kg and 2.0 kg)

Procedures :
1. The piston is removed from the unit and the cylinder is filled with water.
2. Air trapped in the transparent tube is removed by gently tapping the unit.
3. The cylinder is topped up with water and a piston is inserted. The piston is allowed to
settle.
4. The initial pressure gauge reading is recorded which corresponds to the piston mass.
5. An available deadweight masses is added and the pressure gauge reading is
recorded along with masses added to the piston and total mass
6. The dead weight masses that were previously added are removed and the pressure
gauge reading is recorded along with the masses removed from the piston and total
mass.
7. Step 1 to step 6 are repeated three times.
 Results :
Mass Total Actual Pressure INCREASING PRESSURE % Error
added to mass, M (kN/M2) Gauge Reading (kN/M2)
piston (kg)
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Average
(kg)

0.557(9.81)
0.557+0 ( 246.0𝑥10−6 )÷ 1000
0 34.32 34.32 29.42 32.69 47.19
=0.557 = 22.21

2.557(9.81)
0.557+2 ( 246.0𝑥10−6 )÷ 1000
2 107.87 107.87 107.87 107.87 5.79
=2.557 = 101.97

3.557(9.81)
2.557+1 ( 246.0𝑥10−6 )÷ 1000
1 145.47 2.55
=3.557 = 141.85 142.20 147.10 147.10

4.057(9.81)
3.557+0.5 ( 246.0𝑥10−6 )÷ 1000
0.5 162.79 1.81
=4.057 = 165.79 164.75 161.81 161.81

4.307(9.81)
4.057+0.25 ( 246.0𝑥10−6 )÷ 1000
0.25 178.81 4.11
=4.307 = 171.75 176.52 181.42 178.48

Mass DECREASING PRESSURE

Total mass,
added to Actual Gauge Reading (kN/m2)
M % Error
piston Pressure
(kg)
(kg) (kN/M2)
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Average

0.557(9.81) 705.09
0.557+0 ( 246.0𝑥10−6 )÷ 1000
0 176.52 181.42 178.48 178.81
=0.557 = 22.21

0.807(9.81)
0.557+0.25 ( 246.0𝑥10−6 )÷ 1000
0.25 166.71 166.71 166.71 166.71 408.11
=0.807 = 32.18

1.307(9.81)
0.807+0.5 ( 246.0𝑥10−6 )÷ 1000
0.5 156.91 152.00 150.04 152.98 193.51
=1.307 = 52.12

1.307+1 2.305(9.81)
1 ( 246.0𝑥10−6 )÷ 1000 107.87 110.82 111.80 110.16 19.84
=2.307
 = 91.92

4.307(9.81)
2.307+2 ( 246.0𝑥10−6 )÷ 1000
2 29.42 29.42 29.42 29.42 -82.87
4.307 = 171.75

Data Analysis :
1. Calculate the actual pressure for each total mass using the following
equation:

where M is total mass, g is acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2) and A is area of piston

2. Calculate the average measured pressure gauge for the increasing and
decreasing pressures (make sure to convert the unit into kN/m2).

3. Calculate the gauge % error.

4. Plot the graph Gauge pressure vs. Actual pressure (both increasing and
decreasing, in the same graph).
Discussions :
The accuracy of a bourdon gauge pressure can be affected by the increasing and
decreasing pressure due to the diameter and thickness of a wall of the bourdon tube. As the
diameter increases the pressure will decrease which results in decreasing pressure. This is
due to the flow of fluid through the tube will decrease its velocity. As for increasing pressure
vice versa. Based on the data obtained, the diameter and wall thickness of the Bourdon
tube, the cross-sectional form, the calibre of the design, and other elements can all have an
impact on how accurate a Bourdon gauge pressure is.(GVG, 2022) Accuracy loss might also
result from poor installation or use. A Bourdon tube pressure indicator is typically positioned
vertically, with variations from the vertical position allowed of +/- 5°. Accuracy will be affected
by deviations greater than 5°.(GVG, 2022)

The initially air-filled Bourdon tube will be filled with liquid while measuring the
pressure of a liquid. As a result, air will become trapped by the liquid at the tube's end,
slowing the pressure indication's performance. In this situation, a pressure gauge with a
liquid-filled Bourdon tube and a diaphragm is preferable.

