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COMMON ERRORS IN ACADEMIC RESEARCH PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND

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 COMMON ERRORS IN
ACADEMIC RESEARCH
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
AND REPORT WRITING

Onyenekenwa Cyprian Eneh (Ph.D.)

i
 First Edition Published in Nigeria 2018 by
Welfare & Industrial Promotions (WIPRO) International
The Eastern Nigeria Industrial Estate
30 Zik Avenue, Uwani
P.O. Box 9060, Enugu
Phone: +234-803-338-7472
www.wiprointernational.org

Copyright
© 2018, Onyenekenwa Cyprian Eneh

ISBN
978-978-55358-6-0

Conditions for Sale

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of
the publishers or author.

ii
FOREWORD

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Surely, academic dreams are almost impossible to achieve with the paucity of
research funds and facilities characterising developing countries in Africa.
Notwithstanding, God has remained faithful and dependable. It is by his grace that
this project was accomplished. To him be all the glory.

I am highly indebted to my academic mentors for their encouragement and support.

They include Prof. Osita Ogbu (Director, Institute for Development Studies, Enugu
Campus, University of Nigeria, Nsukka), Prof. Jonah C. Agunwamba (former
Dean, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka), Prof. Peter A. Akah
(former Dean, Student Affairs, University of Nigeria, Nsukka), Prof. Basil C.
Chukwuali (former Dean, Faculty of Environmental Studies, Enugu Campus,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka), Prof. Chike H. Mba (former, Chairman, Board of
Directors, Shell Centre for Environmental Management and Control, Enugu
Campus, University of Nigeria, Nsukka), Prof. Peter O. Ebigbo (former Deputy
Vice Chancellor, Enugu Campus, University of Nigeria, Nsukka), Prof. Smart N.
Uchegbu (former Deputy Vice Chancellor, Enugu Campus, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka), Prof. Obinna Onwujekwe (former Dean, Faculty of Health Sciences,
Enugu Campus, University of Nigeria, Nsukka), Prof. Ignatius U. Obi (Department
of Crop Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka), and Prof. Denis N. Onwuka
(Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka). I
am also grateful to my local and international research peers, students and mentees
for their contributions to the success of this book.

Many thanks to my wife and children for their everflowing support and
encouragement. You all have been wonderful pillars and handy friends. Thanks a
million, indeed!

Onyenekenwa Cyprian Eneh (Ph.D.)

August 7, 2018

iv
 PREFACE

In developing countries in Africa, there is a growing, disburbing trend in poor

development and writing of research project reports, dissertations and theses for
the award of Bachelors, Masters and Ph.D. degrees respectively. The consequences
are unpleasant: poor performance in vivas, the struggle between supervisors and
supervisees of research projects that often result in avoidable ill-feelings and post-
project poor relations, unpublishabilty of most successful research reports that lie
waste and gather dusts on the shelf for lack of qualities to be translated into articles
publishable in reputable journals spread across the globe, the attendant waste of
research and development (R&D) funds, paucity of data and research findings for
engagement in effective development projects and programmes, and hence the
underdevelopment syndrome in African continent. Some of the graduates become
lecturers to recycle poor research skills.

COMMON ERRORS IN ACADEMIC RESEARCH PROJECT DEVELOPMENT

AND REPORT WRITING provides succint helps to research students, academics
and practitioners. Chapter one is an overview of the book: the problem, its
precipitating factors, and how to address it. Chapters 2-7 examine the essential
parts of a research report: topic/title, study motive, study conceptualisation and
problematisation, formulation of research questions/aims/objectives/hypotheses,
study beneficaries, scope/limitations/delimitations of the study, operational
definitions, review of relevant literature, methodology, data
presentation/analysis/discussion, citations and references, and writing and editing
the research report. They also take a critical look at common errors and how to do
the right thing in developing a research project and writing the report. Chapter 8
discusses formatting and editing the report, as well as the meaning and purpose of
appendix in research report. Chapter 9 dicusses how to develop journal article from
a research project report, with emphasis on original research article and short
communication. Chapter 10 discusses how to write a review article. A checklist for
development of a research project and writing its report is included, as well as an
appendix that show samples of sample size, sampling technique, questionnaire and
suggested analytical tool.

Onyenekenwa Cyprian Eneh (Ph.D.)

August 7, 2018
v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
1.1 UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH? ... ... ... ... ... 1
1.1.1 What is research? ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
1.1.2 Types of research ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
1.1.2.1 Historical research ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
1.1.2.2 Experimental research ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
1.1.2.3 Descriptive research ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
1.1.2.3.1 Longitudinal study ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
1.1.2.3.2 Cross-sectional study ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
1.1.2.4 Ex-post facto research ... ... ... ... ... ... 2
1.2 THE PROBLEM ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2
1.3 THE AIM OF THE BOOK ... ... ... ... ... ... 3
1.4 A GUIDE FOR ACADEMIC RESEARCH PROJECT
DEVELOPMENT AND THESIS WRITING APPRAISAL ... 3
CHAPTER TWO: IDENTIFYING A STUDY ... ... ... ... 5
2.1 TOPIC AND TITLE OF A RESEARCH ROJECT ... ... ... 5
2.2 TOPICALITY AND RELEVANCE ... ... ... ... ... 6
2.3 ORIGINALITY ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6
2.4 IDENTIFIABLE AND TESTABLE VARIABLES ... ... ... 7
2.5 RESEARCHABILITY ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7
2.6 FEASIBILITY ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7
2.7 STYLES FOR WRITING A TITLE ... ... ... ... ... 8
2.7.1 All cap case ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8
2.7.2 Title case ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8
2.7.3 Semi-title case ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8
CHAPTER THREE: INTRODUCTION ... ... ... ... 9
vi
3.1 OVERVIEW OF INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ... ... 9
3.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ... ... ... ... ... 9
3.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ... ... ... ... ... 10
3.4 RESEARCH QUESTION/S, PURPOSE/S OR AIM/S,
OBJECTIVE/S AND HYPOTHESIS/HYPOTHESES WITH THE
STUDY TITLE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10
3.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ... ... ... ... ... 11
3.6 SCOPE, LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 11
3.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS ... ... ... ... ... ... 13
CHAPTER FOUR: REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE ... 14
CHAPTER FIVE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... ... ... 15
5.1 VARIANTS OF TITLE FOR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 15
5.2 PURPOSES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... ... ... 15
5.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, 17
5.4 SAMPLE SIZE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 17
5.5 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION ... ... ... ... ... 18
5.6 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE ... ... ... ... ... ... 18
5.6.1 Probability sampling ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19
5.6.2 Non-Probability sampling ... ... ... ... ... ... 19
5.6.2.1 Snowball sampling ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20
5.6.2.2 Quota sampling ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20
5.6.2.3 Stratification sampling ... ... ... ... ... ... 20
5.6.2.4 Cluster and multi-stage sampling ... ... ... ... ... 20
5.7 SAMPLING ERROR ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20
5.8 SAMPLING BIAS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21
5.9 TYPES AND SOURCES OF DATA ... ... ... ... ... 21
5.9.1 Qualitative data ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21
vii
5.9.2 Quantitative data ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21
5.9.3 Variables ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21
5.10 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS ... ... ... ... 22
5.10.1 Questionnaire ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 22
5.10.2 Interview ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 22
5.10.3 Observation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 22
5.10.4 Comparative evaluation studies ... ... ... ... 23
5.11 DATA ANALYSIS TOOLS ... ... ... ... ... ... 24
5.11.1 Multivariate Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 24
5.11.2 Categorical data gathering and analysis ... ... ... 25
5.11.3 Contingency tables... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26
5.11.4 T-test ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26
5.11.5 Multiple t-tests (One-way ANOVA) ... ... ... ... 26
5.11.6 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) ... ... ... ... 30
5.11.7 Multi-Factor ANOVA ... ... ... ... ... ... 30
5.11.7 .1 Controlling for factors ... ... ... ... ... ... 31
5.11.7 .2 Interaction effects ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 32
5.11.7 .3 Main effects, two-way interaction ... ... ... ... 32
5.11.8 Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA or ANACOVA) ... 32
5.11.9 Regression ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 33
5.11.10.1 Regression model ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 33
5.11.10.2 Least squares method ... ... ... ... ... ... 33
5.11.10.3 Correlation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 34
5.11.10.4 Regression-discontinuity design ... ... ... ... 35
5.11.11 Factorial design ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35
5.11.12 Longitudinal research methods ... ... ... ... ... 35
5.11.13 Mixed-method evaluation design ... ... ... ... 36
viii
5.11.13.1 Triangulation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36
5.11.13.2 Complementarity ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36
5.11.13.3 Development ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36
5.11.13.4 Initiation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36
5.11.13.5 Expansion ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36
5.11.13.6 NEDV-Pattern Matching Design Introduction ... ... 37
5.11.14 Factor analysis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37
5.11.14.1 Types of factor analysis ... ... ... ... ... ... 39
5.11.14.1.1 Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) ... ... ... ... 39
5.11.14.1.2 Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) ... ... ... ... 40
5.12 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS PACKAGES ... ... ... ... 40
5.13 VALIDITY ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 41
5.13.1 Measurement or construct validity ... ... ... ... 41
5.13.2 Multitrait-multimethod matrix (MTMM) ... ... ... 41
5.13.2.1 Multitrait ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 41
5.13.2.2 Multimethod ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 42
5.13.2.3 Matrix ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 42
5.13.2.4 Convergent validity ... ... ... ... ... ... 42
5.13.2.5 Discriminent validity ... ... ... ... ... ... 42
5.13.3 External validity ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 43
5.13.4 Internal validity ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 43
5.13.4.1 Threats to internal validity ... ... ... ... ... 43
CHAPTER SIX: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... ... ... 46
6.1 OVERVIEW ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 46
6.2 DATA PRESENTATION/ANALYSIS/DISCUSSION ... ... 47
6.3 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 47
6.4 THE ABSTRACT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 48
ix
CHAPTER SEVEN: CITATIONS AND REFERENCES ... ... 49
7.1 CITATION ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 49
7.1.1 Why cite authorities? ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 49
7.1.2 Citation styles ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 49
7.1.2.1 American Psychological Association (APA) and Havard styles
of citation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50
7.1.2.2 Oxford or Chicago or Modern Language Association (MLA)
or Numbering or Footnote/Endnote style ... ... ... 50
7.1.3 General rules for citation ... ... ... ... ... ... 50
7.1.3.1 Currency ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50
7.1.3.2 Use of et al ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51
7.1.3.3 Direct quotation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51
7.2 REFERENCES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51
7.2.1 APA (American Psychological Association) style of referencing 52
7.2.1.1 Book ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52
7.2.1.2 Journal article ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52
7.2.1.3 Newspaper/magazine material ... ... ... ... ... 52
7.2.1.4 Internet material ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52
7.2.2 Havard style of referencing ... ... ... ... ... ... 52
7.2.2.1 Book ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52
7.2.2.2 Journal article ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52
7.2.2.3 Newspaper/magazine materials ... ... ... ... ... 53
7.2.2.4 Internet material ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 53
7.2.3 MLA (Modern Language Association) or Numbering style of
Referencing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 53
7.2.3.1 Book ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 53
7.2.3.2 Journal article ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 53
x
7.2.3.4 Internet material ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 53
7.2.4 General rules of referencing ... ... ... ... ... ... 54
7.2.4.1 Footnote ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 54
7.2.4.2 Endnote ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 54
7.2.4.3 Use of et al for multiple authors ... ... ... ... 54
7.2.4.4 Classification of entries in reference list ... ... ... 54
7.2.4.5 Reference versus Bibliography ... ... ... ... ... 54
CHAPTER EIGHT: FORMAT, EDITING AND APPENDIX ... 55
8.1 FORMAT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55
8.2 EDITING ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55
8.3 APPENDIX ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55
CHAPTER NINE: WRITING ARTICLE FROM RESEARCH PROJECT
REPORT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 56
9.1 CONVERSION OF THESIS TO JOURNAL ARTICLE ... ... 56
9.1.1 Original articles ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 56
9.1.2 Short communications ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 57
CHAPTER TEN: WRITING A REVIEW ARTICLE ... ... ... 58
CHECKLIST ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 60
APPENDIX: SAMPLES OF SAMPLE SIZE, SAMPLING
TECHNIQUE, QUESTIONNAIRE AND
SUGGESTED ANALYTICAL TOOL ... ... 63
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 86

INDEX ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 88

xi
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH
1.1.1 What is research?
To research is to search or investigate exhaustively. Research is a careful or
diligent search, studious inquiry or examination, especially investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision
of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts or practical application
of such new or revised theories or laws. It can also be the collection of
information about a particular subject (Webster, 1985).
1.1.2 Types of research
1.1.2.1 Historical research
Critical inquiry into the past, leading to interpretation of past trends of
attitude, event, and fact.
1.1.2.2 Experimental research
Identification of conditions underlying the occurrence of a given
phenomenon or verification of functional relationships among phenomena
under controlled conditions.
1.1.2.3 Descriptive research
Descriptive research specifies the nature of a given phenomenon or gives the
picture of a situation or population. Description can be longitudinal or
cross-sectional study.
1.1.2.3.1 Longitudinal study
Longitudinal study works on a target over a span of time (e.g., Enugu from
1900 to 2000).
1.1.2.3.2 Cross-sectional study
Cross-sectional study works on a target at a time (e.g. Enugu in 2010).
1
1.1.2.4 Ex-post facto research
Ex-post facto research uses the past to predict the present/future.
1.2 THE PROBLEM
The academia in developing countries in Africa is witnessing a plethora of
common errors in academic research project development and report
writing. Research project reports, dissertations and theses for the award of
Bachelors, Masters and Ph.D. degrees respectively are poorly written,
leading to poor performance in vivas. There is also the struggle between
supervisors and supervisees of reesearch projects, often resulting in
avoidable ill-feelings and post-project poor relations. Most successful
research reports lie waste and gather dusts on the shelf because they lack the
qualities to be translated into articles publishable in reputable journals
spread across ths globe. Even sound monographs hardly result from them.
This situation leads to waste of research and development (R&D) funds and
paucity of data and research findings for engagement in effective
development projects and programmes, hence the underdevelopment
syndrome in African continent. Some of the graduates become lecturers to
recycle poor research skills.
A precipitating factor of this situation is paucity of courses on research at the
early stages of undergraduate programmes. At this level, research seems to
be treated as secondary. Thus, research project students do not know the
how and why of research project development and report writing. They
merely write after older works, following traditions they do not understand,
nor care to bother to understand. This is, to say the least, discomforting in
the knowledge economy, especially as these students soon become lecturers
with pronounced deficiency in research skills.

