Diffraction of Light

 Diffraction

When light waves encounter obstacles (or openings), they bend round the edges
of the obstacles if the dimension of the obstacles are comparable to the
wavelength of the waves. The bending of waves around the edges of an obstacle
is called diffraction.

Obstacle

Opening

d d d

λ<<d
λ≈d
λ>d
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.1

In Fig.1, when the opening (width d) is large compared to the wavelength, λ, the
waves do not bend round the edges. When, λ≈d, the light bending is noticeable.
When d<λ, the waves spread over the entire surface behind the opening.
If we consider a point source at the edge of the hole, it produces spherical wave
front and the bending of light can be explained.

The diffraction phenomenon is classified into two categories: (i) Fresnel

diffraction and (ii) Fraunhofer diffraction.
 Fresnel diffraction
A
In the Fresnel class of diffraction, the source of light and
Point B D
the screen are, in general, a finite distance from the source Aperture

diffracting aperture (Fig.2). Incident wave front is not C

plane wave. The phase of the secondary wavelets on
the aperture is not the same. A, B and C has same phase but Fig.2
B and D on the aperture has not same phase and hence
not coherent waves.

 Fraunhofer diffraction

In the Fraunhofer class of diffraction, the

source and the screen are at infinite distance
from the aperture. To obtain plane waves, the Point
Aperture
source
source is kept an infinite distance. However,
this is easily achieved by placing the source
on the focal plane of a convex lens and placing Fig.3
the screen on the focal plane of another convex
lens. The analysis of diffraction pattern is much
easier in Fraunhofer diffraction pattern, because
the phase of the secondary waves is the same.
 Fraunhofer diffraction by a single slit

Slit
P´
A
θ b x P´
b θ
O P O P
dz z
B
zsinθ

Fig.4

Consider that a monochromatic parallel beam of light be incident on the single

slit AB of width b (Fig.4). The secondary waves travelling in the same direction
as the incident wave come to focus at point P. The secondary wavelets
travelling at an angle θ come to focus at P´. A lens is used for converging the
rays.

Let, x=the distance of the screen from the slit

O=the centre of the slit and the origin of coordinate system.
dz= a small element of the slit or wave front with coordinates (0,z).
We know that the equation of displacement of a travelling wave propagating
along x-axis can be written as:
y  Asin(t  kx) --------------------------------(1)
where A=amplitude of the wave, ω=angular frequency=2πυ and k=wave
vector=2π/λ. For small element of slit dz at O, let us consider the displacement
of the wave be dyo, then
 dyo  dA sin(t  kx) ------------------------------(2)
where dA=amplitude element. Here,
1 cdz
dA  dz and dA  . So, dA 
x x

cdz
At P, dyo  sin(t  kx) ----------------------------(3)
x
At P´, the path difference between two rays coming from O and dz is Δ=zsinθ.
For small element of slit dz at a distance z from O, let us consider the
displacement of the wave be dy, then at P´,

sin t  k ( x  z sin  )

cdz
dy 
x
sin t  kx  kz sin   -----------------(4)
cdz

x
The total displacement, y, can be obtained by integrating the above equation (4).
b

2
sin t  kx  kz sin  )dz
c
y   dy 
x b

2
b

c   cos(t  kx  kz sin  )  2

x   k sin   b

2

c  kbsin  kbsin  
 cos(  t  kx  )  cos(t  kx  )
xk sin   2 2 
c kb sin 
  2  sin(t  kx) sin (C  D ) (D  C)
xk sin  2 2  sin sin
2 2

kb sin 
sin
cb 2  sin(t  kx)
 
x kb sin 
2
 kb sin  cb sin 
  y  sin(t  kx)
Let,
2 , then
x 
cb sin 
A 
x  , The intensity at P´ is I  A .
2
So, the amplitude at P´ is

cb 2 sin 2  sin 2  cb 2
So, I  ( )  Io I  ( )
x  2
 2 , where o
x

sin 2 
I  Io
Therefore,
2

Intensity graph for a single-slit:

I

1.43π 2.46π 3.47π

β
-4π -3π -2π -π π 2π 3π 4π

y=β

y=tanβ

Fig.5

sin 2 
We have derived the relation: I  I o
2 -----------------------(1)
If we draw I versus β, the above graph (Fig.5) will result. For β=0,
 sin  sin 
 Indeterminate, But, if β →0, then sinβ→β and hence  1,
 
 4Io
thus I=Io=Principal maximum. If    I    
2 , then  2 . If

[sin( )]2
then, I  I o  0 . But if β increases from   , then I increases
( ) 2

[sin(2 )]2
and at   2 , I  I o  0 . So, I increases, becomes
(2 ) 2
maximum and then decreases in between   and  2 . Again, if β
increases from  2 , then I increases, becomes maximum and decreases to 0
at  3 . And so on. All these maxima are called secondary maxima.

The question is where these maxima are? The maxima can be obtained from the
following condition:

dI
 0 -------------------------------(2)
d max

Using equations (1) and (2), We can write:

 2 .2 sin  cos   sin 2  .2

Io [ ]0
 4

sin 
sin   cos  or 
cos 
So, tan   
So, Secondary maxima will be obtained for tan   
Let, y=tanβ and y=β and let us draw y=tanβ and y=β. Then, the intersection of
these two curves will give the value of β, where we can find the secondary
maximum. From tan    , one root is β=0. The other roots are obtained from
the intersection points that give, β=1.43π, 2.46π, 3.47π, etc. The intensity will

[sin(1.43 )]2 [sin(2.46 )]2

be I1  I o  4.96% I o , I 2  I o  1.68% I o
(1.43 ) 2 (2.46 ) 2

[sin(3.47 )]2
, I3  Io  0.83% I o
(3.47 ) 2

Calculation of approximate intensity of the secondary maxima:

sin 2  3 5 7
We know, I  I o . if   , , ,............
 2
2 2 2
Io  4 Io  4 Io  4
then, I  , , ,...............
9 2 25 2 49 2
Io Io Io
 , , ,...............
22.2 61.1 121
 4.50% I o , 1.62% I o , 0.82% I o ,...............

Condition for secondary minima and maxima:

We consider that at P´, the intensity is 0. For I=0,
b sin 
   p or   p

bsin  p

The intensity I will be maximum, when   (2 p  1)
2
b sin   
 (2 p  1) or bsin   (2p  1)
 2 2
 Diffraction at a circular aperture

Slit
θ L
A P´
θ x
C P
d
D
B

Fig.6

In Fig.6, AB is a circular aperture of diameter d. C is the centre of the aperture.

P is a point on the screen. CP is perpendicular to the screen. A plane wave front
is incident on AB. The secondary wave along CP comes to focus at P by the
lens L. Thus, P corresponds to the position of central maxima. Now, consider
secondary waves travelling along a direction inclined at an angle θ with CP.
They meet at P´. Let PP´=x. The path difference between waves emanating from
A and B and reaching at P´, is BD. From ΔABD,
BD=dsinθ

Condition for minimum intensity at P´ is: dsin  p


Condition for maximum intensity is: dsin   ( 2p  1)
2
Thus, on the screen, at a distance x from P, we get a circle of radius x with
minimum intensity. So, we get diffraction pattern due to circular aperture. The
pattern consists of a central disc, called Airy’s disc, surrounded by alternate
dark and bright concentric rings. The intensity of dark ring is zero and that of
bright ring gradually decreases outwards from P. When the screen is at a large
distance from the lens,
x
sin   
f
where f is the focal length of the lens. For the first secondary minima,
dsin   

So, sin   
d
x  f
This implies,  or x
f d d

 Diffraction at a double slit

X M

L
A
b θ P´
B
d a P
x

C
bO θ
D dz

zsinθ

Y N

Fig.7
In Fig.7, AB and CD are two rectangular slits in line with one another. The
width of the slit is AB=BC=b. The width of opaque portion BC=a. The distance
between midpoints of two slits is d. That is d=a+b. O is the centre of the
coordinate and is located at the middle of BC. A very small element of the slit is
dz, located at a distance z from O. θ is the diffraction angle. So, zsinθ is the
path difference between to waves coming from O and dz. L is a convex lens to
converge the rays and MN is a screen. Let a plane wave front be incident on
XY. All the secondary wave fronts parallel to aP will meet at P. So, P
corresponds to the position of central maximum. Rays inclined at an angle θ
will meet at point P´. Diffraction pattern has two parts:
(i) The interference of the secondary waves of the two slits
(ii) The diffraction of secondary waves from individual slits.