Mechanical hysteresis, which results in differences in readings between points of

increasing and decreasing pressure, can also have an impact on the accuracy of a Bourdon
gauge pressure (CADENCE PCB SOLUTIONS,2020) A pressure gauge's ability to function
under high pressure for an extended period of time may also be compromised, which will
reduce the gauge's accuracy.

If a similar mass item were to be placed on the moon, the pressure would drop. This
is due to the fact that the gravitational pull of the moon is lower than that of Earth, therefore
an object would weigh less there than it would on Earth. Since pressure is defined as force
per unit area, it follows that as an object's force (weight) diminishes, so does the pressure it
applies to the surface it is sitting on. Therefore, if an item of the same mass were placed on
the moon, the pressure would drop.

Conclusions : (mumum)
References :
GVG. (2022, May 9). Theory | Bourdon tube pressure gauge [with animation] -
Instrulearning. Instrulearning; Instrulearning.
https://instrulearning.com/pressure/bourdon-tube-pressure-gauge/
CADENCE PCB SOLUTIONS. (2020, December 10). Mechanical Hysteresis.
Cadence.com.
https://resources.pcb.cadence.com/blog/2020-mechanical-hysteresis

‌
EXPERIMENT 7 : DETERMINATION OF ORIFICE COEFFICIENT

Abstract: (Luqman)

Objectives:
To determine the velocity coefficient from jet trajectory.

Introduction :

Since it enables precise measurement and characterisation of fluid flow via

orifices, the determination of the orifice coefficient is crucial to the study of fluid
mechanics. Engineers and scientists can learn a great deal about the behaviour of
fluids under many circumstances, including flow rate, pressure differentials, and fluid
characteristics, by precisely calculating the orifice coefficient. The performance of
equipment like nozzles, valves, and flow metres may be predicted and optimised
using this coefficient, which is a crucial parameter in the design and study of fluid
systems. The calculation of the orifice coefficient leads to the development of more
reliable and efficient fluid-based technologies by improving our understanding of
fluid behaviour through careful testing, data collection, and analysis. When water
flows through a gap in a supply tank, the water jet leaving the orifice contracts
downstream of the orifice, and the location where it contracts the most is known as
the vena contracta. (The Constructor, 2019)

List of apparatus :
List of chemicals :
Procedures :
1. The above apparatus was primed with water. All entrapped air from the system was
removed. Ensured that all connecting pipes were free from air.
2. The inflow valve and the out-flow valve were adjusted carefully to get such a
combination of flow rate and system pressure that gives maximum convenient
different between the highest and lowest manometer levels (refer figure above).
3. Scale reading of each manometer level was recorded. The volume and time also
were recorded to find the flow rate through the system.
4. The experiment was repeated three times by adjusting the outflow control valve to
give high or low flow rates at both high and low static pressure.
5. All readings were recorded in the data table.
Results :

Head Horizontal Vertical

Orifice
Distance Distance (yh)0.5
Diameter d
No h x y

m m m m0.5
m

1 0.006 0.37 0.0135 0.05906 0.14782

2 0.006 0.37 0.0635 0.07128 0.16240

3 0.006 0.37 0.1135 0.08052 0.17260

4 0.006 0.37 0.1635 0.09886 0.19125

5 0.006 0.37 0.2135 0.11390 0.20529

6 0.006 0.37 0.2635 0.13516 0.22363

7 0.006 0.37 0.3135 0.16000 0.24331

8 0.006 0.37 0.3635 0.19300 0.26998

Questions/Calculation : (aqish)

Plot x versus (yh)0.5 and determine the slope of the graph.

Slope of the graph = 2.9024

The velocity coefficient Cv is equal to the average slope/2.