2
 1.3 THE AIM OF THE BOOK
Research students, academics and practitioners need helps to improve their
skills in academic research project development and report writing. These
helps are succintly offered in this book, titled COMMON ERRORS IN
ACADEMIC RESEARCH PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND REPORT
WRITING. It covers the issues with the essential parts of a study report: title,
study motive, study conceptualisation and problematisation, formulation of
research questions/aims/objectives/hypotheses, study beneficaries,
scope/limitations/delimitations of the study, operational definitions, review
of relevant literature, methodology, data presentation/analysis/discussion,
citations and references, and editing. It caps it with a checklist. In doing
justice to this task, a guide was developed for appraising an academic
research project development and report writing.
1.4 A GUIDE FOR ACADEMIC RESEARCH PROJECT
DEVELOPMENT AND THESIS WRITING APPRAISAL
IDENTIFYING A STUDY
- Topic and title of a research project
- Topicality and relevance
- Originality
- Identifiable and testable variables
- Researchability
- Feasibility
- Styles for writing a title
INTRODUCTION
- Background (study motive)
- Formulation of research problem/s, question/s,
aims/objectives/hypotheses of the study.
3
 - Study beneficiaries
- Scope, limitations and delimitations of the study
- Definition of terms
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
DATA PRESENTATION/ANALYSIS/DISCUSSION
CITATIONS AND REFERENCES
FORMAT, EDITING AND APPENDIX

4
 CHAPTER TWO
IDENTIFICATION OF A STUDY
2.1 TOPIC AND TITLE OF A RESEARCH PROJECT
Although topic and title are often used interchangeably, topic actually refers
to an object or area of study. Examples of the areas a study can be
undertaken include:
a) Gender
b) Communication behaviour
c) Electronic waste
d) Waste management
e) Waste recycling
f) Environmental health
g) Child mortality
h) Maternal mortality
i) Health behaviour
j) Poverty
k) Information communications technology (ICT), etc.
The topic ought to be of interest to the researcher, who must have
knowledge of and interest in the area or issue of study. It is easier to
conceptualise and problematise a study from a clear understanding of the
theoretical, empirical and practical aspects of the subject derivable from the
knowledge and thorough review of literature related to the area of study.
A title for a specific study within an area of study is built for the report.
Respective areas of study above can have study titles as follows:
a) Discrimination against women in banking: Accident or design?
b) Study on the communication behaviour of ...
c) E-waste generation in Enugu
5
 d) Solid waste management in Umuahia
e) Recycling of abbatoir waste water in Abakaliki
f) Environmental health significance of telephone mast in Awka
g) Reducing child mortality rate in Owerri
h) Factors exacerbating maternal mortality in Otukpo
i) Health-seeking behaviour of middle-age men in Awgu
j) Differentials in rural and urban poverty incidence in Nigeria
k) ICT literacy of secondary students in Asaba.
The title must be specific, yet concise and comprehensible. It must
encompass succintly the essential elements of the study. It should not exceed
24 words.
2.2 TOPICALITY AND RELEVANCE
Many research projects lack topicality and relevance. It is as though it was
dropped from nowhere, and having no regard for topical and relevant issues
of concern to members of the society and industry, to whom research is
meant to render service. Such a study is of little or no interest and cannot be
worth the costs in time and financial resources, if it is just an academic
possibility or excercise to fulfil all righteousness. This is essentially why
there is a disconnect between the research community and the industry,
which has received a large public outcry. Idealy, every research project
should have industrial relevance and application. This lends it to industrial
sponsorship and adoption. Abounding problems yawn for investigation;
trivial ones are not worth the scarce resources.
2.3 ORIGINALITY
A study should be sufficiently original. There may be no completely new
studies, but a copied study makes no contribution to knowledge. It contains
objectionable duplications that irritate readers who have read the original
6
 study. However, an old study may be modified, with clear gaps established
between the old and the new, say in methodology, location, timing, etc.
2.4 IDENTIFIABLE AND TESTABLE VARIABLES
Title ought to be researchable, with constructs or variables – not just
philosophy/debate. The choice of terms in title should help to indicate the
variables, scope and delimitations of the study. Many academic research
project titles lack constructs. A proper academic research project title should
be clear on identifiable and testable variables. These constructs are
dependent variable (y), independent variable (x) and confounding variables
(a,b,c ...; a1, a2, a3; b1, b2, b3; c1, c2, c3, ...). A confounding variable is the
extra variable that was not taken into account, but would influence results.
For example, in a study of student unrest following an increase in school
fees, poor water supply and electric power outages (without standby supply)
are confounding variables.
2.5 RESEARCHABILITY
Many research students are unable to differentiate an academic research
project title from a composition/essay title. A composition/essay title may be
philosophical in nature. Its research problem or question can be discussed
without objective evidence to provide the solution. For instance, Should
secondary school girls work? can only be discussed and not subjected to
scientific determination. It is unresearchable. But, Do secondary school
girls who work suffer academically? can be investigated scientically based
on the criterion of suffering. It is, therefore, researchable (Osuala, 2007).
2.6 FEASIBILITY
It is not all researchable titles that can be investigated in a particular
circumstance. Some significant problems must be by-passed for various
reasons, including non-availability of data, incompetence of researcher, etc.
7
2.7 STYLES FOR WRITING A TITLE
Some reports are inconsistent in the style of writing research titles. Any one
of the following 3 major styles of writing title needs to be maintained for any
particular level of title or sub-title.
2.7.1 All cap case
In all cap case, all letters are capitalised. E.g., DO WORKING
SECONDARY STUDENTS SUFFER ACADEMICALLY?
2.7.2 Title case
In title case, all letters begin with capital, except prepositions, articles, and
conjunctions. E.g., Do Working Secondary Students Suffer Academically?
2.7.3 Semi-title case
In Semi-title case, capital letter is used only for first letter, proper noun, and
first letter of a rider (after colon or dash). E.g., Car sales in Enugu: A
comparative study of brands?

8
 CHAPTER THREE
INTRODUCTION
3.1 OVERVIEW OF INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Many research reporters are not careful to the pattern or style of writing
thesis. For avoidance of doubt, the pattern is here-under briefly highlighted.
Introduction to the study report (chapter 1) usually contains the motivation
of the study in the first portion subtitled background (section 1.1), problem
statement (section 1.2), research questions (section 1.3), aim/s and
objectiove/s (section 1.4), hypothesis/hypotheses (section 1.5), significance
of the study (1.6), scope and limitations/delimitations (1.7) and definition of
terms (1.8).
3.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Some study reports fail to deliver on the motive of the study, which should
be expressed in the opening section (usually 1.1) in the study background in
chapter 1. In many cases, the section contains definitions, which rightly
belong to the section on definition of terms in the last part of chapter 1 or to
conceptual literature in the opening part of the chapter on review of related
literature (chapter 2 or 3).
Definitions in the background of a study is a slight on the expert readership.
Thesis does not belong to the class of general reader; its readers are familiar
with common terms in that field of study.
Many reports fail to develop the background of the study from a broader
(global) perspective of the issue being studied, to narrow down to the
location of the study and to bring out what motivated the study in terms of
topic, location and target. The background of the study should concisely deal
with the study conceptualisation, opening the gate to study problematisation.

9
3.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In many reports, the study motivation in section 1.1 fail to clear the air as to
how the study is conceptualised and what are the problems the study intends
to address. Statement of the problem should conceptualise and problematise
the study and bring out the nature of the problem which underlies the
rationale for the study. This leads to the question/s posed for the study
(research question/s), what the study purposes or aims to achieve (study
purpose/s or aim/s), the steps the study will take to achive the purpose/s or
aim/s (study objective/s) and the assumptions that guide the study (study
hypotheses). Reporters must check to ensure that study purposes or aims are
utopian while the objectives are specific, measurable, achievable, realistic
and time-bound. Many reports assume no responsibility to supply these
essential components of the report.
3.4 RESEARCH QUESTION/S, PURPOSE/S OR AIM/S, OBJECTIVE/S
AND HYPOTHESIS/HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY TITLE
Many study reports contain research questions, purpose/s or aim/s,
objective/s and hypothesis/hypotheses that conform tangentially or fail to
conform with and address the study title. The research questions, purpose/s
or aim/s, objective/s and hypothesis/hypotheses must be derived from the
study title. They must also synchronise with one another. They are
anticipated from the title, which ought to suggest them.
Some study reports fail to answer the research questions at the end of the
study. This has to be done in place of, or in addition to, hypotheses testing.
Often, study reports fail to state clearly and concisely the purpose or aim of
the study as the study goal, which is usually the broad or utopian objective
of the study. Reports must also break the study purpose or aim or goal into
specific objectives. In developing a research project, the objectives must be
10
 generally testable and smart (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and
time-bound).
To make recommendations based on the findings is naturally a purpose of
the study, which does not need to be stated here as an objective. Yet, many
reporters include making recommendatios as an objective.
Whereas, hyothesiss may not be necessary in a particular study (e.g., a study
of the chemical components of an object), many researchers squeeze in
unnecessary hypotheses, as though to conform to the fashion or vogue. Also
important is how the hypothesis is presented. Many research experts prefer
to put the hypothesis only in the null form, if it is to be statistically tested at
the end of the study. Some reports contain both hyothesis and its null form.
The latter becomes the testable hypothesis, while the former becomes the
alternate hypothesis. The older way is to state both, while the newer way
states only the null hyothesis.
3.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Many research reporters often mistake significance of the study for the
achievement or outcome or importance of the study. The significance of the
study must answer the questions: Who will benefit from the study? How will
they benefit from the study? What will be benefitted? Research reports must
be clear on practical and theoretical beneficiaries. Practical beneficiaries are
subjects or targets of the study and stakeholders to benefit from the outcome
of the study. Theoretical beneficiaries are policymakers and researchers to
use the report of the study contributed to knowledge.
3.6 SCOPE, LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Some reports fail to state clearly the time, geographical and target scopes of
the study. These scope elements must also be justified in this section. Is the
study cross-sectional or longitudinal in timing, and why? Why must the
11
study be located in T and not C? Why must the study target the youth and
not adults? Scope sets the study’s boundries for timing, geographical
location and subjects/targets.
Many research reports mistake limitations of the study for constraints of the
study. Thus, they dwell on time, financial and other resource constraints for
limitations of the study. These constraints actually reflect poor initial
planning for the study. M.Sc. programme has a minimum and maximum
duration. The M.Sc. research projects, including those that have to do with
seasons, ought to take cognisance of this duration. Similarly, financial
resources available for the study ought to be accommodated in choosing and
planning the research. Therefore, the constraints should not come into
limitations of the study.
Limitations of the study are concerned with facets of the study which may
limit the investigator from generalisation of the research results. They are
those reasons why the study findings should not be generalised. For
example, the findings of a study that targets women entrepreneurs in
Anambra State, Southeast Nigeria cannot be generalised to Nigeria or its
other five geopolitical zones because the Southeasterners are known for their
entrepreneurial dexterity.
This is why some institutions choose to place limitations of the study in the
last chapter of the report, when findings would have been known. Those
who choose to place limitations of the study in chapter 1 do so based on the
perculiar characteristics of the study location and/or target sample and in
anticipation of the findings.
Many research reports show that delimitation of a study is even less
understood. Delimitations of a study state those issues the study
investigated, as against other issues the study might be expected to cover.
12
 They are concerned with the aspects expected to be part of the study which
have been excluded.
3.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Quite often, research reporters are tempted to define terms in the title and/or
registers or terminologies of the field of study. Only the definitions of
technical, ambiguous and operational terms are required. Educated and
expert readers are familiar with the registers and terminologies of the
subject.
Technical terms are not general, and require definitions. An ambiguous term,
like college, which has various meanings, needs to be defined to reflect its
peculiar usage in the thesis. In Nigeria, college can be a secondary school,
e.g., Christ the King College, Onitsha. College is also used for tertiary
institutions that do not award degree certificates, e.g., Alvan Ikoku College
of Education, Owerri. In America and Europe, where the research report can
also be read, college can refer to degree awarding institutions, e.g., Kings
College, London. Under operational definition, the nuance in which the
ambiguous term is used in the study needs to be provided.
In summary, research reports should define terms that (i) are technical in
nature, (ii) are subject to several interpretations (e.g. college), or (iii) have a
unique usage in the study (operational or functional definition).

13
 CHAPTER FOUR
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE

Many research reports fail to do a good job of the literature review. In a research
report, the portion on literature review should summarize relevant, related, important
and valid literature into one complete report. It contains essentially the conceptual,
theoretical and empirical literature (definitions, theories/models and the study
framework built from the reviewed theories/models), literature gaps/lacunas (drawn
from summary of empirical studies) to justify the present study. It ensures that
researchers do not duplicate work that has already been done. The reviewed concepts,
theories/models and empirical studies should be properly linked to the study. The
review should summarise the empirical studies in a way that creates room for easy
identification of inconsistencies, gaps and contradictions among the related works
previously reported. It is these gaps that the current study ought to address, in order to
be justified, otherwise, it becomes an unnecessary study.

14
 CHAPTER FIVE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Some research reports cannot enable the reader to critically evaluate a
study’s overall validity and reliability becaue the study is poorly designed and the
research methodology poor written. The specific procedures or techniques used to
identify, select, process, and analyze information in a research constitute Research
Methodology.
5.1 VARIANTS OF TITLES FOR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Variant titles of research methodology are “Experimentals” or “Materials
and Procedures” or “Materials and Methods” (for natural and applied
sciences, engineering and technology) and “Methodology”, “Methods and
Procedures”, etc. (for social sciences and education).
5.2 PURPOSES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The methodology section of some research reports fail to provide enough
detail to allow full replication of the study by suitably skilled investigators.
Sources of materials and data should be stated. Research methodology
should describe the unambiguous scientific process of a research work to
enable its replicability and verification.
Where applicable, research methodology section of a study contains area of
study, research design, nature and source of data, study population, sample
size, sampling procedure, instrument for data collection, validation of the
instrument, and tool for analysis. Stating the period the research was
conducted is becoming more demanded. New methods of data collection,
analysis and test of hypothesis must be explained, while well established
methods may simply be cited and referenced. In social sciences and
education, application of the chosen theory/model, study area, population of

15
the study, sample population, sample size and sampling technique need to be
explained.
Research design is the plan on how to collect and analyze data to provide
answer/s to the research question/s or to test the pre-set hypothesis or to
address the objective/s of the study. Design seeks to answer the questions of
where, when, how and by what means will data be generated and analyzed.
Research design should cover sampling plan, observational plan, and
operational plan. (In secondary plan, the above may not apply; model
specification will apply.)
Design to be adopted depends on entities to be studied and objectives of the
study. It could be experimental, historical, survey or casestudy research
design.
Data – facts and figures - are the major pillar of research. They differentiate
research from conjecture, guess work, imagination, myth and other sources
of knowledge. They can be primary data sourced by observation, experiment
or survey (e.g., questionnaire or interview or FGD). They can be secondary
data (from literature: textbook, journal, newspaper, magazine, internet,
project report, encyclopaedia, dictionary, etc.).
Research can be qualitative or quantitative. A qualitative research is a study
conducted in a natural setting where the researcher, an instrument of data
collection, gathers words or pictures, analyzes them inductively, focuses on
the meaning of participants, and describes a process that is both expressive
and persuasive in language. Creswell (1998) submits that:
Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on
distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or
human problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture,
analyzes words, report detailed views of informants, and conducts the
study in a natural setting.

