Fluids (12-1, 12-2, 12-3 TopHat )
• Gases and Liquids are collectively called
fluids.
A solid retains a fixed volume and shape. Particles are locked
into place. A solid is not easily compressible.
A liquid assumes the shape of the part of the container that it
occupies. Particles of the fluid can move past one another. A
liquid is not easily compressible as there is very little free
space between particles
A gas assumes the shape and volume of its container. Particles
move freely past one another. A gas is compressible as
particles have lots of free space between them.
Fundamental Forces
Strong Force
binds quarks to form protons, neutrons, mesons, ….
binds protons and neutrons to form nuclei
Weak Force
responsible for decay of neutrons
Electromagnetic Force
binds electrons to nuclei to form atoms, binds atoms to form molecule,..
binds atoms and molecules to form solids and liquids,
collisions between atoms, molecules and larger objects
Gravitational Force
How do atoms exert attractive forces on each other?
Negatively charged
e- electron cloud e-
e- e- e- e-
e- e- e- e-
e- Positively e-
charged Nucleus
Slightly positively
charged side
Slightly negatively e- e-
e- e- +e-
charged side e- δ
e- - e-
e- e e-
e-
London Dispersion Forces / van der Waals Forces /
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1iYKajMsYPY
Density
Density (symbol ρ, pronounced ‘rho’) of an object of
mass M that occupies a volume V is defined as the mass
per unit volume of the object
M
ρ=
V
As defined above it is the average density of an object
(total mass of the object divided by its total volume).
• Density is a scalar quantity.
• Units: kg/m3
• 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3
Example
Mass of the Sun can be accurately determined from the length of the year on
the Earth, the distance between the Earth and the Sun and the value of the
gravitational constant, G and is 1.99 × 1030 kg. Assuming a spherical shape,
the radius of the Sun is approximately 6.96 × 108 m.
What is the average density of the Sun?
The interior of the sun consists of three major zones, each with its own unique properties.
(Courtesy: Berkeley - SSL)
CQ-1
Two cubes have the same mass. Each edge of cube A is 1 cm long
and that of cube B is 2 cm long. How does the density of the two
cubes compare?
A. Density of A is equal to that of B A
B. Density of A is 2 times that of B 1 cm
C. Density of A is 1/2 times that of B
D. Density of A is 8 times that of B
B
E. Density of A is 1/8 times that of B
2 cm
CQ-2
Consider three cubes different volumes but equal masses.
Which of the following relationships is true about the
densities of these cubes?
ρ1 ρ3
ρ2
A) All three cubes have the same density
B) 𝜌𝜌3 < 𝜌𝜌2 < 𝜌𝜌1
C) 𝜌𝜌2 < 𝜌𝜌3 < 𝜌𝜌1
D) 𝜌𝜌1 < 𝜌𝜌3 < 𝜌𝜌2
What is your volume?
Assume that the average density of a human body is about the
same as that of the water (1000 kg/m3). Calculate your volume
in litres (1L = 1000 cm3).
Specific Gravity (S.G.)
• Specific gravity is ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of a reference substance. The reference
substance is usually taken to be water.
ρsubstance
S.G. =
ρ water
• Specific Gravity is a dimensionless quantity.
Olive oil has a specific gravity of 0.92, so it is 0.92 times as
dense as water.
Iron has a specific gravity of 7.87, so it is 7.87 times as dense
as water.
Mercury has a specific gravity of 13.56, so it is 13.56 times as
dense as water.
Pressure
Pressure (P) exerted by a force on a surface is
defined as the magnitude of the component of the
force perpendicular to the surface, divided by the
contact area between the force and the surface.
If the magnitude of the component of the force
perpendicular to the surface is denoted by Fn and
the contact surface area is A then, A
Fn
P= M
A
• Units ?
• Is pressure a scalar or a vector quantity?
Normal to the
F sin θ
surface
θ Fn = F cos θ
F
Normal to the
surface
Normal to the
surface
CQ-3
Cylinders 1, 2 and 3 have equal masses. Which of the following
statements is true about the pressure exerted by the cylinders
on a flat surface when standing upright on the surface?
