76.

00
The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016
has given approval to prescribe this Textbook in its meeting held on 30.01.2020 and
it has been decided to implement it from the academic year 2020-2021.

SOCIOLOGY
Standard Twelve

Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and

Curriculum Research, Pune.

The digital textbook can be obtained through DIKSHA

APP on a smartphone by using the Q.R.Code given on the
title page of the Textbook. On this Q.R.Code audio-visual
teaching-learning material of the relevant unit will be
available.
First Edition : 2020 © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Reprint : October 2021 Research, Pune - 411 004.
The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book
should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director,
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004.

Sociology Committee Cover and Illustrations

Dr. Pralhad Mane, Member Shri. Devdatta Balkawade
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Typesetting
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Authors
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(C)
NATIONAL ANTHEM

(D)
 Preface

Dear Student-friends,

In today’s digital world, you must have felt the need to understand your
own culture and society. Many people across the globe are struck by the diversity and
plurality of Indian society and its inner strength.
As learners of Sociology, you may often not have answers to questions like, “What
does it mean to be Indian?” “What are the factors that influence Indian society? What
are the segments of Indian society and how are they connected? How has digitalisation
affected our lifestyle?” and so on. It is at such moments that we realise the need to be
consciously aware of what is happening in our society, the types of changes that are
taking place and the challenges that lie within and without.
There are several debates on the various social processes and movements that have
been taking place in India today. Have these weakened our country? Have they made us
stronger than before? Understanding our pluralistic society and processes of change are
extremely relevant at this juncture.
The Standard XI Sociology course introduced you to various key sociological concepts.
In Standard XII, the focus will be on understanding different groups within our society,
various social problems, social movements and social change from the viewpoint of the
Indian context. We will not only learn about diversities in Indian society but also learn to
understand and respect each cultural group in its own setting, with a view to promoting
national unity.
Information boxes, activities provided in the textbook and the material available in
the QR code should make the process of self-learning easier, interesting and it will also
encourage active participation. It is hoped that this Sociology reader will facilitate a
fairly comprehensive understanding of Indian society with its multiple layers and divergent
cultures. We hope, you will appreciate the dynamic nature of Indian society from a
refreshing and new perspective.

Pune (Vivek Gosavi)

Date : 21 February 2020 Director
Bharatiya Saur Dinank : 2 Falgun 1941 Maharashtra State Textbook Bureau

(E)
 - For the Teachers -
An Approach to Teaching Sociology

The course in Sociology introduces learners to Indian society. As Indian citizens, it is

important for us to have a comprehensive understanding of the society in which we live – its
various segments, its diversity and richness of culture, as well as social problems plaguing
our society and various social movements that have pressed for changes that are taking place
today. Such a study can be brought alive and made more interesting by using the instructional
strategies suggested below:

1. YouTube link-based discussion: The teacher must first view selected YouTube clippings,
share the link on the class WhatsApp group or screen the link in class/computer lab. Follow
up immediately with a discussion or written assignment.
2. Small-group Discussion: Divide your class into small groups. Give a common topic for
all groups for a 3-minute reflection followed by 10 minutes of group discussion. Each
group should have a group representative who will present the three most significant points
to the class. The teacher should prepare a blackboard summary of learning points.
3. Peer Learning: Learners can prepare PPTs or Charts on select topics of interest, which are
directly or indirectly related to the Units of the syllabi. They should then present it in the
classroom. The teacher can give relevant additional information.
4. Debates: Many topics lend themselves to discussion as there are often multiple points of
view. This may be organized as a formal debate in the classroom.
5. Cooperative Learning: Collaborative learning strategies can be utilized for effective,
creative and fun learning experiences. Example: Think-Pair-Share, Jigsaw, Inside-Outside
Circle, etc.
6. Activity Sheets/Exercises: After every Unit, learners can undertake to develop revision
exercises and share with the class. These can be discussed in class and can also be used as
part of the revision for the Board Exam.
7. Interviews: Small surveys (Sample size=5) can be undertaken on a specific topic and
report to be written on the findings of the study.
8. Field Visit: Small-group visits to an NGO, a village or tribal area, or a slum. Make a short
film on your phone or write a report on the visit. Learners must share the film/findings with
the class. The activity should be followed by a discussion.

At the end of each unit there are sample questions. It is not an exhaustive list. It is
hoped that the teachers and learners will both develop a question bank based on the pattern
prescribed by the H.S.C. Board. Teachers can encourage learners to apply their knowledge
and develop skills rather than focus on rote-learning and memorisation. For this purpose,
concept mapping, personal response questions and questions based on a passage have been
included even in Class XII.