16
 Qualitative research should not be viewed as an easy substitute for a
“statistical” or quantitative study. It demands a commitment to an extensive
time in the field, engagement in the complex, time-consuming process of
data analysis, writing of long passages, and participation in a form of social
and human science research that does not have firm guidelines or specific
procedures and is evolving and changing constantly.
Sampling design should explain and justify the choice of area of study,
possibly describing the area with map. It should also explain types and
sources of data, study population, sample size and sampling technique,
where aplicable, and their justifications.
5.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY
Study reports ought to recognize that all the people or things that constitute
the focus of the study form the study population.
5.4 SAMPLE SIZE
Poor determination of sample size is reflected in many research reports.
Researchers ought to recognise that the population of the study is often too
large to serve as sample size. It is not always easy or necessary to use or
reach all the population of the study to generate data. A representative
sample can supply the needed data. The researcher should pick a sample
from, and generalise the results to, the study population.
A sample is a finite part of the population studied in order to gain
information about the whole. When dealing with people, it can be defined as
a set of respondents selected from a larger population for the purpose of a
survey (Webster, 1985). Processing of data is more feasible for reduced
volume of work of a sample.

17
5.5 SAMPLE SIZEDETERMINATION
The numerical strength of a representative sample is the sample size. Often,
research reports are not clear on how the sample size was determined. An
example of statistical formula used to determine sample size is Taro Yamane
formula:
n = N
[1 + N(e)2]
where n is sample size
N is finite population
e is level of significnce (or limit of tolerable error)
1 is unity constant
Another example is the Freund and Williams formula for finite population:
n = z2Npq
[Ne2 + z2pq]
where n is sample size
N is the population
p is probability of success/proportion
q is probability of failure/proportion
z is standard error of the mean
e is limit of tolerable error (or level of significance)
5.6 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Some times, study reports are not convincing on how the study targets that
constitute the sample size were selected from the whole lot of the study
population. Once the sample size is determined, a sampling technique should
be adopted to select the members of the population to be included in the
sample to be targetted for data generation. Sampling serves the functions of
reducing cost, greater speed and greater accuracy.
18
 A sampling technique is the strategy or method used in selecting members of
the population to constitute the sample size. The technique is critical to
avoid bias.
Broadly, there are 2 sampling techniques: probability sampling and
purposive (or non-probability) sampling. In probability sampling, each
element in a population has equal chance of being selected. In purposive
sampling, researcher selects elements in the population that can perform.
Sampling may involve a combination of both techniques.
5.6.1 Probability sampling
Every member of the popultion has equal chances of being selected to be
part of the representative sample. It is most objective. It is most appropriate
when all members of the population share homogenous characteristics.
Variants of probability sampling are simple random sampling, e.g. casting
lots; systematic random sampling, e.g. numbering members of the
population and selecting sample members at a constant interval; stratified
random sampling, e.g. stratifying a heterogenous population into
homogenous groups and drawing samples from each stratum; cluster or
quota random sampling, e.g. using natural grouping, such as gender,
children, career, neighbourhood, etc.; double or multiple random sampling,
e.g. subjecting a sample to further sampling exercise.
5.6.2 Non-Probability sampling
Every member of the popultion has unequal chances of being selected to be
part of the representative sample. Variants of non-probability sampling are
purposive or judgmental sampling, where knowledge of the population
warrants picking those that can supply the needed information; convenience
or accidental or availability sampling, which depends on convenience or
availability of respondents; snowball or chain sampling, where a sample
19
 member recommends the inclusion of the next sample member, until the
number snowballs into a good sample size. The ways to draw purposive or
judgmental or non-probability samples include snowball sampling, quota
sampling, stratification sampling, cluster and multi-stage sampling.
5.6.2.1 Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is used to obtain a sample when there is no adequate list
for a sampling frame. It is used to obtain data from a numerically small
group, e.g. drug addicts, or network. After interviewing a member of the
population, he is asked to tell of where to locate another member, until no
other member is revealed or the sample size is reached.
5.6.2.2 Quota sampling
Quota is introduced. A study on women’s purchasing behaviour requires
quota based on employment status, since the shopping behaviour of
housewives differ from that of salaried women. Knowledge of the proportion
of each class will help to set the quota controls.
5.6.2.3 Stratification sampling
This involves dividing the population into strata on a characteristic assumed
to be closely associated with the variables under study.
5.6.2.4 Cluster and multi-stage sampling
Clustered design uses more than one stage of selection. For e.g., a study of
2000 nurses in Nigeria may be clustered along 500 hospitals of 400 nurses in
each.
5.7 SAMPLING ERROR
There is no guarantee that any sample will be precisely representative of the
population from which it comes. The differences between using the sample
and using the population is sampling error.

20
5.8 SAMPLING BIAS
Sampling bias is a tendency to favour the selection of units that have
particular characteristics. It is usually the result of a poor sampling plan.
5.9 TYPES AND SOURCES OF DATA
Data can be primary or secondary data. Primary data are collected for the
specific purpose of the study, while secondary data are collected from
literature. Data are qualitative or quantitative.
5.9.1 Qualitative data
Qualitative data are attributes, e.g. colour, intelligence, or honesty.
5.9.2 Quantitative data
Quantitative data are variables, e.g. height, I.Q., and grade point average.
Qualitative data can be measured/scaled to get quantitative data.
5.9.3 Variables
A variable is anything that can change or take different values (e.g age,
weight, temperature, etc.). Variables can be independent (explanatory or
exogenous) and depenedent (or endogenous) or confounding variables. An
independent variable (x) is the presumed cause of the dependent variable (y).
A confounding or extranous variable is any independent variable other than
the one of interest to the study that may affect the dependent variable. For
example, in a study seeking the extent to which increase in school fees
(independent variable) causes student unrest (dependent variable) on
campus, a confounding variable is any other factor (e.g inavailability of
water, poor sanitory conditions, frequent electric power outage, etc.) that can
cause students to demonstrate. A confounding variable should be held
constant as much as possible to enable the causal relationship between
independent and dependent variables to be determined.

21
5.10 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
5.10.1 Questionnaire
Questionnaire can be open-ended for qualitative data or close-ended for
quntitative data, mailed or administered face-to-face. Questions can be open-
ended for qualitative data or close-ended for quntitative data.
5.10.2 Interview
Interview can be one-on-one or focus group discussion (FGD).
5.10.3 Observation
Observational studies involve observing an already existing situation (as
opposed to experimental designs). Observation can be participant-
observation or non-participant observation. Observational research
techniques solely involve the researcher or researchers making observations.
The techniques are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be
structured around a hypothesis (a statement about what you expect to
observe). For instance, before undertaking more structured research, a
researcher may conduct observations in order to form a research question.
This is called descriptive research.
In terms of validity, observational research findings are considered to be
strong. Observational research findings are considered strong in validity
because the researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a
particular behaviour. However, there are problems with reliability and
generalizability. Reliability refers to the extent that observations can be
replicated. Seeing behaviours occur over and over again may be a time
consuming task. There are also problems with researcher bias based on the
researcher "seeing what he wants to see." Bias, however, can often be
overcome with training or electronically recording observations.

22
 Reporting observational research can be descriptive, inferential, or
evaluative. Descriptive observational variables require no inference making
on the part of the researcher. You see something and write it down.
Inferential observational variables require the researcher to make inferences
about what is observed and the underlying emotion. For example, you may
observe a girl banging on her keyboard. From this observation you may
assume (correctly) that she is frustrated with the computer. Evaluative
observational variables require the researcher to make an inference and a
judgment from the behaviour. For example, you may question whether
computers and humans have a positive relationship. "Positive" is an
evaluative judgment. You observe the girl banging on her keyboard and
conclude that humans and computers do not have a positive relationship
(you know you must replicate these findings!).
5.10.4 Comparative evaluation studies
Evaluation study is done to determine the extent to which project targets or
beneficiaries are better off after the programme than they were before it. If
control groups are used, the evaluation will determine whether results are
real or extraneous. Evaluation research can be designed to compare the
effectiveness of several programmes that have same objectives, but different
content by using the same set of outcome measures. Even within a single
programme, it is possible to do a comparison study. For example, many
programmes continue through a series of smaller projects and these smaller
units can be evaluated with respect to differing levels of success or goal
attainment. Even when the projects have the same goals and ways of
delivering a programme, important information can be uncovered. A cross-
programme study might call attention to the findings otherwise unnoticed.
This increased information will be to promote generalization of results and
23
 an increase in the specifications of which strategy provides better results.
Comparative cross-programme evaluation is based on assumptions about the
programme and the people it serves.
5.11 DATA ANALYSIS TOOLS
The choice of approprite tool for data analysis depends on the nature of data
to be analyzed. Data can be discrete or indiscrete. Examples of discrete data
are rational numbers, nominal values such as attributes and not quantities,
ordinal or classified values such as A = 70-100%, etc. Dimensions of data
include univariate, bivariate, and multivariate.
5.11.1 Multivariate Statistics
Multivariate statistics are techniques for looking at the pattern of
relationships between several variables simultaneously. There are 3 types of
multivariate methods – factor analysis, multidimensional scaling and cluster
analysis. Multivariate statistics help the researcher to summarize data and
reduce the number of variables necessary to describe it. Most commonly
multivariate statistics are employed for developing taxonomies or systems of
classification, to investigate useful ways to conceptualize or group items, to
generate hypotheses, and to test hypotheses.
Multivariate techniques differ from regression. In multiple regression and
analysis of variance, several variables are used. However, one (dependent
variable) is generally predicted or explained by means of the other/s
(independent variables and covariates). These are called dependence
methods. Factor analysis, multidimensional scaling (MDS) and cluster
analysis look at interrelationships among variables. They are not generally
used in prediction, there is no p-value, and the researcher interprets the
output of the analysis and determines the best model. This can be frustrating!

24
 For multivariate analyses, all of the models require that input data be in the
form of interrelationships. This means correlations for factor analysis. MDS
and cluster analysis can use a variety of different input data - distances, or
measures of similarity or proximity. This means that MDS and cluster
analysis can be somewhat more flexible than factor analysis. A big
assumption of these methods is that the data itself are valid. Because these
methods do not use the same logic of statistical inference that dependence
methods do, there are no robust measures that can overcome problems in the
data. So, these methods are only as good as the input you have.
In each case, the output will look somewhat different, but in all of the
techniques, the researcher is required to look at the results and make some
determination of how many factors, dimensions or clusters to use in further
analysis in order to represent the data. What the researcher should not forget
is that each case or variable used in the analysis is simultaneously classified
on all the dimensions. While this is most apparent in multidimensional
scaling, it applies equally well to the other techniques.
5.11.2 Categorical data gathering and analysis
Categorical data gathering and analysis considers the scale of measurement;
explanatory, response, and control variables; as well as the choice of
statistical analysis. This involves research designs in terms of controlling
methods, expreimental design, quasi-experimental design, observational
design, research designs in terms of time sequences, prospective design,
retrospective design, research designs in terms of sampling methods, clinical
trial, cohort study, case-control study, and cross-sectional study.
An experiment is a cohort (group of subjects) study in which the investigator
manipulates the predictor variable - otherwise called the treatment,
programme or intervention - and then observes the outcome.
25
5.11.3 Contingency tables
Contingency tables are available for Chi-Square Statistics, Difference of
Proportions, Relative Risk, Odds Ratio, Logistic Regression Models vs.
Loglinear Models, Logistic Regression Model, and Loglinear Models.
5.11.4 T-test
A researcher performs a study on the effectiveness of a therapy method, e.g.
Reality Therapy. He needs a control group. Twenty patients are randomly
assigned to each group. At the conclusion of the study, changes in self-
concept will be found for each patient. T-test is carried out by comparing
Reality Therapy with the control group.
5.11.5 Multiple t-tests (One-way ANOVA)
If the researcher performs the study on the effectiveness of various methods
of individual therapy: Reality Therapy, Behaviour Therapy, Psychoanalysis,
Gestalt Therapy, and, of course, a control group, 20 patients are randomly
assigned to each group. At the conclusion of the study, changes in self-
concept will be found for each patient. The purpose of the study was to
determine if one method was more effective than the other methods.
One method of performing the analysis is by doing all possible t-tests, called
multiple t-tests. That is, Reality Therapy is first compared with Behaviour
Therapy, then Psychoanalysis, then Gestalt Therapy, and then the Control
Group. Behavior Therapy is then individually compared with the last three
groups, and so on. Using this procedure there would be 10 different t-tests
performed. Therein lies the difficulty with multiple t-tests.
First, because the number of t-tests increases geometrically as a function of
the number of groups, analysis becomes cognitively difficult somewhere in
the neighborhood of seven different tests. Second, by doing a greater number
of analyses, the probability of committing at least one type I error
26
somewhere in the analysis greatly increases. The probability of committing
at least one type I error in an analysis is called the experiment-wise error
rate. The researcher may desire to perform a fewer number of hypothesis
tests in order to reduce the experiment-wise error rate.
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) performs this function by organizing and
directing the analysis, allowing easier interpretation of results. At the
conclusion of the experiment, the researcher can create a data file in SPSS in
the following manner:

The researcher may wish to compare the means of the groups to decide
about the effectiveness of the therapy. In this case, the correct analysis in
SPSS is a one-way ANOVA. It is termed one-way ANOVA because there is
only one category (one-factor) whose effect has been studied and balanced,
as the same number of men has been assigned on each exercise. Thus the
basic idea is to test whether the samples are all alike or not. A table of means
and standard deviations results.