1 2 3
A. Cylinder 1 exerts the greatest pressure
B. Cylinder 2 exerts the greatest pressure
C. Cylinder 3 exerts the greatest pressure
D. They all exert the same pressure
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛
How big is one Pascal of Pressure ? 𝑃𝑃 =
𝐴𝐴
A plastic cube of density 900 kg/m3 and with each side of
length 2 cm is sitting on a flat surface. The pressure exerted
by the cube on the surface is:
Pressure 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛
𝑃𝑃 =
𝐴𝐴
Pressure exerted by an average adult human of mass 70kg walking on...
~4 kPa ~50 kPa ~3,000 kPa
Snowshoes Running Shoes Stilettos
Gallinule of Everglades or the common Moorhen
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZKoGmzpePXA
CQ-4
Three identical cubic blocks are placed on three inclined surfaces.
In which case block exerts the least pressure on the surface?
A B C
A.
B.
C.
D. The pressure is equal in all three cases
CQ-5
Two cubes of masses M1 and M2 and cross-sectional areas
A1 and A2 respectively, are lying on a smooth table as
shown. The pressure exerted by the cubes on the table is:
M1g M 2g M2 , A2
A +
A1 A2
M1 , A1
(M1 +M 2 )g
B
A1
(M1 +M 2 )g
C
A2
D None of the above
Fluid Pressure
Fluid pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at any
point within its body and the walls of confining vessel.
Fluid pressure arises due to
1. Gravitational pull of the Earth (weight) on the fluid
2. Collisions among its constituents (atoms and
molecules) and between the constituents and the
walls of a confining vessel
The pressure in a gas is mainly due to the collisions of gas
molecules with each other. This pressure is transmitted to the
walls of the containing vessel
Because of higher densities of liquids, the pressure in a liquid is
mainly due to the weight of the liquid. This pressure is also
transmitted to the walls of the containing vessels.
Pressure in a fluid at rest (e.g. fluid in a cup or in a
swimming pool) is called hydrostatic pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure
• Atmospheric pressure at any location on earth’s surface
is due to the weight of the air above that location
• At the sea-level the standard atmospheric pressure (P0)
is:
P0 = 1.01 × 105 N/m2
Pressure in a Liquid
• The pressure exerted by a liquid is due to the
weight of the liquid.
• The pressure increases with the depth from the
surface.
d ρ
Variation of fluid pressure with depth
P= P0 + ρ g d
CQ-6
Is this configuration possible?
A. yes
B. no
C. I do not know
Fluid in a static equilibrium:
A fluid under pressure that is in a state of static
equilibrium (fluid is at rest) exerts a normal force on any
surface (real or imaginary) that it is in contact with.
CQ-7
Consider a tube that is open at one and closed at the
other end and filled with water, as shown in the figure.
The pressure at the closed end is
P0
A. Greater than the atmospheric
pressure Closed end
B. Equal to the atmospheric
pressure
C. Less than the atmospheric
pressure but not zero
D. Zero
Problem
Calculate pressure P1 at the closed end of the tube.
P0
h=0.20 m P1
CQ-8
Gauge Pressure
Gauge pressure is the difference between the measured
pressure and the atmospheric pressure (P0)
Pgauge= P − P0
• When a tire is deflated then the
pressure inside the tire is P0 and
Pgauge = 0
• Suppose that a tire is inflated and the reading on the pressure
gauge is 245,000 Pa, then Pgauge = 245,000 Pa and
P = P0 + Pgauge = 1.01×105 + 2.45×105 = 3.46×105 Pa
For a fluid that is open to the atmosphere, the gauge pressure
at a depth d below the fluid surface is:
𝑃𝑃gauge = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
A graph of gauge pressure as a function of depth d is shown
for three fluids. Which fluid has the highest density?
𝑃𝑃gauge 1
2
A. Fluid 1
B. Fluid 2 3
C. Fluid 3
D. They all have the same density
𝑑𝑑
CQ-9a
A cylindrical tube is fully filled with water. The gauge pressure
at the bottom of the tube is Pg. A second cylindrical tube having
four times the height and three times the radius of the first tube is
also fully filled with water. What is the gauge pressure at the
bottom of the second tube?