0.0635−0.0135
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 1 = 0.16240−0.14782
= 3. 429

0.1135−0.0635
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 2 = 0.17260−0.16240
= 4. 902

0.1635−0.1135
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 3 = 0.19125−0.17260
= 2. 681

0.2135−0.1635
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 4 = 0.20529−0.19125
= 3. 561

0.2635−0.2135
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 5 = 0.22363−0.20529
= 2. 726

0.3135−0.2635
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 6 = 0.24331−0.22363
= 2. 541

0.3635−0.3135
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 7 = 0.26998−0.24331
= 1. 875

3.429+4.902+2.681+3.561+2.726+2.541+1.875
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 7
= 3. 10

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
Cv = 2

3.10
Cv = 2
= 1.55
B: DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT DISCHARGE OF AN ORIFICE.

Objective :

To determine the coefficient of discharge of an orifice under constant head.

Introduction :

The flow and pressure loss behaviour of an orifice in a fluid system is

described by its discharge coefficient, which is a dimensionless number (Native
Dynamics, 2015) The following equation can be used to experimentally calculate the
discharge coefficient of an orifice by measuring the actual discharge and computing
the theoretical discharge (Brahma, 2019)

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝐶𝑑 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

If the area ratio and Reynolds number vary, the discharge coefficient will also
change (Engineering Toolbox, 2019) At high Reynolds numbers found in industrial
practice, the value of the discharge coefficient is commonly taken to be constant.
This assumption, however, has been demonstrated to be incorrect for pulsing flow,
especially for large amplitudes and low flow rates (Brahma, 2019) Common orifice
and nozzle designs' typical values can be used to estimate the discharge
coefficient.The location of the pressure tappings affects the discharge coefficient's
value (Native Dynamics, 2015)

In conclusion, by measuring the actual discharge and figuring out the

theoretical discharge, it is possible to experimentally estimate the discharge
coefficient of an orifice. The discharge coefficient can be determined using typical
values for popular orifice and nozzle designs. The discharge coefficient's value
varies with changes in area ratio and Reynolds number.

Apparatus :

Hydraulics Bench, orifice and jet apparatus, stop watch, measuring cylinder

Diameter of orifice = 0.006 m

Surface area of Reservoir, AR = 1.812 x 10-3 m2
Procedures :

1. The flow rate was measured by timed collection by using measuring cylinder
and note the reservoir head value.
2. The procedure was repeated for a different head by adjusting the level of the
overflow tube.

Results :

Orifice Flow Rate,

Head, h Volume, V Time, t (h)0.5
Diameter, d Qt
No.

(m) (m) (m3) (secs) (m3/sec) (m0.5)

1 0.37 0.005 33.46 1.49x10-4 0.6082

2 0.36 0.005 31.40 1.59x10-4 0.6000

3 0.35 0.005 31.11 1.60x10-4 0.5916

0.006
4 0.34 0.005 29.98 1.67x10-4 0.5830

5 0.33 0.005 28.00 1.79x10-4 0.5744

Questions/Calculation : (aqish)
Plot flow rate Qt vs and (h)0.5 determine the slope of the graph.
 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
The coefficient of discharge Cd can the be calculated from 𝐶𝑑 = 0.5 or 𝐶𝑑 =
𝐴𝑜(2𝑔) 𝐴𝑜 2𝑔

−4 −4
1.592𝑥10 −1.494𝑥10 −3
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 1 = 0.60000−0.60828
= − 1. 185𝑥10

−4 −4
1.607𝑥10 −1.592𝑥10 −4
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 2 = 0.59161−0.60000
= − 1. 769𝑥10

−4 −4
1.668𝑥10 −1.607𝑥10 −4
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 3 = 0.58309−0.59161
= − 7. 116𝑥10

−4 −4
1.786𝑥10 −1.668𝑥10 −3
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 4 = 0.57446−0.58309
= − 1. 365𝑥10

−3 −4 −4 −3
−1.185𝑥10 −1.769𝑥10 −7.116𝑥10 −1.365𝑥10 −4
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 4
=− 8. 595𝑥10

2 2
π𝑑 π(0.006)
Orifice Area, Ao = 4
= 4
= 2.827x10-5
−4
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 −8.595𝑥10
𝐶𝑑 = 0.5 = −5 0.5 = -6.86
𝐴𝑜(2𝑔) (2.827𝑥10 )(2(9.81))

Discussions :
The purpose of this experiment in part A, was to determine the velocity coefficient from jet
trajectory. From the graph of x versus (yh)0.5 plotted, we can conclude that the x are almost
proportional to (yh)0.5 where most of the values are consistent. On the other hand, the
coefficient of velocity, Cv, was calculated and the value obtained was 1.55. It is not in the
range of value of Cv which is between 0.95 to 0.99. The result was inaccurate and the graph
not perfectly proportional. This is because of error that occur in this experiment.