27
The table contains columns labeled “Source”, “SS” or “Sum of Squares”,
“df” - for “degrees of freedom”, “MS” - for “mean square”, “F” or “F-ratio”,
and “p”, “prob”, “probability”, “sig.”, or “sig. of F”. The only columns that
are critical for interpretation are the first and the last! The others are used
mainly for intermediate computational purposes. An example of an ANOVA
table appears below:

The row labelled “Between Groups”, having a probability value associated

with it, is the only one of any great importance at this time. The other rows
are used mainly for computational purposes. The researcher would most
probably first look at the value “.000” located under the “Sig.2” column.
Of all the information presented in the ANOVA table, the major interest of
the researcher will most likely be focused on the value located in the “Sig.”
column. If the number (or numbers) found in this column is (are) less than
the critical value ( ) set by the experimenter, then the effect is said to be
significant. Since this value is usually set at .05, any value less than this will

28
result in significant effects, while any value greater than this value will result
in nonsignificant effects.
If the effects are found to be significant using the above procedure, it implies
that the means differ more than would be expected by chance alone. In terms
of the above experiment, it would mean that the treatments were not equally
effective. This table does not tell the researcher anything about what the
effects were, just that there most likely were real effects.
If the effects are found to be non-significant, then the differences between
the means are not great enough to allow the researcher to say that they are
different. In that case, no further interpretation is attempted.
When the effects are significant, the means must then be examined in order
to determine the nature of the effects. There are procedures called “post-hoc
tests” to assist the researcher in this task, but often the analysis is fairly
evident simply by looking at the size of the various means. For example, in
the preceding analysis, Gestalt and Behavior Therapy were the most
effective in terms of mean improvement.
In the case of significant effects, a graphical presentation of the means can
sometimes assist in analysis. For example, in the preceding analysis, the
graph of mean values would appear as follows:

29
5.11.6 Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests for significant differences between
means. If we are only comparing two means, ANOVA will produce the
same results as the t-test for independent samples (if we are comparing two
different groups of cases or observations) or the t-test for dependent samples
(if we are comparing two variables in one set of cases or observations.
ANOVA provides a statistical test of whether or not the means of several
groups are all equal, and therefore generalizes t-test to more than two
groups. ANOVA serves for testing hypothesis statistically. A test result
(calculated from the null hypothesis and the sample) is statistically
significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone. A statistically
significant result (when a probability value or p-value) is less than a
threshold (significance level)) justifies the rejection of the null hypothesis.
Dependent and independent variables: The variables that are measured (e.g.,
a test score) are called dependent variables. The variables that are
manipulated or controlled (e.g., a teaching method or some other criterion
used to divide observations into groups that are compared) are called factors
or independent variables.
5.11.7 Multi-Factor ANOVA
Instances when a single variable completely explains a phenomenon are rare.
For example, when trying to explore how to grow a bigger tomato, we would
need to consider factors that have to do with the plant’s genetic makeup, soil
conditions, lighting, temperature, etc. Thus, in a typical experiment, many
factors are taken into account. The analysis is multivariate. One important
reason for using ANOVA methods rather than multiple two-group studies
analyzed via t-tests is that the former method is more efficient, and with

30
 fewer observations we can gain more information. Let's expand on this
statement.
5.11.7 .1 Controlling for factors
Suppose that in the above two-group example we introduce another
grouping factor, for example, gender. Imagine that in each group we have 3
males and 3 females.
Before performing any computations, it appears that we can partition the
total variance into at least 3 sources: (1) error (within-group) variability, (2)
variability due to experimental group membership, and (3) variability due to
gender. (Note that there is an additional source – interaction – that we will
discuss shortly.) What would have happened had we not included gender as
a factor in the study but rather computed a simple t test? If we compute the
SS ignoring the gender factor (use the within-group means ignoring or
collapsing across gender; the result is SS=10+10=20), we will see that the
resulting within-group SS is larger than it is when we include gender (use
the within- group, within-gender means to compute those SS; they will be
equal to 2 in each group, thus the combined SS-within is equal to
2+2+2+2=8). This difference is due to the fact that the means for males are
systematically lower than those for females, and this difference in means
adds variability if we ignore this factor. Controlling for error variance
increases the sensitivity (power) of a test. This example demonstrates
another principal of ANOVA that makes it preferable over simple two-group
t test studies: In ANOVA we can test each factor while controlling for all
others; this is actually the reason why ANOVA is more statistically powerful
(i.e., we need fewer observations to find a significant effect) than the simple
t test.

31
5.11.7 .2 Interaction effects
e
There is another advantage of ANOVA over simple t-tests:
tests: with ANOVA,
we can detect interaction effects between variables, and, therefore, to test
more complex hypotheses about reality. Let's consider another example to
illustrate
trate this point. (The term interaction was first used by Fisher, 1926.)
5.11.7 .3 Main effects, two
two-way interaction
Imagine that we have a sample of highly achievement
achievement-oriented
oriented students and
another of achievement "avoiders." We now create two random halves
halve in
each sample, and give one half of each sample a challenging test, the other
an easy test. We measure how hard the students work on the test. The means
of this (fictitious) study are as follows:
5.11.8 Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA or ANACOVA)
The basic
sic ANCOVA is a just pretest-posttest
pretest posttest randomized experimental
design. The notation shown below suggests that the pre-programme
pre programme measure
is the same one as the post-programme
post programme measure, and so we would call this a
pretest. But you should note that the pre
pre-programme
ramme measure does not have
to be a pretest - it can be any variable measured prior to the programme
intervention. It is also possible for a study to have more than one covariate.

Design notation

The pre-programme
programme measure or pretest is sometimes also ccalled a
“covariate” because of the way it is used in the data analysis - we “covary” it
with the outcome variable or posttest in order to remove variability. This is
“adjusting” for the effects of one variable on another in social research. Any
continuous variable can be used as a covariate, but the pretest is the best,

32
 because the pretest is usually the variable that would be most highly
correlated. Because it is highly correlated, when it is “subtracted” or
“removed”, it means removing more extraneous variability from the post-
test. The rule in selecting covariates is to select the measure that correlates
most highly with the outcome and, for multiple covariates, have little
intercorrelation.
5.11.9 Regression
Regression analysis involves identifying the relationship between a
dependent variable and one or more independent variable. A model of the
relationship is hypothesized, and estimates of the parameter values are used
to develop an estimated regression equation. Various tests are then employed
to determine if the model is satisfactory. If the model is deemed satisfactory,
the estimated regression equation can be used to predict the value of the
dependent variable given values for the independent variables.
5.11.9.1 Regression model
In simple linear regression, the model used to describe the relationship
between a single dependent variable y and a single independent variable x is
y = a0 + a1x + k. a0and a1 are referred to as the model parameters, and is a
probabilistic error term that accounts for the variability in y that cannot be
explained by the linear relationship with x. If the error term were not
present, the model would be deterministic; in that case, knowledge of the
value of x would be sufficient to determine the value of y.
5.11.9.2 Least squares method
Either a simple or multiple regression model is initially posed as a
hypothesis concerning the relationship among the dependent and
independent variables. The least squares method is the most widely used
procedure for developing estimates of the model parameters.
33
 Suppose a university medical centre is investigating the relationship between
stress and blood pressure. Assume that both a stress test score and a blood
pressure reading have been recorded for a sample of 20 patients. The data
are shown graphically in the figure below, called a scatter diagram. Values
of the independent variable, stress test score, are given on the horizontal
axis, and values of the dependent variable, blood pressure, are shown on the
vertical axis. The line passing through the data points is the graph of the
estimated regression equation: y = 42.3 + 0.49x. The parameter estimates, b0
= 42.3 and b1 = 0.49, were obtained using the least squares method.

5.11.9.3 Correlation
Correlation and regression analysis are related in the sense that both deal
with relationships among variables. The correlation coefficient is a measure
of linear association between two variables. Values of the correlation
coefficient are always between -1 and +1. A correlation coefficient of +1
indicates that two variables are perfectly related in a positive linear sense, a
correlation coefficient of -1 indicates that two variables are perfectly related
in a negative linear sense, and a correlation coefficient of 0 indicates that

34
 there is no linear relationship between the two variables. For simple linear
regression, the sample correlation coefficient is the square root of the
coefficient of determination, with the sign of the correlation coefficient
being the same as the sign of b1, the coefficient of x1 in the estimated
regression equation.
Neither regression nor correlation analyses can be interpreted as establishing
cause-and-effect relationships. They can indicate only how or to what extent
variables are associated with each other. The correlation coefficient
measures only the degree of linear association between two variables. Any
conclusions about a cause-and-effect relationship must be based on the
judgment of the analyst.
5.11.9.4 Regression-discontinuity design
Regression-discontinuity design uses the traditional pretest-posttest
programme-comparison group strategy. It has been used mostly in medical
trails and sometimes in social programme interventions. In RD designs,
participants are assigned to either the programme or comparison groups on
the basis of a cut-off score on a specific pre-test measure. It might also be
used when two alternative programmes are being compared. The typical
assignment rule is that those scoring above or equal to a certain value on
some pre-treatment measure will receive the treatment, and those who score
below the value will not.
5.11.10 Factorial design
Factorial design allows one to examine simultaneously the effects of
multiple indepedent variables and their degree of interaction.
5.11.11 Longitudinal research methods
Longitudinal research refers to the analysis of data collected at different
points of time.
35
5.11.12 Mixed-method evaluation design
Mixed-method evaluation design is adopted to enhance the evaluation. Five
major purposes for adopting mixed-method evaluation design are:
5.11.12.1 Triangulation
Tests the consistency of findings obtained through different instruments. In
the case study, triangulation will increase chances to control, or at least
assess, some of the threats or multiple causes influencing our results.
5.11.12.2 Complementarity
Complementarity clarifies and illustrates results from one method with the
use of another method. In our case, in-class observation will add information
about the learning process and will qualify the scores and statistics.
5.11.12.3 Development
Results from one method shape subsequent methods or steps in the research
process. In our case, partial results from the preprogram measures might
suggest that other assessments should be incorporated.
5.11.12.4 Initiation
Stimulates new research questions or challenges results obtained through
one method. In our case, in-depth interviews with teachers and principals
will provide new insights on how the program has been perceived and
valued across sites.
5.11.12.5 Expansion
Expansion provides richness and detail to a study that explores specific
features of each method. An integration of procedures mentioned above will
expand the breadth of a study and likely enlighten researchers on
development other academic research projects in social sciences, education,
and other areas that interogate complex constructs, such as on social justice,
equity and the role of the public and private sector in the process.
36
 A research strategy integrating different methods is likely to produce better
results in terms of quality and scope. In addition, it encourages probing the
underlying issues assumed by mixed-method.
5.11.13.6 NEDV-Pattern Matching Design Introduction
Experimental designs are best for evaluations because they are the strongest
in internal validity due to the random assignment. However, quasi-
experiment is adopted when randomization is not possible, i.e. the researcher
cannot control the rndom assignment or random selection because they are
non-equivalent units. The nonequivalent group design is the most commonly
used design in evaluations of human social service programmes because of
the inherent impossibility of randomization.
The nonequivalent dependent variables design with pattern matching is
useful in certain situations where funds restrict the researcher to evaluation
of only one group of participants. It is composed of a regular nonequivalent
dependent variables design with a pattern matching component.
5.11.13 Factor analysis
Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among
observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of
unobserved variables called factors. In other words, it is possible, for
example, that variations in three or four observed variables mainly reflect
the variations in fewer unobserved variables. Factor analysis searches for
such joint variations in response to unobserved latent variables. The
observed variables are modeled as linear combinations of the potential
factors, plus “error” terms. The information gained about the
interdependencies between observed variables can be used later to reduce
the set of variables in a dataset.

37
Factor analysis is a means by which the regularity and order in phenomena
can be discerned. As phenomena co-occur in space or in time, they are
patterned; as these co-occurring phenomena are independent of each other,
there are a number of distinct patterns. Patterned phenomena are the essence
of workaday concepts such as “table,” “chair,” and “house,” and--at a less
trivial level--patterns structure our scientific theories and hypotheses. We
associate a pattern of attitudes, for example, with businessmen and another
pattern with farmers. “Economic development” assumes a pattern of
characteristics, as does the concept of “communist political system.” The
notion of conflict itself embodies a pattern of elements, i.e., two or more
parties and a perception of mutually exclusive or contradictory values or
goals. And to mention phenomena that everyone talks about, weather also
has its patterns.
What factor analysis does is this: it takes thousands and potentially millions
of measurements and qualitative observations and resolves them into distinct
patterns of occurrence. It makes explicit and more precise the building of
fact-linkages going on continuously in the human mind.
Suppose a psychologist proposes a theory that there are two kinds of
intelligence, "verbal intelligence" and "mathematical intelligence", neither of
which is directly observed. Evidence for the theory is sought in the
examination scores from each of 10 different academic fields of 1000
students. If each student is chosen randomly from a large population, then
each student's 10 scores are random variables. The psychologist's theory
may say that for each of the 10 academic fields, the score averaged over the
group of all students who share some common pair of values for verbal and
mathematical “intelligences” is some constant times their level of verbal
intelligence plus another constant times their level of mathematical
38
 intelligence, i.e., it is a linear combination of those two “factors”. The
numbers for a particular subject, by which the two kinds of intelligence are
multiplied to obtain the expected score, are posited by the theory to be the
same for all intelligence level pairs, and are called factor loadings for this
subject. For example, the theory may hold that the average student's aptitude
in the field of amphibiology is {10 × the student's verbal intelligence} + {6
× the student's mathematical intelligence}.
The numbers 10 and 6 are the factor loadings associated with amphibiology.
Other academic subjects may have different factor loadings. Two students
having identical degrees of verbal intelligence and identical degrees of
mathematical intelligence may have different aptitudes in amphibiology
because individual aptitudes differ from average aptitudes. That difference is
called the “error” - a statistical term that means the amount by which an
individual differs from what is average for his or her levels of intelligence.
The observable data that go into factor analysis would be 10 scores of each
of the 1000 students, a total of 10,000 numbers. The factor loadings and
levels of the two kinds of intelligence of each student must be inferred from
the data.
5.11.13.1 Types of factor analysis
5.11.13.1.1 Exploratory factor analysis (EFA)
EFA is used to uncover the underlying structure of a relatively large set of
variables. The researcher's a priori assumption is that any indicator may be
associated with any factor. This is the most common form of factor analysis.
There is no prior theory and one uses factor loadings to intuit the factor
structure of the data.