Now for a single slit, we know.

sin t  k ( x  z sin  )

cdz
dy 
x
So, for double slit,
b b
 d
2 2
c
  c
 sint  k ( x  z sin  )dz
x b
y sin t  k ( x  z sin  ) dz 
x b
 d
2 2

= y1  y2
Here, y1 is for a single slit and can be written as:
cb sin 
y1  sin(t  kx)
x 
kb sin 
where  
2
And y2 can be written as:
 b
d
2
c
y2 
x  sin(t  kx  kz sin  )dz
b
d
2

b
cos(t  kx  kz sin  )d  b2
c d

xk sin  2

c  kb sin  kb sin  
 cos(t  kx  kd sin   )  cos(t  kx  kd sin   )
xk sin   2 2 
c  kb sin  
 2. sin(t  kx  kd sin  ). sin( )
xk sin   2 
kb sin 
sin
cb 2
 sin(t  kx  kd sin  )
x kb sin 
2
cb sin 
 sin(t  kx  kd sin  )
x 
Therefore,

y  y1  y2
cb sin  cb sin 
 sin(t  kx)  sin(t  kx  kd sin  )
x  x 
cb sin 
 [sin(t  kx)  sin(t  kx  kd sin  )]
x 
cb sin  kd sin  kd sin  (C  D) (C  D)
 .2 sin(t  kx  ). cos 2  sin cos
x  2 2 2 2

kd sin 
Let ,   . Then,
2
cb sin 
y2 . cos  sin(t  kx   )
x 
 cb sin 
A2 . cos 
Here, amplitude x 
cb 2 sin 2 
I  4( ) . cos2

Therefore, x  2

sin 2 
I  4I o . cos2 
2
If β→0 and γ→0 then I  I max  4 I o . The intensity of central maximum of
a double-slit is 4 times the intensity of central maximum of a single slit.

Intensity
Diffraction
pattern
Interference
pattern

θ
Fig.8

Above Figure 8 shows the intensity distribution due to double slit The dotted
curve represents the intensity distribution due to diffraction for double slit. The
solid line represents the intensity due to interference of light from both slit. The
intensity, I, is not completely zero for double slit diffraction. The reason for the
presence of interference is due to the superposition of waves coming from two
slits.
 Mising order
Let, b=slit width and a=slit separation. If b is constant, diffraction pattern
remains the same. Keeping b constant, if the spacing a is altered, the spacing
between interference maxima changes. Depending on the relative values of b
and a, certain order of interference maxima will be missing in the diffraction
pattern.
Now the condition of interference maxima is:
dsin   n
or (a  b)sin  n , where n is an integer
The condition for diffraction minima is:
bsin  p , where p is an integer

If the values of b and a are such that both equations are satisfied simultaneously
for the same value of θ, then the positions of certain interference maxima
correspond to the diffraction minima at the same position on the screen.
From above two equations:
(b  a)sin n
 ---------------------------(1)
b sin  p
n
(i) Let b=a, then from equation (1): 2
p
If p=1, 2, 3, ........................, then n=2, 4, 6,.......................
So, 2, 4, 6,........... interference pattern will lie at the minima of diffraction. Thus,
the orders 2, 4, 6,.... of interference will be missing in the diffraction pattern. So,
there will be 3 interference maxima in the central diffraction maximum. The
graphs are shown in Figure 9:
 Intensity

θ
Fig.9

n
(ii) If 2b=a, then: 3
p
For p=1, 2, 3,....................; n=3, 6, 9,....................

The orders 3, 6, 9,... of interference maxima will be missing in the

diffraction pattern. . So, there will be 5 interference maxima in the central
diffraction maximum.

(iii) If b+a=b, then a=0

The interference maxima will be missing, because there is only one slit.
Only diffraction pattern will appear.