The purpose of this experiment in part B, was to determine the coefficient of

discharge of an orifice under constant head. From the graph of rate Qt vs and (h)0.5 plotted,
we can conclude that the rate Qt was also almost proportional to (h)0.5 where most of the
values are consistent. The coefficient of discharge Cd was calculated by using:
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝐶𝑑 = 0.5 or 𝐶𝑑 =
𝐴𝑜(2𝑔) 𝐴𝑜 2𝑔

−4
The value of average slope is − 8. 595𝑥10 while the value of Orifice Area, Ao is 2.827x10-5
that made the value of Cd is -6.86. This experiment clearly shows that the difference in head
heights between ideal and real conditions can directly affect the system's energy loss.

This experiment experienced some errors, which led to erroneous results. There
were some needles that keep falling since the screw were not as tight as it should be.
Hence, it led to inaccuracy and affect the reading of the height of the manometer.
Additionally, because of the manometer ruler’s surface was not clear, it was difficult to read
the scale. Determining the start and final boundary values of the flowing water is further
complicated by the fact that the diameter of the water flow cannot be measured precisely
due to the spreading of the water. Moreover, the error could might be because of not reading
the measurement at eye level.

Conclusions :
In conclusion, the objective of part A was achieved where the velocity coefficient from jet
trajectory that was calculated from the slope of the graph horizontal distance, x versus (yh)0.5
is 1.55. In part B, the objective was also achieved where under constant head, the coefficient
of discharge of an orifice that was calculated from the graph flow rate, Q versus (yh)0.5 is
-6.86.
References :
The Constructor. (2019, February 25). Hydraulic Coefficients of an Orifice. The Constructor.
https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/orifice-hydraulic-coefficients/2029/
Brahma, I. (2019). Measurement and Prediction of Discharge Coefficients in Highly
Compressible Pulsating Flows to Improve EGR Flow Estimation and Modeling of
Engine Flows. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering, 5.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmech.2019.00025
Engineering Toolbox. (2019). Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi Flow Rate Meters.
Engineeringtoolbox.com.
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/orifice-nozzle-venturi-d_590.html
Native Dynamics. (2015, February 11). Discharge Coefficient for Nozzles and Orifices |
Neutrium. Neutrium.net.
https://neutrium.net/fluid-flow/discharge-coefficient-for-nozzles-and-orifices/
EXPERIMENT 8 : REYNOLDS NUMBER

Abstract: (mumum)

Objectives:
To verify validity of Reynolds Number approach in classification of type of flow
through pipes.

Introduction :
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity that helps predict fluid flow patterns in
different situations by measuring the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. The Reynolds
experiment determines the critical Reynolds number for pipe flow at which laminar flow
becomes transitional and the transitional flow becomes turbulent. The experiment involves
visualising flow behaviour by slowly and steadily injecting dye into a pipe. The Reynolds
experiment is used to determine the observed flow condition within the expected Reynolds
number range for that condition. The flow can be either laminar or turbulent if the Reynolds
number is between these boundaries. Generally laminar when Reynolds number Re<2000
and generally turbulent when Re>2800. If the Reynolds number lies between these limits the
flow may be either laminar or turbulent. The Reynolds experiment is advantageous because
the results of the experiments are applicable to all Newtonian fluid flows in pipes with a
circular cross-section.
ρ𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = µ

Where 𝑅𝑒 is reynolds number, ρ is density of the fluid in kg/m3, V is fluid velocity in m/s, D is

pipe diameter in m and µ dynamic viscosity of the fluid in kg/(m.s).