39
5.11.13.1.2 Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
CFA seeks to determine if the number of factors and the loadings of
measured (indicator) variables on them conform to what is expected on the
basis of pre-established theory. Indicator variables are selected on the basis
of prior theory and factor analysis is used to see if they load as predicted on
the expected number of factors. The researcher's a priori assumption is that
each factor (the number and labels of which may be specified a priori) is
associated with a specified subset of indicator variables. A minimum
requirement of confirmatory factor analysis is that one hypothesizes
beforehand the number of factors in the model, but usually also the
researcher will posit expectations about which variables will load on which
factors. The researcher seeks to determine, for instance, if measures created
to represent a latent variable really belong together.
5.12 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS PACKAGES
Each Statistical Analysis Package performs the standard functions of data
analysis. These functions include, but are not limited to, Descriptive
Statistics, such as Means, Standard Deviations, Standard Error, and Ranges,
along with Regression Analysis, Frequencies, ANOVA, ANCOVA,
Correlations, Logistics, Plots, Histograms, R-squared, and many others. As
such, for most data analysis, almost any package you choose will provide
you with the tools you need to complete your evaluations of the data
Appendices I-V are examples of some of the methods and analytical tools
discussed above. They first state the study objective/s, study design, sample size
determination and sampling technique, data collection instrument and the chosen
analytical tool, and end with the questionnaire.

40
5.13 VALIDITY
One of the many elements which comprise a study is validity, which sets
standards to which a person can judge research. Validity is the best available
approximation to the truth of a given proposition, inference, or conclusion.
There are measurement or construct validity, external validity, internal
validity, convergent validity, discriminent validity, conclusion validity, face
validity.
5.13.1 Measurement or construct validity
A scale weighs an object. In social science, scalesweigh or gauge a
behaviour or a personality quality like self-esteem. What questions will
measure the required quality? How do you know those questions are the
right (valid) ones to ask to get the answers for the required quality? To get
the right answers to the questions requires operationalizing the construct
accurately (defining exactly what is meant) and developing a scale that
captures this construct.
When we think about measurement validity we are essentially talking about
construct validity, which asks, Did what I did do what I thought it would?.
Did the treatment or programme and its influence on the outcome actually
reflect how I constructed (theorized) the relationship?
5.13.2 Multitrait-multimethod matrix (MTMM)
MTMM is a validational process, developed by Campbell and Fiske in 1959,
that gives specific standards to diagnose construct validity. There are three
elements to MTMM:
5.13.2.1 Multitrait
Multitrait measures different traits (at the minimum two traits are used, e.g.
co-ordination, agility, speed)

41
5.13.2.2 Multimethod
Multimethod uses various methods in measuring those traits (e.g. direct
observation, self-reported, performance measures).
5.13.2.3 Matrix
Matrix is a table comprised of correlations of various methods and concepts.
Correlations (represented by “r”) measure the strength of the relationship
between two items.
r = 1 is a perfect relationship. r=0 shows no relationship
MTMM relies on two interrelated sub-categories of construct validity,
convergent and discriminent validity.
5.13.2.4 Convergent validity
Convergent validity measures of related items or constructs should be highly
correlated.
5.13.2.5 Discriminent validity
Discriminent validity measures of different or unrelated items or constructs
should not be highly related to each other.
For example suppose you had a construct of boot size and wanted to predict
it by measuring foot size, sneaker size, height, and shoe size. You would
then calculate the correlations of each item/trait (sneaker size, height, ...)
with the construct (boot size). Foot, sneaker, and shoe size are quite related
to predicting boot size and would each lead to high correlations with boot
size. In this case the correlation may be close to one indicating a “perfect”
relationship between the two items. The item of height may not be as closely
related therefore possibly giving a lower correlation in comparison to the
other predictors. In this case though, all the measures result in high
correlations, therefore, convergent validity is confirmed.

42
 On the other hand suppose you had the two constructs: boot size and hair
color. If you measured boot size with foot and shoe size and measured hair
color by genes and eye color, the model would look as follows:
As foot size and eye color are not related, the correlations between them will
be low.
Correlations near zero indicate that items are not very related to each other,
which in this case is expected. The fact that all the correlations are low
indicates discriminent validity.
The numerical value of a “high” or “low” correlation is relative to the
situation and requires the researcher to make judgments.
5.13.3 External validity
External validity (or generalizability) is the extent the study findings would
be true for other people, in other places, and at other times.
5.13.4 Internal validity
Internal validity is the extent the study findings agree with other
conditions/findings within the system.
5.13.4.1 Threats to internal validity
What is threats to internal validity? Threats to internal validity is refered to
all alternative causes other than the program or treatment that are responsible
for the difference in the post test. These threats would prevent researchers or
scientists who are trying to study causal relationship within their treatment
or program from detecting the real effect of that program. In other word, the
threats to internal validity prevent researchers or scientists from establishing
the real causal relationship in their program (Trochim, 1999). For instance,
you are implementing a program which is designed to improve the low
scorer at one specific high school – let’s say the 7 graders. In order to know
if your program makes a difference, you have conducted a pretest to get a
43
baseline average score. After the program is completed you administer a
post test in order to measure how much the students in the treatment have
gained in terms of their post test average score.
From the example above, could you guess what other possible causes or
threats to internal validity will be? What could be wrong in making a quick
inference that the gain in average score is due to your program? Your critics
might come and say to you that your program has not made any difference at
all. They point out to other historical events such as several previous training
in similar subjects of highly correlated with the one in your program, that
have continuing effects on the students performance thereby making such a
difference in your post test score.
Threats to internal validity are categorized into three groups depending on
the nature of the research, and how it is designed. These include a single
group threat, multiple group threat and social threat to internal validity.
A single group threat to internal validity occurs when an experiment or
treatment involves a single group. That is, researchers or experimenters are
not using a comparison group in their causal relationship study. A single
group threat includes history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, mortality
and regression to mean threats.
A multiple group is refered to as a research design that involves two groups
in an experiment or in a treatment, in which one group receives a treatment
and other does not. The former is named the treatment group while the latter
- the comparison group. The multiple group threat to internal validity referes
to the conditions in which the two groups are not comparable before the
study . These multiple group threats are called a selection bias or selection
threat. These include selection history, selection maturation, selection

44
testing, selection instrumentation, selection mortality and selection
regression threats (Trochim, 1999).
A final type of threat to internal validity is a social threat. “The social threat
to internal validity refers to the social pressures in the research context that
can lead to post test differences that are not directly caused by the treatment
itself” (Trochim, 1997). Social threats to internal validity include limitation
of treatment, compensatory, resentful demoralization, and compensatory
equalization.

45
 CHAPTER SIX
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1 OVERVIEW
Most departments in the natural and applied sciences, engineering and
technology adopt a 4-chapter research report: introduction, literature review,
materials and methods, and results and discussion. Others may adopt the
name, data presentation/analysis/discussion, for results and discussion. Some
others choose to break the chapter further into 2 or more chapters:
presentation of data, analysis of data, discussion of results, summary of
findings, and recommendations and conclusions (in some cases, conclusions
and recommendations).
Whatever the format, this portion of a research report ought to cover
presentation of data with the help of statistical tables and
figures/charts/graphs, analysis of the presented data to highlight
findings/results, and discussion of the results against the backdrop of the
research questions and/or hypotheses, to highlight conformity or contrasts
with earlier reports on the same issues, existing theories/models and
scientific laws. Thus, a robust discussion requires extensive literature review
from the beginning of the research. This helps to establish what is on
ground, to be compared with what has been found from the research.
This is where many research reports fail. They fail from the beginning by
consulting limited literature, some of which might be dated or outdated. This
restricts the views of the researcher to a narrow research world and result in
a wishy-washy report without news and findings, but merely oulating the
headings and subheadings in the issued format. For avoidance of doubt, the
ideal contents of the chapter are discussed below.

46
6.2 DATA PRESENTATION/ANALYSIS/DISCUSSION
Data are presented with statisticals tools, e.g. frequency or percentage tables
and figures/charts/graphs. Tables and figures are numbered and placed as
close as possible to where they are mentioned and explained in the text. The
title of a tables is placed above the table, while title of a figure/chart/graph is
placed below the figure/chart/graph.
Hypotheses are tested (statistically) and/or research questions answered.
Results are discussed in relation to earlier reports/concepts/theories/models
in the light of how they contribute to resolving the problem of the study, and
their implications for development and further research(es).
6.3 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Discussions of the study needs to be summarised. Conclusions need to be
drawn. And, based on the findings, recommendations need to be profered.
Summary serves the purpose of a brief synopsis or a brief general overview
or a brief general survey of the study. Many readers will use it to see if the
report is worth reading further. It must not be a repetition of previous parts
of the report. The methods and procedures are presented in general terms,
just enough to give a general picture of what was done, yet sufficient to
decide for or against reading the entire report.
It must not duplicate the findings. In summarising the results, use of
summary tables of findings is encouraged. A good summary of findings
naturally leads to the conclusions, which must derive from the reported
findings alone. The number of conclusions depends on the research
questions and/or objectives and/or hypotheses. A separate conclusion needs
to be drawn for each finding.

47
 Conclusions are used as basis for making recommendations. The two must
not be confused. Recommendations for future/further studies are also made,
based on more questions raised than answers supplied.
A section on implications of the findings for development uses the creativity
ability of the researcher to pinpoint the possible uses of the findings and to
raise further questions for investigation. At the end, an abstract of the study
is developed.
6.4 THE ABSTRACT
The abstract is a brief overview of a study already done, containing 100-300
words. It is written in past tense, and not paragraphed. It does not contain
definitions, examples and citations. The abstract should state the motivation
of the study, the study objectives and how they were addressed
(methodology), findings and recommendations/conclusions.

48
 CHAPTER SEVEN
CITATIONS AND REFERENCES
7.1 CITATION
Citation is the way to tell readers that a certain idea or sentence or text is
from another source.
7.1.1 Why cite authorities?
Strong claims or statements need to be acknowledged as having come from
authorities by citing the authorities in the text (in-text citation). Failure to do
this arrogates the strong claim or statement to the writer, which is plagiarism
– an academic and economic crime punishable in Law.
7.1.2 Citation styles
There are 3 broad citation styles:
1. American Psychological Association (APA)
2. Havard
3. Oxford or Chicago or Modern Language Association (MLA) or
Numbering or Footnote/Endnote.
Citation (in-text) is made within the sentence (in-sentence) or at the end of
the sentence (end-sentence). American Psychological Association (APA)
and Havard adopt the same style for in-text citation, as different from the
style adopted by Oxford or Chicago or Modern Language Association
(MLA) or Numbering or Footnote/Endnote versions.
Citation styles are periodically published in editions. It is wise to download,
consult and use the latest edition of the chosen style. APA is at the 7th
edition.
It is imperative to be consistent with a style. Inconsistency in citation and
referencing styles has become a common error in research report writing.

49
7.1.2.1 American Psychological Association (APA) and Havard styles of
citation
In-text citation mentions the surname (no initials or first name) of the
authority and the year of publication. An example of in-sentence citation is:
According to Nworie (2009), the sky is blue.
An example of end-sentence citation is:
The sky is blue (Nworie, 2009).
In case of multiple citations, they should be entered in descending or
ascending order of year of publication and must be separated from one
another by a semi-colon, e.g. Obasi, 2014; Nwabue, 2012; Oti, 2010. Note
that there is no ‘and’ before the last authority. Correct punctuations must be
observed.
7.1.2.2 Oxford or Chicago or Modern Language Association (MLA) or
Numbering or Footnote/Endnote style
Each of these styles uses a number (superscripted and/or bracketted often in
[1]
block parenthesis) at the end of the information to be referenced: or [1].
The numbers are serial identifiers. An example of in-sentence citation is:
According to Nworie [1], the sky is blue.
An example of end-sentence citation is:
The sky is blue [1].
End-sentence multiple citations are reflected like this: [1, 2], [3-5]. They do
not recognise ascending or descending order of year of authority.
7.1.3 General rules for citation
7.1.3.1 Currency
In all research reports, it is not acceptable to cite materials older than 10-15
years, except they are methods, theories/models or formulae. In place of
outdated authorities, newer materials that cited them should be cited. In fact,
50
 reports that are replete with dated authorities are regarded as lacking in
currency, which is viewed seriously by examiners and reviewers. Indeed, a
report filled with oudated authorities is suspected to be a white-washed older
report, lacking in updates. Research reports should be up-to-date, to serve
humanity.
7.1.3.2 Use of et al
Multiple authors must all be mentioned first, before the of use et al in
subsequent citations.
7.1.3.3 Direct quotation
Chicago style demands that direct quotations should be enclosed with single
quotation marks. If the quotation is more than around 35 words, it is
separated from the main text and indented without quotation marks. Also, it
should be single-line-spaced, regardless of the spacing of the rest of the text.
Other citation styles seem to have adopted this style, but often apply double
quotation marks instead of single quotation marks.
Citation for a direct quotation requires indication of the page of the material
from which the quotation was lifted. Examples for in-sentence citation are:
Nworie (2009: 99), (2009: 98-99), (2009: p. 99), (2009: pp. 98-99) and
(Nworie, 2009: 99). Examples for end-sentence citation are: (Nworie, 2009:
98-99), (Nworie, 2009: p. 99) and (Nworie, 2009: pp. 98-99).
7.2 REFERENCES
A reference offers a reader the information necessary to find a cited
authority. At the end of the research report, before Appendix, all citations in
the text need to be given in full in a reference list, which must be consistent
by adopting a particular style: APA, Harvard, Oxford, MLA, Numbering,
Footnote or Endnote style etc. Each of these styles has a style for referencing
book, journal article, newspaper/magazine and Internet resource.
51
7.2.1 APA (American Psychological Association) style of referencing
7.2.1.1 Book
Rogers, E.M., 1986. Communication: the new media in society. New York:
The Free Press.
7.2.1.2 Journal article
Buchner, V., 2009. Neurotoxic effects and biomarkers of lead exposure: A
review. Reviews on Envir. Health, 24 (1), pp. 15–45.
Multiple authors
Sanders, T. L., Y. Buchner, V. and Tchounwou, P., 2009. Neurotoxic effects
and biomarkers of lead exposure: A review. Reviews on Envir. Health,
24 (1), pp.15–45.
7.2.1.3 Newspaper/magazine material
Nwosu, I.E. (2009, November 10). Ebola virus disease outbreak is under
control in Nigeria. Guardian, a Nigerian daily newspaper, 10 November
2009, p. 13.
7.2.1.4 Internet material
Reuters, 2009, October 18. China to move residents from lead smelter base-
report. Retrieved on October 20, 2009 from
http://www.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idUS
PEK14546420091019
7.2.2 Havard style of referencing
7.2.2.1 Book
Rogers, EM 1986, Communication: The new media in society, The Free
Press, New York.
7.2.2.2 Journal article
Buchner, V 2009, ‘Neurotoxic effects and biomarkers of lead exposure: A
review’, Reviews on Environmental Health, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 15-45.
52
7.2.2.3 Newspaper/magazine materials
Nwosu, IE 2009, November 10. Ebola virus disease outbreak is under
control in Nigeria. Guardian, a Nigerian daily newspaper, 10 November
2009, p. 13.
7.2.2.4 Internet material
Reuters 2009, China to move residents from lead smelter base-report.
Viewed 10 June 2015,
http://www.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idUS
PEK14546420091019
7.2.3 MLA (Modern Language Association) or Numbering style of
referencing
7.2.3.1 Book
S. Forge 2007, “Powering down remedies for unsustainable ICT,” Foresight,
9(4): 3-21.
7.2.3.2 Journal article
O.C. Eneh and V.C. Agbazue 2011, “Protection of Nigeria’s environment: A
critical policy review,” Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology, 4 (5): 490-497.
Multiple authors
H. Hu, R. Shih, S. Rothenberg and S. Schwartz 2007, “The epidemiology of
lead toxicity in adults: Measuring doses and consideration of other
methodologic issues,” Envir. Health Pers., 115(3): 455-462.
7.2.3.4 Internet material
United States Environmental Protection Agency 2010, “Introduction to the
concept of Green Chemistry,” Retrieved on 6/5/2010 from
http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/pubs/about_gc.html