Best wishes for making the study of Indian society an exciting and memorable experience!
 Competency Statements

No. UNIT COMPETENCY

1 Introduction to • Describes the development of Indian society
Indian society • Analyses factors that influence Indian society
• Critically compares the influence of each period on Indian
society
• Infers the impact of various forces on Indian society

2 Segments of Indian • Describes the characteristics of tribal, rural and urban segments
society of Indian society
• Compares the segments of Indian society
• Identifies and categorises the challenges of Indian society
• Considers solutions for problems of Indian society

3. Diversity and Unity • Illustrates diversity of Indian society

in Indian society • Defends unity amidst diversity in Indian society
• Critiques divisive factors in Indian society
• Formulates ways to promote inclusivity and unity in Indian
society

4. Processes of social • Describes the processes of social change in Indian society

change in India • Assesses the impact of each process on Indian society
• Compares the challenges posed by each process of social
change
• Proposes solutions to tackle problems that arise due to processes
of social change in Indian society

5. Social Movements • Explains the meaning and nature of social movement

in India • Describes various social movements in India
• Assesses the usefulness of social movements
• Evaluates the impact of social movements on Indian society

6. Social Problems in • Demonstrates an understanding of social problems in India

India • Explains causal factors of social problems in India
• Points out consequences of social problems on Indian society
• Formulates solutions for social problems

(G)
 Contents

Section I

Unit 1: Introduction to Indian Society............ 1

Unit 2: Segments of Indian Society .............. 23

Unit 3: Diversity and Unity

in Indian Society ............................... 43

Unit 4: Processes of Social Change

in India ............................................... 59

Unit 5: Social Movements in India ............... 68

Unit 6: Social Problems in India................... 82

Section II

Passages ............................................................ 101

(H)
 1. Introduction to Indian Society
edicts and inscriptions, court chronicles etc.
1.1 Ancient and Medieval India By artifacts, we mean, material components
1.2 Colonial Period of culture such as tools, utensils, jewellery,
art, sculpture, paintings, excavated discoveries,
1.3 Post-Independent India
tombs, coins, weapons etc. Then, there are
human and animal bones, fossils, geographical
INTRODUCTION locations which also provide clues about the
time period. Through modern techniques it is
As a student of Sociology, you will possible to estimate the age and other qualities
agree that the focus of Sociology is to of material remnants. Based on these findings,
understand the ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’ of many narratives and counter-narratives have
human social behaviour. Sociologists are shaped our understanding regarding the social
interested in understanding the factors, life in this period.
conditions, circumstances and forces that
have impacted human behaviour in the past It would be impossible to summarise the
and which still continue to exert influence in culture of a civilisation that is several
our lives. The numerous social relationships thousand years old, and yet there is much to
that we engage in influence how we behave. learn and draw from specific strands or
This refers to our thinking and acting, our themes that have characterised the people of
preferences, likes and dislikes, prejudices, this land over this time-frame.
beliefs, practices and rituals of daily life and For the purpose of convenience, this Unit
so much more. For example, if you are raised is divided into three sub-units, namely,
in a household that has a customary practice (i) Ancient and Medieval India,
of a morning bath before prayers are recited,
(ii) Colonial Period, and
then, you are very likely to conform to such
a practice, and the chances are that you may (iii) Post-Independent India.
propagate the same too. Again, for example, It is hoped, that you as a learner of
if you have been conditioned to believe in Sociology in the 21st century, will reflect on,
the superiority of a particular sex, here too, understand, appreciate, as well as critically
the probability of you endorsing and examine these strands of information about
transmitting such a view is high. Indian society. Naturally, to do this, one
Our civilisation goes back several can’t help but go back a few thousand years
thousand years when Sociology did not exist through a historical framework. By touching
as a discipline. You will recall that Sociology upon specific themes and significant
emerged in Europe in the mid-19th century landmarks, it should make you wonder about
CE. A question that you might then ask is, myriad ways of human living, societal-
“How do we know about the social life of environmental relations, practices, rituals,
the people in the ancient past?” Indeed, this injustices, blunders, migration and exodus, as
is a valid question. Our major sources of well as enabling factors etc. It is a mixed
information about the past comes from bag and there is plenty to draw from. Our
artifacts that have been discovered by knowledge of the past has shaped our present
archeologists and field historians. Additionally, and indeed has a bearing on what, why and
travelogues, memoirs, biographies, literature, how we think and behave. Such insights we

1 Sociology Std 12
hope, will excite you, as they could well give of time, possibly, some of the hymns came
you a sense of the plural roots of our to be associated with the veneration of deities
heritage, diverse past and the present, as well such as Indra, Agni, Surya, Yama etc.
as the near and distant future. Indigenous tribal communities would have

Harappan Vedic India Second

Classical Period Medieval Period
Civilisation 1500BCE- Urbanisation
200BCE-650CE 650CE-1500CE
2600BCE-1500BCE 500BCE 500BCE-200BCE

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL had their own systems of religious beliefs.