List of apparatus :
Reynolds Number Apparatus, Dye, stop watch, graduated cylinder (jar) and bucket.
 Procedures :
1. The apparatus was primed with water.
2. Some dye was filled into the dye tank (cup).
3. Value A was resolute to get laminar flow i.e low discharge rate. The water level was
maintained in the apparatus.
4. The dye injection was made just above the bell mouth inlet and the injector was in
the centre of the vertical glass tube (bell mouth). The dye control value was adjusted
until flow with dye indication was achieved.
5. The dye in the glass tube was observed. Laminar flow of water in the tube was
indicated if dye does not disclose in water and morses in a sharp straight time. The
turbulent flow was indicated if it dissolves in water. The transitional flow was indicated
if the dye is thick or blow line. The type of flow was recorded and observed in the
observation table.
6. The flow rate was measured with the help of a measuring cylinder and stopwatch.
7. By opening or closing the flow control value progressively, the flow rate varied.
8. Step 5 and 6 were repeated.

Results :
Temperature of water: 32.5 °C

Density of water: 1000 kg/m3

−4
Viscosity of water: 0.0007566 kg/ms ≈ 7. 57𝑥10 kg/ms

−5
Diameter of tube, d: 0.010 m Cross-sectional area of tube, A: 7. 854𝑥10 m2

Velocity,
Volume, Time Flow rate, Reynolds Types of Types of
No V(m3) ,t (s) v = Q/A number, flow from flows from Remarks
Q (m3/s)
Re Re values observation
(m/s)

1 3.50x10-5 10 3.50x10-6 0.04456 588.64 Laminar Transitional

2 5.20x10-5 10 5.20x10-6 0.06621 874.64 Laminar Transitional

3 3.00x10-5 10 3.00x10-6 0.03820 504.62 Laminar Turbulent

4 1.40x10-4 10 1.40x10-5 0.17825 2354.69 Transitional Turbulent

5 2.05x10-4 10 2.05x10-5 0.26101 3447.95 Turbulent Laminar

6 1.65x10-4 10 1.65x10-5 0.21008 2775.22 Transitional Laminar

Questions/Calculation :
1. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the tube.
2
π𝑑
𝐴 = 4
2
π(0.010)
𝐴 = 4

−5 2
𝐴 = 7. 854𝑥10 𝑚

2. Calculate flow rates and velocities of water through the tube.

Refer table

3. Calculate the Reynolds number of the flows through the tube.

Refer table

Discussions :
Based on the result obtained, Reynolds number for each trial was calculated and
tabulated in the table. By using the calculated Reynolds number, the type of flow can be
determined. Trial 1 to trial 3 showed laminar flow where the calculated Re<2000. Trial 5
showed turbulent flow where the calculated Re>2800. As for trial 4 and trial 6, it showed
transitional flow where the value of Re calculated lies between the limit of laminar and
turbulent flow.
Laminar flow occurs in small diameters where fluid flows at lower velocity. Smooth
streamlines and highly organized motion are two further characteristics of the flow. As for
turbulent flow, it occurs in large diameter pipes where fluid flows with high velocity. It also
can be characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion or chaos.
However, based on data above, the type of flow based on observation and Re
calculated was different. It may be due to possible errors that occur during the experiment
when expecting the flow as the velocity was increased might be possible because of
defective equipment and the instability of the area. Plus, the error might come from
carelessness when making reading and also from wrong techniques. This can be improved
by repeating the experiment about three times and taking a reading carefully.

Conclusions :
In conclusion, the data supported the relationship between flow rate, velocity, and
Reynolds number, demonstrating that a rise in flow rate was followed by an increase in
velocities and Reynolds numbers. The variation in flow type for particular trials does,
however, imply the presence of experimental errors during the velocity increase, which might
have had an impact on the anticipated flow patterns. Thus, the objective of this experiment
had been achieved.

References :
https://uta.pressbooks.pub/appliedfluidmechanics/chapter/experiment-7/
https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/202003/history.cfm
https://theconstructor.org/fluid-mechanics/laminar-turbulent-flow/559432/