53
7.2.4 General rules of referencing
7.2.4.1 Footnote
In footnote proper, the numbers are referenced at the foot of the page in
which the citation occurs. (e.g see Chinua Achebe There was a country).
Footnote style is no longer allowed for thesis in many institutions.
7.2.4.2 Endnote
In endnote, the numbers are referenced at the end of the work (e.g see
Chinua Achebe There was a country). Endnote style is no longer allowed for
thesis in many institutions.
7.2.4.3 Use of et al for multiple authors
Multiple authors must all be mentioned with their initials in reference list.
Use of et al is not allowed in reference list.
7.2.4.4 Classification of entries in reference list
For thesis, list containing fewer than 20 entries is not classified. Twenty to
thirty (20-30) may not be classified. Above 30 could require classification
into books, government publications, periodicals, unpublished materials, and
other publications. Some institutions ignore the classification of entries in
the reference list.
7.2.4.5 Reference versus Bibliography
In reference, each authority cited in the text must appear in the reference list,
and each entry in the reference list must have been cited in the text. On the
other hand, a bibliograhy usually contains all the works cited, but may also
include other works that the author consulted, even if they are not part of the
in-text citations. Some bibliographies contain only the sources that the
author feels are most significant or useful to readers. Annotated bibliograhy
contains the author’s comments on each source.

54
 CHAPTER EIGHT
FORMAT, EDITING AND APPENDIX
8.1 FORMAT
Many research reports are inconsistent with format adopted. Format refers to
the preferred arrangement of the essential parts of the thesis or research
paper. Institutional styles and natures of study and research report writing
vary. Some of the headings in this book may form a chapter each, while
others may be merged to form a chapter or demerged to form more chapters.
8.2 EDITING
Some research reports are poorly edited, whereas every research project
report or dissertation or thesis must be written in a satisfactory literary style
of the approved language. Editorial accuracy must be applied to research
reports because they high-profile scholarly resources. The researcher may
require peer assistance to edit the report.
8.3 APPENDIX
An appendix contains supplementary materials that are not essential parts of
the text, but may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive
understanding of the research report or it is information that is too
cumbersome to be included in the body of the report. If an appendix were
removed, the reader would still be able to comprehend the significance,
validity, and implications of the study.

55
 CHAPTER NINE
WRITING ARTICLE FROM RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT
9.1 CONVERSION OF THESIS TO JOURNAL ARTICLE
It is sad to see many idle research project reports, dissertations and theses
gathering dusts on shelves because they lack the qualities needed to be
converted to journal articles. This puts to waste the enormous human and
financial resources that went into the study. This partly accounts for paucity
of research and development (R&D) outputs for commercialisation, and
therefore, under-development.
Research is too expensive (in terms of time, fund, efforts, stress, etc.) to go
unpublished, unless it has no message. To convert a research project report,
dissertations or thesis to journal article/s, take an objective or related
objectives with the corresponding problem/s, research question/s and
hypothesis/hypotheses along with the related literature (conceptual,
theoretical, empirical) and develop them into a full-fledged paper.
Articles can be original articles or short communications. Sample
requirements for both of them are reproduced below to guide authors.
9.1.1 Original articles

Between 25,000 and 35,000 characters (with spaces) + additionally up to 7

illustrations and/or tables. An original article presents new information on a
specific waste management and research topic or problem. Novel concepts,
proven results and interesting perspectives for waste management in theory
or practice and evidence of thorough literature research are important criteria
when considering acceptability for peer review.

56
9.1.2 Short communications
Between 10,000 and 15,000 characters (with spaces) + additionally up to 4
illustrations and/or tables. A short communication would typically describe
topical and/or innovative preliminary data in the field of waste management
which may be of interest to an international professional audience and that is
deemed worthy of expedited publication.

57
 CHAPTER TEN
WRITING A REVIEW ARTICLE
A standard review has a purpose, probably to update the literature, if dated, or to
contribute to it, if not rich enough, or to put it together, if scattered. A review is not
just recollecting the content of the literature in a subject matter, but to critique it. In
other words, a review must be useful and contribute a value to the literature.
A sample of the quality of a review articles is reproduced below to guide authors:

- Between 70,000 and 80,000 characters (with spaces) + additionally up to 10

illustrations and/or tables.

- A review article presents a critical evaluation of information that has already

been published, and considers the progress of current research toward
clarifying a stated problem or topic. It should meet both of the following
criteria:

◦ Cite at least 100 references, and

◦ Review must appear as a word in the title, and the abstract must state that
it is a review article.

- Mini-review articles should be between 40,000 and 50,000 characters (with

spaces) + additionally up to 7 illustrations and/or tables. A mini-review article
presents a critical evaluation of information that has already been published in
a topic related to waste management, and considers the progress of current
research toward clarifying a stated problem or topic. It should meet both of
the following criteria:

◦ Cite at least 50 references; and

58
◦ Mini-review must appear as a word in the title, and the abstract must state
that it is a mini-review article.

59
CHECKLIST
Topic/title
- Have you chosen a study area or topic based on interests and your relative
knowledgeability of it?
- Is the topic also of interest to others by being relevant and of service to
society/industry?
- Is the topic of sufficient interest not to bore you and for you to enjoy the
work?
- Is the topic difficult enough, but manageable, to be able to earn a degree?
- Is the topic useful in fetching you a job afterward?
- In crafting your study title, have you talked with your professor,
brainstormed, and read recent issues of periodicals in the field to arrive at
fertile ground within the topic?
- Does your title have constructs?
Introduction
- Did you start broad, but not too broad?
- Have you provided relevant background, yet avoiding your true argument?
- Are you clear on the problem, question/s, purpose/s or aim/s, objective/s and
hypothesis/hypotheses of the research?
- Are your objectives specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-
bound?
- Are you clear on study significance that convinces the reader that your work
is worth it?
- Have you delineated your study focus in terms of time, location and target?
- Have you defined only technical, ambiguous and operational terms?

60
Literature review
- Is your review a summary of relevant, meaningful, important and valid
literature?
- Does it restrict you from duplication of accomplished works by sufficient of
inconsistencies, gaps and contradictions yawning for attention?
Research methodology
Have you clearly designed your study in terms of location, study population?
Are you clear on sample size and sampling technique?
Have you clearly stated the needed data and how to source them?
Have you described the designed instrument for data collection?
Have you stated how the instrument was validated?
Have you chosen and justified an appropriate tool for analysis of generated data?
Have you chosen and justified an appropriate statistical tool for test of hypotheses?
Results and discussion
Have you presented your data in appropriate statistical tables and
figures/charts/graphs?
Have you sufficiently discussed the results against the backdrop of the research
problem/s, question/s, purpose/s or aim/s, objective/s, hypothesis/hypotheses, as
well as literature models for establishment of a robust validity?
Summary of findings, recommendations and conclusions
Have you summarized your findings that tally with research problem/s, question/s,
purpose/s or aim/s, objective/s, hypothesis/hypotheses?
Have you made relevant recommendations that tally with research problem/s,
question/s, purpose/s or aim/s, objective/s, hypothesis/hypotheses?

61
Have you made right conclusions that tally with research problem/s, question/s,
purpose/s or aim/s, objective/s, hypothesis/hypotheses?
Thesis writing style
Is your language clear and mechanically accurate?
Have you adopted the thesis writing style for citation, referencing and format as
prescribed by your institution?
Are your citations current?
Have you added any needed appendix?

62
 APPENDIX: SAMPLES OF SAMPLE SIZE, SAMPLING TECHNIQUE,
QUESTIONNAIRE AND SUGGESTED ANALYTICAL TOOL

APPENDIX I: AN APPRAISAL OF THE AWARENESS OF

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT TOXICITY
BY MARKETERS AND REPAIRERS IN NIGERIA
Purpose
In this research, the awareness of the participants of the toxicity of EEE and their
adoption of safety measures for handling them were studied.
Samle size and samling technique
Key informant technique was used to elicit information from purposively selected
fifty (80) EEE marketers in Alaba International Market, which is famous for EEE
trading business, and twenty (20) repairers in C-To-C Business Plaza, Nkpokiti
Street, Enugu, Nigeria, where significant EEE repairing activities take place at
commercial scale. All trader respondents had lasted 20 years upwards in the
business, while repairers had lasted ten (10) years upwards on the job, to qualify
for participation.
Instrument for data collection
Questionnaire copies were administered to the key informants to elicit information
from them. The questionnaire was designed such that answer options to each
question were rated on a five-point Likert scale: Strongly Agree (5), Agree (4), Not
sure (3), Disagree (2) and Strongly Disagree (1).
Analytical tool
The average mean score technique was used to analyse the data, using the formula:

Calculated value (CV) = ∑Fx

∑F
where F is frequency
x is scale point
63
The CV was compared with the decision value (DV) of 3 (neutrality value). If CV
was greater than DV, then the answer was regarded as being in the affirmative,
otherwise it was in the negative. Similarly, null hypothesis was rejected if CV was
greater than DV, and accepted if otherwise.

QUESTIONNAIRE
AN APPRAISAL OF THE AWARENESS OF ELECTRICAL ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
TOXICITY BY MARKETERS AND REPAIRERS IN NIGERIA
A. Personal data (Tick one)
1. Sex? Male/Female
2. Highest educational level? FSLC/JSSC/SSC/TC II/OND/NCE/HND/Degree/Above
3. Age bracket? 18-25/26-35/36-45/46-55/56-65/65 Upwards
4. Marital status? Single/Married/Separated or Divorced
5. How long (years) have you marketed electrical electronic equipment spareparts?
11-20, 21-30,31-40, 41-50, Above 50 years
B. Health effects
1. EEE emit hazardous gases that you inhale.
(a) Strongly agree
(b) Agree
(c) Not sure
(d) Disagree
(e) Strongly disagree
2. Inhaling the emissions from EEE has caused you some health problems.
(a) Strongly agree
(b) Agree
(c) Not sure
(d) Disagree
(e) Strongly disagree
3. Some of the health effects associated with EEE business are high blood pressure,
indigestion, sleeplessness, difficulty concentrating, headache, constipation, diarrhoea,

64
 poor appetite, depression, hearing loss, muscle and joint pain, memory loss, kidney
damage/failure, male reproductive problems, weakness, tooth decay and cataracts, among
others.
(a) Strongly agree
(b) Agree
(c) Not sure
(d) Disagree
(e) Strongly disagree
4. Some EEE repairers and dealers have quit the trade because of EEE toxic effects on
them.
(a) Strongly agree
(b) Agree
(c) Not sure
(d) Disagree
(e) Strongly disagree
5. You could be required to quit the EEE trade because of EEE toxic effects on you.
(a) Strongly agree
(b) Agree
(c) Not sure
(d) Disagree
(e) Strongly disagree
6. You might not last on EEE business till old age of retirement because of EEE toxic
effects on you.
(a) Strongly agree
(b) Agree
(c) Not sure
(d) Disagree
(e) Strongly disagree
7. You need to apply safety measures in handling EEE.
(a) Strongly agree
(b) Agree

65
 (c) Not sure
(d) Disagree
(e) Strongly disagree
8. Some safety measures you need to adopt for handling EEE are use of mask/glove, not
eating/drinking in the shop/workshop, adequate ventilation of the shop/workshop, proper
sanitation practices, among others.
(a) Strongly agree
(b) Agree
(c) Not sure
(d) Disagree
(e) Strongly disagree
Resource
Eneh, O.C. (2014), “An appraisal of handler awareness of electrical and electronic equipment
toxicity by marketers and repairers in Nigeria,” African Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology, 8(7): 442-447.

APPENDIX II: POLLUTION HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF POLYMER

RESIN ON ARTISANS IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY
SETTING

Purpose, assumption and design

The toxicity of polymer resin on the artisans that use it to work was investigated.
The value of lethal dose 50 (LD50) (oral) of polymer resin was determined with
rats. Rats were used because Africans are averse to being used as exerimental
animals. The study assumed that a dose of polymer resin is not significantly related
to the number of deaths of rats to which it had been acutely exposed by oral
administration. The experimental design was adopted.
Procedure
The Randhawa (2009) modified version of the Miller and Tainter (1944) method
for acute toxcity test was used. In the preliminary studies carried out to determine

66
the dose range to be used in the acute toxicity tests, rats in groups of close weight
ranges (n=20 for each group) were separately treated to doses of 100, 300, 550,
800, 1200, 1800, 2700, 4000, 6000 and 9000 mlkg-1 of polymer resin in inert
solvent (Tween 80) for 24h. The control set was treated to the solvent without the
resin. After oral administration, the animals were observed regularly and mortality
recorded at 3h, 6h, 12h and 24h. Subsequently, a series of five (5) doses between
the dose that killed a few or none of the rats and all or most of the rats were
selected and used for acute toxicity test. The percentage of rats that had died at
each dose level was then transformed to probit. The probit for 100% was corrected,
using the formula (Randhawa, 2009):
Probit for 100% = 100 (n - 0.25)
n
The probit values (y) were plotted against log doses (x). The log dose
corresponding to probit 5 was traced and the anti-log noted as the value for LD50,
which killed 50% of the rats.
Analytical tool
The data were analyzed using the simple linear regression (SLR) technique of the
statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). SLR technique predicts one interval
data dependent variable, y, from another ratio data, independent variable, x:

y = a + bx

where y is the dependent variable being looked for,

a is the constant of the equation,
b is the coefficient of x, which depicts the dependent
variables,
x is the independent variable.