1.1 Tribal religions had no labels nor any written
INDIA
scriptures. Thus, most of what is known
The above time line is indicative of how about tribal belief systems is based on
scholars have divided the study of early references made in ancient religious texts,
Indian History into different periods. Note medieval records and colonial ethnographies.
that the years indicated in the above figure Anthropologists have classified tribal belief
are approximations. As a learner of history, systems by various terms like animism,
through your days in school, you may recall totemism etc. which you will read about in
that each of these periods have been touched the following Unit.
upon and discussed. So, what are we as
learners of Sociology hoping to understand,
through a reading of our social histories?
For the purpose of this Sociology course,
few strands (or themes) have been selected
to understand the Ancient and Medieval
Period. They include,
(i) religious beliefs and practices,
(ii) status of women in society,
(iii) nature of education, Harappa site
(iv) social life, and
Anthropology : As a discipline,
(v) urbanisation. Anthropology emerged during the Colonial
These themes have been briefly outlined period, with the purpose of studying non-
as follows: European, ‘exotic’ societies and cultures. It
is classified into two broad fields, namely,
(i) Religious beliefs and practices :
Physical Anthropology and Social/Cultural
Scholars suggest that the available discourses
Anthropology.
on religious practices are layered and
complex. As far back as the Harappan A critique of Anthropology as being
civilisation, figurines of male Gods, Mother part of a colonial project is found in the
Goddess and animal deities have been found. scholarly work ‘Orientalism’ by Edward
However, there is no evidence for the Said.
existence of temples nor idol worship. Natural
As regards the Hindu way of life, there
elements such as sun, rain, water, thunder
are many literary sources that shed light on
and so on were venerated. With the passage
beliefs and practices of the Vedic period –

2 Sociology Std 12
some are written and some are oral traditions, Against this background of Brahmin
such as Vedas, Upa Vedas, Vedangas, Brahmanas, supremacy there emerged the philosophies of
Aranykas, and Epics etc. The Vedic period is Vardhaman Mahavir and Gautama Buddha.
usually divided into - Early Vedic Period Though both initially belonged to the Hindu-
(c.1500 BCE to c.1000 BCE) and Later Vedic fold, they rebelled against excessive ritualism,
Period (c.1000 BCE to c.500 BCE). One of animal sacrifices and social-based hierarchies.
the reasons for this is there are significant Their teachings got established in the Indian
changes that take place, about which we shall ethos, as Jainism and Buddhism.
discuss as we go long. Jainism is believed to have a very ancient
For Hindus, the Puranas and origin. The religion is said to have been
Dharmashastras laid out a Code of Conduct revealed by 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers)
based on the Law of Karma (Action), which of which Vardhaman Mahavir was the last.
is also known as the law of cause and effect. Similar to the Hindu Doctrine of Karma, Jain
You may have heard the phrase, “As you teachings are also based on the Theory of
sow, so shall you reap.” Hindus believe in a Karma. However ahimsa (non-harming) and
cyclical world-view, that is, they believe that tapas (penance) are important and integral
the deeds in one life determine the next life. components of the Jain way of life. Vardhaman
The atman (soul) is trapped in the bondage Mahavir did not speak of God in his teachings,
of birth and rebirth, until it can attain moksha but he emphasised the state of nirvana. His
(salvation). The four aims of Hindu life teachings were in the language of the common
(Purusharthas) are: people, namely, Ardhamagadhi.
DHARMA ARTHA
Be aware!
l doing one’s duties by l refers to acquisition
Of the Sola Sati (i.e. 16 virtuous
following the path of of wealth through the
righeousness, without path of righteousness women) in Jainism, five are shared with
the expectation of a through hard work Hinduism, namely, Draupadi, Kausalya,
reward Sita, Kunti and Damayanti.