A. Pg
B. 3Pg
C. 4Pg
D. 12Pg
E. 36Pg
PROBLEM
At what depth below the ocean surface is the total
pressure twice the atmospheric pressure? Assume the
density of ocean to be 1020 kg/m3.
PROBLEM
For safety considerations the maximum length of a snorkel is kept at
16 inches (about 0.41 m). Why snorkels cannot be any longer?
CQ-9b
Which of the following relationships correctly describes relationship
between pressures PA and PB for the two points A and B as shown?
(A) P𝐵𝐵 = 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴
(B) P𝐵𝐵 = 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 A
h
B 𝜌𝜌
(C) P𝐵𝐵 = 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
D P𝐵𝐵 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
CQ-10
ρ1 ρ2
1 2
Is P1 = P2 ?
(A) Yes
(B) No
(C) I am not sure
CQ-11
ρ2
3 ρ1 4
Is P3 = P4 ?
(A) Yes
(B) No
(C) I am not sure
CQ-12
Consider two liquids of densities
ρa and ρb filling a U-tube of
ρb
uniform cross-sectional area. For ρa
the shown configuration of the
liquids, what is the relationship
between the densities of the two
liquids?
A. ρa = ρb
B. ρa < ρb
C. ρa > ρb
CQ-13
Consider two liquids of densities
ρa and ρb filling a U-tube of ρa ρb
uniform cross-sectional area. For 1 2
the shown configuration of the
liquids, what is the relationship
between the pressures at points 1
and 2 that are at the same height
from the base.
A. P1 = P2
B. P1 < P2
C. P1 > P2
CQ-14
For the same system what is the
relationship between the ρb
pressures at points 1, 2 and 3? ρa
Points 1 and 2 are along a 1 2
horizontal line.
A. P1 = P2 = P3
3
B. P1 < P2 < P3
C. P1 < P2 > P3
D. P1 > P2 < P3
CQ-15
A mercury manometer is a glass U-tube that is partially filled with
mercury. One end of the tube is connected to a gas enclosure and the
other end of the tube is open to atmosphere.
How do the pressures at P1 and P3 compare?
A. P3 < P1
B. P3 = P1 P3
C. P3 > P1
P1
P2
PROBLEM
A gas enclosure is connected to a U-tube that is partially filled
with mercury. The other end of the tube is open to atmosphere.
For, the shown configuration determine the gas pressure, given
that the density of mercury is 13.6 g/cm3.
CQ-16
If total pressure (P) is doubled what happens to the gauge pressure?
A. The gauge pressure remains the same
B. The gauge pressure is also doubled
C. The gauge pressure decreases by a factor of 2
D. This question cannot be answered without knowing the initial
pressure P.
PROBLEM
Determining the unknown density ρ in terms of ρw , d and l
The average blood pressure at the level of your heart is measured to
be 13.3 kPa. The average density of blood is 1060 kg/m3.
Assume that you are standing up. Let us assume that your head is
0.5 m above your heart and your feet are 1.3 m below the heart.
What is the blood pressure in your head and feet?
0.5 m
1.3 m
PROBLEM
A U-tube of uniform area and open to the atmosphere is partially
filled with mercury (s.g. 13.6). Water of unequal amounts is then
poured into the two. The equilibrium configuration of the liquids
is shown in the figure. Determine the value of h. The levels of the
fluids are not to the scale.
water
2 cm
1 cm
mercury Before After
Measuring Pressure - Barometer
Used to measure the absolute pressure of the atmosphere
Basic principle: Pressure in a liquid along the same
horizontal line is the same
Mercury in the tube stands at a height Vacuum
such that the pressure due to the
weight of the mercury equals the
atmospheric pressure h
p0 pHg p0
PHg = P0
P0 = ρ Hg g h
P0 1.01×105 Pa
h = = 75.8 cm Mercury
ρ Hg g (13600 kg/m )( 9.81 m/s )
3 2