67
The independent variable (x) was the log dose of the polymer resin, while the
dependent variable (y) was the % dead of the rats.
SLR also helped to correlate the data and to test the hypothesis. SLR showed
correlation statistics (Pearson correlation values and one-tailed significance
values), as well as model summary(b) of descriptive statistics (particularly R2).
The Pearson correlation value showed the strength (perfect or otherwise) and
nature (positive or otherwise) of the relationship between the dose of polymer resin
and the number of rats killed by the administered dose. One-tailed significance
value showed the level of significance of the relationship between the number of
rats killed and the dose of polymer resin administered, as well as the degree of
confidence. The R2 value showed the reliability level of the finding. Thus, the
internal validity or otherwise of the finding was established and the null hypothesis
was tested.
Resource
Eneh, O.C. (2013), “Pollution health significance of polymer resin on artisans in a developing
country setting,” Sustainable Human Development Review, 5(1-4): 71-85.

APPENDIX III: SUCCESSION AND LETHALITY FACTORS OF FAMILY LARGE

ENTERPRISES IN NIGERIA: A STUDY ON ABA

Purpose
The succession and lethality factors of family large enterprises in Aba, Southeast
Nigeria was studied against the backdrop of factors of succession of 20 large
family enterprises in Europe, America and South Africa which have waxed strong
for centuries running; the lethality factors of family enterprises in Nigeria as
contained in literature; and lessons from government role in fostering succession in
family enterprises in Europe?
Specific objectives of the Study
68
1. To ascertain the factors of succession by second generation of offsprings among
selected family large enterprises;
2. To ascertain the factors of lethality at the exit of the founder of family large
enterprises;
3. To ascertain the effect of government role in fostering succession in family
enterprises of Nnewi people Nigeria.

Sample size and sampling technique

Snowball sampling technique was adoted to reach the survivor(s) of the founders
of perceived family large enterprises in Aba. Selection of the enterprise for the
study was based on information from the survivors which gave a clue as to the
class (large, medium, small, micro) of the enterprise. Information was
subsequently elicited from the survivor(s) on the succession and lethality factors of
the enterprises, as well as the effects of government role to foster succession in
family enterprises. Only 15 of the 81 perceived large enterprises in Aba fell into
the targetted group. Since the number is manageable, all the 15 were studied.
However, 8 of these enterprises, who are capable of supplying the required
information, were purposively selected for the study.
Data collection instrument
A structured questionnaire was designed to help elicit information from
respondents. It was of three (3) sections: A – data on enterprise, B – data on
respondent, and C – factors of succession and lethality of enterprises. Sections A
and B contain open-ended questions, while section C contained questions with 5-
likert-scale answer options of very large extent (VLE, scale 5), large extent (LE,
scale 4), moderate extent (ME, scale 3), little extent (LE, scale 2) and insignificant
(I, scale 1).

69
Analytical tool
Data generated from the study were presented in tables and charts. Chi-Square, Z-
test and t-test are employed essentially to determine whether the means of two
random groups of samples are significantly different as to attribute the difference
to chance or sampling error. ANOVA is used when there are more than two groups
of samples. In the study, one group of samples had the same factors being tested.
Therefore, Chi-Square, Z-test and t-test could not be used. A proper analytical tool
for one-group data is average mean score technique, which was employed for the
analysis and to test the hypotheses. The decision value (DV) was calculated as the
average of the Likert scales,
5+4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 15 = 3.0
5 5

The calculated value (CV) was obtained from

CV = ∑Fx
∑F

Where F is frequency

x is scale value

Furthermore, factor analysis was used to test the variance among factors because
factor analysis is used when there is a proportion of variance of data for a
particular item that is due to common factors (shared with other items)
called communality.
However, factor analysis could run for the C5 succession factors, but did not run
for C1-C4 succession factors, lethality factors and government role factors. This
means that there was a proportion of variance among the C5 succession factors, but

70
not among the C1-C4 succession factors, lethality factors and government role
factors. Therefore, factor analysis was applied to co-relate the two factors in C5
category of global factors of succession in family enterprises.

QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A: Company data

1. Name of enterprise: _______________________________________________________

2. Location/Head office address of enterprise: ___________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

3. Motto of enterprise: _______________________________________________________

4. Mission statement of enterprise: _____________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

5. Vision of enterprise: ______________________________________________________

6. Year founded: ________________

7. Founder’s name: _______________________________________

8. Place it was founded: _____________________________________________________

Year founder retired: ______________

9. Year founder died: ______________

10. Peak staff strength: ______________

11. Capital outlay at peak and year: =N=___________________ year ____________

SECTION B: Socio-economic characteristics of respondent

12. Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ]

13. Marital status: Married [ ], Single [ ], Widowed [ ], Separated [ ]

14. Age: Below 30yrs [ ], 31-45yrs [ ], 46-55yrs [ ], 56-65yrs [ ], Above 65yrs [ ]

15. Religion: Christianity [ ], Islam [ ], Traditional [ ]

71
 16. Level of Education: Primary [ ], Junior secondary [ ], Senior secondary [ ],

Tertiary [ ], None [ ].

17. Educational background: ___________________________________________________

18. Career: Civil servant [ ], Artisan [ ], Trader [ ], others specify ____________

19. Relationship with founder of company: _______________________________________

20. How much do you earn monthly? ____________________________________________

21. Designation in the company: _______________________________________________

22. Duty description: _________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

SECTION C: Factors of succession and lethality

23. To what extent do you apply the under-listed factors in your family enterprise?

VLE - very large extent, LE - large extent, ME - moderate extent, LE - little extent, I -
insignificant.
S.N. Factors VLE LE ME LE NI
C. Global factors of succession
C5. Factors appearing 5 times
1. Adaptaion to changing political
and social climate
2. Seeking advice from without
C4. Factors appearing 4 times
3. Commitment to family unity and
heritage
4. Community responsibility
5. Use of non-family executives
6. Identifying and servicing a
market niche
7. Allowing members of the family
business to acquire experience
outside the enterprise before
returning to the business
C3. Factors appearing 3 times
8. Innovations
9. Written mission statment and a
system of governance

72
10. Succession planning
11. A good relationship with
surrounding communities
12. A capable peacemaker in the
family (could be a retired father)
13. Flexibility to different
management styles
14. Image of
trust/integrity/reliability/stability
15. Commitment to family business
16. Reinvention
17. Allowing future generations to
explore opportunities outside the
family enterprise and
reabsorbing them with the
acquired experiences
18. Fiscal responsibility
19. Abhorence of debt
20. Maintaining top quality
product/service
21. Separation of business activities
to resolve siblings conflict
22. Division of responsibilities
23. Giving workers a sense of
belonging to the extended family
24. Family humanity
25. Employee welfar
26. Female leadership
27. Important role of women in
succession
C2. Factors appearing 2 times
28. Maintaining a limited number of
executives within the family
29. Enlisting in the stock market
30. Saving inventory
31. Facing down crisis to start again
later
32. Amicable resolution of conflict
among family members
33. Conveying to grandson of
founder to avoid family conflict
34. Plan to cope with family conflict
35. Family leaders stepping aside at
age 65

73
36. Value for professional
management
37. Good communication to
prevent/resolve disagreement
38. Precluding spouses from family
business environment
39. Guideline for different
management styles
40. Personal attention to individual
clients
41. Avoiding bureaucracy
42. Entrepreneurial spirit
43. Avoidance of over-ambition
44. Reliance of the Golden Rule
45. Allowing politicians among
family members to gain outside
experience before returning to
the family business
46. Sibling co-operation
47. Allowing one person to lead and
others enable him
C1. Factors appearing once
48. Consensus decision
49. Keeping history of the family
and business
50. Using a spouse’s experience
from her own family business
51. Business before family concerns
52. Concerning the enterprise with
what it does
53. Traditional values of the family
to be reflected on clients
54. Renewal of business with cutting
edge technology
55. Trust for symbiotic relationship
among siblings
56. Foregoing personal interest to
perpertuate family enterprise
57. Disciplined operation
58. Respect for traditions of father
and son relationship
59. Role for retired senior generation
60. Backward integration
61. Building on old decisions

74
62. Balance between family and
business
63. Problem tackled by new
generation
64. Liaison with a larger
conglomerate
65. Common sense
66. Facilities for fulfilling basic
human need
67. Long-term job security for
workers
68. Worker training to ensure next
generation of craftsmen
69. Employee loyalty.
D. Lethality factors for family
enterprises in Nigeria
70. Inadequate funding
71. Lack of solid structures
72. Haphazard execution of policies
73. Conflicting interest by some
family members
74. Failure to keep overhead cost
low
75. Polygamy
76. Unwieldy family size
77. Contentious wills
78. Inability to adapt to a changing
marketplace
79. Underestimating competitors
80. Lack of interest by children of
business owners
81. Poor succession plan
E. Government role
82. Inducing initiatives which serve
for raising awareness for
succession in family business
83. Ensuring continuity to
partnerships and sole traders
84. Preparing enterprises to
ownership transfer by adopting
the most suitable organizational
and legal form
85. Supporting the transfer of
enterprise ownership by
administrative and legislative

75
 powers
86. Ensuring tax reliefs in case of
enterprise ownership transfer
within the family
87. Passing information and
providing trainings on how to
plan enterprise ownership
transfer
88. Ensuring proper financial
environment conducting
enterprise ownership transfer
89. Providing legal possibilities for
enterprise restructuring in order
to prepare for ownership
transfer, especially with
reference to legal status of an
enterprise
90. Establishing legal regulations
ensuring the continuity of
partnerships and sole traders in
case of death of one of the
partners or the owner
91. Creating favourable regulations
concerning inheritance or
donation tax from enterprise
ownership transfer in order to
ensure survival to them
92. Facilitating enterprise ownership
transfer to third persons by
introducing beneficial tax
regulations

APPENDIX IV: EFFECT OF CARTOONS ON PUPIL INTEREST AND

ACHIEVEMENT IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
IN BASIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION ACHIEVEMENT
TEST
Purpose
The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of cartoons on the interest and
achievement in Environmental Education (EE) component of Basic Science and

76
Technology by primary school pupils of different sexes in schools in different
locations.
Objectives
Specific objectives of the study were to:
1. Determine the mean achievement scores of primary school pupils taught EE
by conventional method and by using cartoons;
2. Find out the mean interest scores of pupils taught EE by conventional method
and by cartoon method;
3. Determine the effect of gender on the mean achievement scores of pupils
taught EE by conventional method and by using cartoons.
4. Find out the effect of location on the mean achievement scores of pupils
taught EE by conventional method and by using cartoons.
5. Determine the mean interest scores of rural and urban pupils taught EE by
conventional method and by using cartoons.
6. Determine the mean interest scores of male and female pupils taught EE by
conventional method and by use of cartoons.
7. What are the interaction effect of method and gender, method and location,
method and gender on interest and method and gender of primary school
pupils in environmenal education?
Study area

The study was carried out in Enugu South Local Education Authority of Enugu
State of Nigeria. Enugu South LGA is densely populated with an estimated figure
of 198,723 by the 2006 population census (NBS, 2007) and houses 10 markets, 3
industries, 128 artisenal workshops and 42 public primary schools, leading to the
generation of large quantities of household wastes, market wastes and industrial
wastes. The irregular and inefficient disposal of these wastes and the attendant

77
pollution of the environment and health hazards in the area informs the choice of
this area for the study.

Study population

The target population of the study was all the Primary 3 pupils in public primary
schools in Enugu South Local Education Authority in the 2013/2014 school year.
From the enrollment list for 2013/2014 obtained from the Enugu State Basic
Education Board (ESUBEB) Enugu, the population size was 1457 pupils in the 42
public primary schools in the LGA. There were 769 females and 488 males.

Sample size and sampling technique

The sample of this study consisted of one hundred and fifty-seven (157) pupils, 87
from the urban and 70 from the rural schools. Multi-stage sampling technique was
used in selecting the treatment and control groups. Of the 42 public schools in
Enugu South Local Education Authority, 31 schools were in the urban and 11
schools were in the rural areas.

From these schools, the four schools for treatment and control were purposively
selected, two schools each from urban and rural areas based on the schools being
public schools and the teachers possesseing the same professional qualifications
(TC II and NCE).

In each of the schools, intact-classes were used. One school in the urban area was
assigned to treatment and the other control. There were 40 males and 47 females in
the treatment group, 24 males and 46 females in the control group. There were 32
male and 38 female pupils in the rural schools.

78
Design
Quasi-experimental design was adopted, involving non-randomized control group
pretest, posttest non-equivalent control group with an experimental group receiving
treatment. The design was used because the experiment was carried out on intact-
classes, so as to avoid disruption of normal classes. For this reason, there was no
randomization of pupils into experimental and control groups. The design is
diagrammatically represented in Fig. 3.1 (Ali, 2006) as follows:
Experimental Group 01 X1 02
----------------------------------
Control Group 01 X2 02
Where 01 is pre-test
X1 is treatment using cartoons
02 is post-test
X2 is conventional method of teaching (No treatment)
------------------ is non-randomization
Fig. 1.1: Diagrammatical representation of the quasi-experimental design
Data collection instrument

Two main instruments, namely, Environmental Education Achievement Test

(EEAT) and Basic Science and Technology Interest Scale (BSIS) were developed
and used for data collection. The researcher-developed multiple choice
achievement test (EEAT) developed from the primary school curriculum modules
as approved by the State Ministry of Education, Enugu State and information
obtained from literature reviewed. One achievement test was used for both pretest
and posttest to assess the pupils’ understanding of the environment. There was no
difference in content, except that the items were reshuffled during the posttest. The
experimental group was taught using cartoon sheets, while the control group was

79
taught using the conventional method of teaching. The conventional method of
writing topics on the chalkboard, reading the note and asking children to “repeat
after me” without using caroons to enable pupils participate in the learning process.

Analytical tool

Mean, standard deviation and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were used for
data analysis and for testing the hypothesis.

QUESTIONNAIRE

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION ACHIEVEMENT TEST

Sex Area

Instruction: Answer all questions. Choose and circle the correct answer.