KAMA MOKSHA
If, the Hindu system of belief gave
l sensuous pleasure or l ultimate goal of importance to the performance of sacrifices
sexual union through salvation from the
the path of cycle of birth and
and Sanskritic rituals, Jainism advocated an
righteousness rebirth austere and strict lifestyle based on penance.
Buddha, with his teachings seems to
Scholars suggest that society in the Early
advocate the middle path based on the Four
Vedic period was less rigid with respect to
Noble Truths and the Eight-fold Path.
occupation-based divisions. Over a period of
time however, the rigidification of varnas Like Jainism, the teachings of Gautama
(discussed later) into a fixed, closed system Buddha did not make reference to the concept
of stratification emerged. This came to be of God. Also, the sacred literature (Tripitkas)
called jati (assigned by birth). The Jati system were written in the language of the common
was anchored in Brahminism that suggested people, namely, Pali. Buddha made
that hierarchy was subsequently based on the monasticism an inseparable part of his creed.
principle of “purity and pollution”. This The function of monasticism was to provide
meant strict endogamy, excessive ritualism suitable conditions for personal and societal
and the emergence of discrete boundaries of development.
inclusion and exclusion.

3 Sociology Std 12
 even beyond the boundaries of India because
Be aware! : As schools of Indian of the patronage of the Mauryan emperor,
philosophy, it is pertinent to note that Ashoka. As a missionary religion, Buddhism
both, Jainism and Buddhism are spread to foreign countries like Tibet, China,
described as non-theistic, unlike other Japan, Mongolia, Burma, Java, Sumatra and
Indian philosophical schools and sects Sri Lanka. Even today, India is considered a
which are theistic, with the exception of holy place and the source of their religion
Charvaka and Ajivika by these countries. Jain and Buddhist Sanghas
Charvaka and Ajivika are also (schools) for religious learning were
considered to be schools of Indian established people who chose the ascetic way
philosophy. While Charvaka is rooted in of life (as nuns and monks).
a non-theistic and materialistic Buddhism gave great importance to moral
philosophy, the Ajivika school of thought upliftment of human beings and directed
is rooted in fatalism and asceticism. people to lead moral lives. It insisted on
virtues like charity, self-sacrifice, control over
passions and non-injury in thought and action.
These virtues are also advocated in the
Do you know? Upanishads and also widely practiced through
the Buddhist way of life.
The Jataka Tales (300 BCE - 400 CE) Over a period of time Jainism and
These are a voluminous body of Buddhism also split into sects. The smaller
literature indigenous to India. They are following invariably were those who adhered
concerned with the previous births of more strictly to the teachings of the leaders.
Gautama Buddha in both, human and The larger sect were people whose practices
animal form. The future Buddha may of the teachings were made more practical
appear as a King, an outcaste, a God, an and doable. Jain sects include – Digambaras
elephant etc. Whatever form he takes, the (sky clad) and Shvetambaras (white clad)
Buddha exhibits some virtue and moral whereas Buddhist sects include – Hinayana
that the tale thereby inculcates. (Lesser Vehicle) and Mahayana (Greater
In these tales, there are numerous vehicle), Vajarayan which comes much later
characters who interact and get into trouble in the 8th century CE.
whereupon the Buddha intervenes and
resolves their problems. There is an Activity 1
inherent reference to naturism in these Find out about the Eight-Fold Path of
tales. Buddhism.

Following the nirvana of Mahavir and

Thus, Jainism and Buddhism are
Buddha, the spread of their teachings also
perceived as “protest religions”. Both these
diminished. For a period of about twelve
religious traditions opened their doors to all
hundred years there was no emergence of
sections of society. The right to salvation
newer and impactful religions. Historian R.
was no longer limited in a particular stratum
S. Sharma holds that there was a “period of
of society. Understandably, Buddhism with
flux leading to a continuous process of
its less rigid rules and regulations in
fragmentation and decentralization” during
comparison to Jainism was embraced by
this period.
many; Buddhism thus spread far and wide