1. What do you understand by the word “environment”? (a) Environment means where we live and work. (b)
Environment means riding big cars and jeep (c) environment means working on the main road. (d)
Environment means flying in the sky.
2. Two types of environment I know are (a) mango and banana environment (b) foam and bag environment
(c) home and school environment (d) bird and tyre environment.
3. What do you understand by office/workshop environment? (a) It is where we work (b) it is where we live
(c) it is where we dance (d) it is where we laugh.
4. Examples of office/workshop environment are: (a) tree, newspaper, blanket (b) flower, junction, driver (c)
post office, Motor Park and calendar (d) bank, farm, workshops and offices.
5. The environment where we learn to read and write is called (a) job environment (b) church environment (c)
school environment (d) grass environment.
6. Three objects that make the environment beautiful are (a) bottles, belt and tyre (b) flowers, pictures and
monuments (c) sand, office and goat (d) stream, mountain and beads.
7. A beautiful environment should look (a) pieces of papers and heaps of refuse (b) sunshine and dirty water
(c) bed, lipstick and keke (d) colourful, attractive and clean.
8. One characteristic of a beautiful environment is (a) it does not have over grown grasses /weeds (b) it has
flowers and heaps of refuse (c) it has blocks, lizards and guava (d) it has green light, blue light and white
light.
9. Another characteristic of a beautiful environment is (a) it has bag set (b) it has shawama (c) it has shop rite,
(d) it is free from odour. It has fresh air and clean water.
10. An important characteristic of beautiful and clean environment is that (a) it does not have orange and
coconut tree (b) it does not have disease causing agents which are found in dirty gutters and over grown
grasses/weeds (c) it does not have radio tapes (d) it does not have electric bulbs.
11. Three objects that make land dirty include (a) tree, ruler and pencil (b) shawama, biscuit and sweet (c)
pieces of paper, pure water bags and heaps of refuse (d) wire, rods and gates.
12. The environment is dirty because (a) we put dirty into the handset (b) we have television habits (c) we
have bad sanitation habits (eat and throw away) (d) we gather jolly juice.
13. The introduction of objects that dirty the environment-land, air, water and make it unsafe/dangerous for
human use is called (a) caterpillar (p) pollution (c) tooth brush (d) bus driver.
14. What causes land pollution? Land pollution is caused by (a) noise from big vehicles (b) dirt, refuse, human
feaces thrown into the land (c) cupboard, papers, pictures and maggi (d) bitter leaf and jollof rice.
15. What causes air pollution? Air pollution is caused by (a) smoke from vehicles, cigarette, and burning refuse
(b) dust and rain (c) grass and flowers (d) building and chalk

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 16. What causes water pollution? Water pollution is caused by (a) pictures and paints (b) refuse and sewage
poured into streams/rivers (c) careless boys playing in the stream (d) tap water running inside the stream.
17. What causes noise pollution? Noise pollution is caused by (a) playing computer game (b) football team (c)
loud noise from the horn of big vehicles and generating plants (d) kitchen party
18. One good way to maintain clean and healthy environment is to (a) adopt the habit and culture of proper
waste disposal (b) adopt the habit of talking too much (c) adopt the habit of visiting the hospital (d) adopt
the habit of going to school on Sundays.
19. Who should work hard to maintain clean and healthy environment? (a) pastor (b) head teacher (c) class
monitor (d) everybody
20. Four tools used to clean the environment include (a) broom, matchet, dustbin, rake (b) ring, truck, gun,
pillow (c) keke, tank, toothbrush, fork (d) zinc, caterpillar, rug, matches.

BASIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY INTEREST SCALE (BSIS)

Below are questions relating to using cartoons to teach Basic Science and Technology. Indicate your
degree of interest by answering them. (Teachers should use them as interview schedule, with a follow up
of very high extent (VHE), (HE) high extent (ME) medium extent and (VLE) very low extent.

Sex Area

S/N SAMPLE STATEMENT SCALE

VHE HE ME VLE

1 Do you like taking part in Basic Science and Technology lessons

2 Do you enjoy doing Basic Science and Technology assignment at

home?

3 Do you take problems on Basic Science and Technology to your

teachers to help you?

4 Do you like reading cartoon books?

5 Do you like watching cartoon network on television?

6 Do you like reading cartoon books with your classmates?

7 Do you learn any useful thing from cartoon books when you read
them?

8 Does studying and learning Basic Science and Technology make

you happy?

9 Will you like to study science in the secondary school and

university to become a scientist, an engineer or medical doctor?

10 Do you prefer your teacher using cartoon sheets to teach Basic

Science and Technology to using chalkboard alone?

11. Do you like cleaning the compound on your own?

81
 12. I am motivated when teacher tells us about compound cleaning in
the school.

13. I feel interested in acquiring more knowledge of EE

14. I feel bad when I see a dirty gutter/overflowing ESWAM dustbin.

15. I feel good picking pieces of papers litters and putting same into
the dustbin.

16. I feel good sweeping the compound and mopping dirty rooms.

17. I feel good cutting overgrown grasses in the compound.

18. I feel bad when I see people defecating in nearby bush/urinating

along the road.

19. I feel good collecting and carrying dirt with head pan, basket or
wheel barrow to ESWAMA dustbin or farmland.

20. I feel good using shovel to clear/remove dirt from the gutter.

APPENDIX V: FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENT UNREST IN

TERTIARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN
NIGERIA
Purpose
The purpose of the study was to determine the factors that influence student unrest
in tertiary educational institutions in Nigeria
Objective
Specific objective of the study was to determine the factors that influence student
unrest in tertiary educational institutions in Nigeria.
Design
Descriptive survey design was adopted for the study.

82
Study population

The study population was all the students of tertiary educational institutions in
Nigeria. They include public and private universities, polytechnics and
monotechnics, colleges of education, schools of nursing/midwifery in all the states
in Nigeria. Finite data from the National Universities Commission (NUC) and the
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) are available on the number and location of
the institutions and their student population.

Sample size determination and sampling technique

The sample size (n) of the study was determined using Taro Yamane or Freund and
Williams formula (section 5.5). The institutions were stratified by status:
universities, polytechnics/monotechnics, colleges of education, and schools of
nursing/midwifrey. Their numbers were obtained from secondary records of NUC
or NBS to be say t. To get the number (u, p, c and s respectively) of each stratum
to participate in the study, its number (u, p, c or s) was multilies by the factor, n/t,
to get un/t, n/t, cn/t and sn/t resectively.

The samle size, n, was also clustered by ownership: public and private. Their
numbers were obtained from secondary records of NUC or NBS to be say, a, b, c,
and d respectively. The proportion of a, b, c, and d to participate in the study were
calculated in a similar manner as was done for each stratum.

A simple random sampling technique was used to select target institutions to

particiate in the study. Their student populations were obtained from secondary
records of NUC. The proportionate number of students of each cluster in each
stratum to participate in the study was calculated in a similar manner as was done
for each stratum. Convenience sampling technique, based on their convenient
accessibility and proximity to the researcher and willingness to participate in the

83
study, was used to select the calculated number of respondents in each cluster in
each stratum to reach with the data collection instrument.

Data collection instrument

A structured and semi-structured questionnaire was used to elicit information from

respondents.

Analytical tool

Logit Regression Model will be used to analyse the factors influencing student
unrest in tertiary educational institutions in Nigeria. The model serves to determine
the significant effect of an independent variable over a dependent variable, when
the dependent variable is binary (dummy variables). The study will make use of
dummy variables, represented as factor influencing student unrest (Y=1) and no
factor influencing student unrest (Y = 0).

QUESTIONNAIRE

FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENT UNREST IN TERTIARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN

NIGERIA

SECTION 1: SOCIAL/DEMOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND OF THE RESPONDENTS

[Thick your response in the appropriate box provided for each question]

Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]

Age: 16-25 [ ] 26-35 [ ] 36-45 [ ] Above 45 [ ]

Marital status: Single [ ] Married [ ] Divorced [ ] Widowed [ ]

Religion: Christianity [ ] Islam [ ] Traditional [ ] Atheist [ ]

School: University [ ] Polytechnic/monotechnic [ ] college of education [ ] school of nursing/midwifery [ ]

School ownership: public [ ] Private [ ]

SECTION 2: FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENT UNREST IN TERTIARY EDUCATIONAL

INSTITUTIONS IN NIGERIA

Which of the following factors influence student unrest?

84
Lack of water supply to the hostel [ ]

Lack of electric power supply to the hostel [ ]

Lack of toilet facilities in the hostel [ ]

Lack of toilet facilities within the school premises [ ]

Indigency of student [ ]

Lecture pressure [ ]

Examination pressure [ ]

Strike by staff of the institution [ ]

Hike in school fees [ ]

Hike in transportation fare within school [ ]

Hike in general transportation fare in the society [ ]

Sexual harrassment by lecturers [ ]

Cult pressure [ ]

None of the above [ ]

85
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Berg, B.L., 2009. Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Seventh
Edition. Boston MA: Pearson Education Inc.

Creswell, J., 2003. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed

Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Franklin, M.I., 2012. Understanding Research: Coping with the Quantitative-

Qualitative Divide. London and New York: Routledge.

Herrman, C.S., 2009. Fundamentals of Methodology, a series of papers on

the Social Sciences Research Network (SSRN), online.

Howell, K.E., 2013. Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology. London: Sage

Publications.

Irny, S.I. & Rose, A.A., 2005. Designing a Strategic Information Systems Planning
Methodology for Malaysian Institutes of Higher Learning (isp- ipta). Issues in
Information System, Volume VI, No. 1, 2005.

Joubish, Farooq Dr., 2009. Educational Research. Department of Education,

Federal Urdu University, Karachi, Pakistan

Kothari, C.R., 2004. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Delhi:

New Age International (P) Ltd.

Ndira, E. Alana, Slater, T. & Bucknam, A., 2011. Action Research for Business,
Nonprofit, and Public Administration - A Tool for Complex Times. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.

Osuala, E.C., 2007. Introduction to Research Methodology. Onitsha: Africana-

First Publishers Plc.

Patton, M.Q., 2002. Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd edition).
Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Silverman, David (ed)., 2011. Qualitative Research: Issues of Theory, Method and
Practice, Third Edition. London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi, Singapore: Sage
Publications

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Soeters, Joseph, Shields, Patricia & Rietjens, Sebastiaan, 2014. Handbook of
Research Methods in Military Studies. New York: Routledge.

Neilson, W.A. Knott, T.A. & Carhart, P.W. (eds.), 1950. Webster's New
International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged.
Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Company.

87
 INDEX
Journal article, p.56
Original article, p.56
Review article, p.58
Short communication, p.57
Research, p.1
Cross-sectional study, p.1
Descriptive research, p.1
Experimental research, p.1
Ex-post facto research, p.2
Historical research, p.1
Longitudinal study, p.1
Topic and title of a research project, p.5
Feasibility, p.7
Identifiable and testable variables, p.7
Originality, p.6
Researchability, p.7
Styles for writing a title, p.8
All cap case, p.8
Semi-title case, p.8
Title case, p.8
Topicality and relevance, p.6
Study, p.9
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA or ANACOVA), p.32
Background, p.9
Definition of terms, p.13
Introducion, p.9
Literature review, p.14
(Research) Question/s, p.10
(Research) Purpose/s or aim/s, p.10
(Research) Objective/s, p.10
(Research) Hypothesis/hypotheses, p.10
(Research) Methodology, p.15
Variants, p.15
Purpose, p.15
(Research) Population, p.17
(Research) Sample size, p.17
Determination, p.18
Taro Yamane formula for finite population, p.18
Freund and Williams formula for finite population, p.18
88
 Sampling technique, p.18
Probability sampling, p.19
Random sampling, p.19
Simple random sampling, p.19
Systematic random sampling, p.19
Stratified random sampling, p.19
Cluster random sampling, p.19, 20
Quota random sampling, p.19, 20
Double random sampling, p.19, 20
Multiple random sampling, p.19, 20
Non-probability sampling, p.19
Accidental sampling, p.19
Availability sampling, p.19
Chain sampling, p.19, 20
Convenience sampling, p.19
Judgmental sampling, p.19
Purposive sampling, p.19
Snowball sampling, p.19, 20
Sampling bias, p.21
Sampling error, p.20
Significance, p.11
Scope, limitation and delimitation, p.11
Statement of the problem, p.10
Types and sources of data, p.21
Qualitative data, p.21
Quantitative data, p.21
Variables, p.21
Comparative evaluation studies, p.23
Data analysis tools, p.24
Analysis of variance (ANOVA), p.30
Categorical data gathering and analysis, p.25
Contingency tables, p.26
Controlling for factors, p.31
Interaction effects, p.32
Main effects, two-way interaction, p.32
Multi-Factor ANOVA, p.30
Multiple t-tests (One-way ANOVA), p.26
Multivariate Statistics, p.24
T-test, p.26
Data collection instruments, p.22
89
 Interview, p.22
Observation, p.22
Questionnaire, p.22
Factor analysis, p.37
Types, p.39
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), p.40
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA), p.39
General rules for citation, p.50
Currency, p.50
Direct quotation, p.51
Use of et al, p.51
Regression, p.33
Correlation, p.34
Factorial design, p.35
Least squares method, p.33
Longitudinal research methods, p.35
Mixed-method evaluation design, p.35
Complementarity, p.35
Development, p.36
Expansion, p.36
Initiation, p.36
NEDV-Pattern Matching Design Introduction, p.36
Triangulation, p.35
Regression-discontinuity design, p.35
Regression model, p.33
Statistical analysis packages, p.40
Validity, p.41
Conclusion validity, p.41
Construct validity, p.41
Convergent validity, p.41, 42
Discriminent validity, p.41, 42
External validity, p.41, 43
Face validity, p.41
Internal validity, p.41, 43
Measurement validity, p.41
Multitrait-multimethod matrix (MTMM), p.41
Convergent validity, p.42
Discriminent validity, p.42
Threats to internal validity, 43
Matrix, p.42
90
 Multimethod, p.42
Multitrait, p.41
(Research) Abstract, p.48
(Research) Appendix, p.55
(Research) Bibliography, p.54
(Research) Citations, p.49
Why? p.49
Styles, p.49
American Psychological Association (APA), p.49, 50
Chicago, p.49, 50
Endnote, p.49
Endnote, p.49
End-sentence, p.49
Footnote, p.49
Havard, p.49, 50
In-text, p.49
In-sentence, .49
Modern Language Association (MLA), p.49, 50
Numbering, p.49, 50
Oxford, p.49, 50
(Research) Data presentation/analysis/discussion, p.47
(Research) Format, p.55
(Research) Results and discussion, p.46
(Research Results/findings) summary, conclusions and recommendations, p.47
(Research) References, p.49, 51, 54
APA (American Psychological Association) style of referencing, p.51
Book, p.52
Internet material, p.52
Journal article, p.52
Newspaper/magazine material, p.52
Havard style of referencing, p.52
Book, p.52
Internet material, p.53
Journal article, p.52
Newspaper/magazine material, p.53
General rules of referencing, p.54
Classification of entries in reference list, p.54
Endnote, p.54
Footnote, p.54
Use of et al for multiple authors, p.54
91
 MLA (Modern Language Association) or Numbering, p.53
Book, p.53
Journal article, p.53
Newspaper/magazine material, p.53
Types of research, p.1
What is research? p.1
Thesis writing style, p.62

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