4 Sociology Std 12
 We will now pick up the strand of which it is stated that the supreme creator
religious practices and beliefs that were is Ahura Mazda, from whom Asha
significant during the Medieval Period (c. (cosmic order) originates. Fire and clean
650 CE – c. 1500 CE), which saw several water are agents of ritual purity. Fire
religions come to India from outside. These temples are their place of worship. The
include Judaism, Christianity, Islam and much Holy Flame was brought by priests from
later Zoroastrianism. Persia to Navsari in Gujarat (c. 9th
The Sangham Period (6th century BCE century CE).
to 3 century CE) is the period of history of
rd
While maintaining their strong sense
ancient peninsular India (which approximates of identity and culture, despite their
the present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala diminishing numerical strength, Parsis
States). It is named after the famous Sangham have contributed in all walks of life.
academies of poets and scholars centered in Personalities like Dadabhai Naoroji,
the city of Madurai. Religion played a milder Pherozeshah Mehta, Field Marshall Sam
role during the Sangham Age. Both ritualistic Maneckshaw, Zubin Mehta are some of
and supplicatory aspects of religion were the significant Parsis. Tata, Godrej and
practiced by the Sangham people. Rituals Wadia are important names in the
were related to animism and other forms of building of modern industry in India. Dr.
deity worship. Tree, stone, water, animals, Homi Bhabha was instrumental in
stars and planets were worshipped. The Tamils making India a nuclear power. The
of the Sangham Age were aware of certain works of top lawyers from the Parsi
spiritual and philosophical truths. They community like Nani Palkiwala, Soli
believed that life is distinct from body. While Sorabji and Fali Nariman continue to
life can function independently of the body, enlighten civil society.
the latter cannot, when divorced from life.
Their entire philosophy of ancestral worship,
reincarnation etc., was related to death and People of Jewish faith are believed to be
the afterlife. one of the early foreign religions to come to
India. They came for the Hebrew King
The roots of Zoroastrianism is found in
Solomon’s merchants for the purpose of
the Middle East region. Persecution of the
trade. Conversions of people in Kochi to
people of this faith brought them to the
Judaism led to the identity of Kochi Jews.
Western coast of India, near present-day
Till today, the Jewish Synagogue is found in
Gujarat, into which they culturally assimilated.
Fort Kochi.
Zoroastrianism is the only outside religious
community that still practices endogamy; it
did not permit proselytisation i.e. conversions
into their faith. Also, entry into their Fire
temples is restricted to members of the
community.

Zoroastrianism : It is one of the

world’s oldest and continuously practiced
religion. It is centered on a dualistic
cosmology of good and evil (Heaven and
Hell). Their sacred scripture is Avesta in
Jewish Synagogue, Kochi

5 Sociology Std 12
 The number of Jews have dwindled. In Earth determines if they will go to Heaven.
Mumbai too, there is a small community of The essential foundation of the Christian
Bene Israel Jews and it is believed that some faith is the principle of love and all Christians
tribes in Mizoram too have Jewish identity. believe in the Death and Resurrection of
Jewish people follow the Torah (which includes Jesus Christ, their Saviour. The impact of
the Books of the Old Testament of the Bible). Christianity is especially notable during the
Judaism is a monotheistic religion. They believe Colonial period.
that the Messiah (Saviour) is yet to come. The
Holy Sabbath is a sacred observance of Jews.
You will recall that the Jewish people were the
most persecuted community in human history.

You should know!

The Holocaust : Since 1945, the word
‘holocaust’ has taken on a new and
gruesome meaning. It was used to refer to
the genocide (i.e. mass murder) of around
6 million European Jews, other communities
and groups including gypsies, homosexuals, Cross founded by St. Thomas Syro-Malabar
socialists, communists among some others. Church at Palayoor
This was carried out by the German Nazi Even though Islam first came to India
Regime in the Second World War. The total
in the 8th century CE, the impact and
death toll was estimated to be around 11
influence of the religion is seen only much
million.
later. Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam
Find out more about the Concentration also preaches monotheism and the faith
Camps that were spread across Europe
centres on the Holy Quran. Muslims believe
during World War II.
in the Five Pillars of Faith. It guides their
From 1948-1951, 1,36,000 Jewish beliefs and behaviour.
displaced persons immigrated to Israel.
Others re-settled in United States and other
nations outside Europe.

For centuries, they did not have a land

of their own, but lived on many continents.
It is only in the 20th century that they have
come to identify with a territory of their own,
Israel, after years of political struggle.
It is in the 1st century CE that Saint During the Medieval period, Islamic
Thomas, an Apostle of Jesus Christ, brought teachings spread far and wide. Several rulers
Christianity to the shores of Malabar in made special efforts to propagate the faith. The
South India. Followers of Christ came to be Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic Empire that
called Christians. The local people who ruled a large part of India for almost 320 years
converted to Christianity then, are called the (1206 CE - 1526 CE) over Five Dynasties.
Syrian Christians. Christianity is a Mamluk
monotheistic faith and like Judaism, it holds Dynasty Khilji Tughlaq Sayyid Lodi
Dynasty Dynasty Dynasty Dynasty
a linear view of life, that means, people or Slave
Dynasty
believe that they have one life; their life on

6 Sociology Std 12
 During the rule of Akbar, he started a render courtesy, care and hospitality to all
religion based on ethical rationalism, called visitors.
Din-i-Ilahi. It was a synthesis of all religions
and was based on Akbar’s philosophy of
universal toleration. It was a system without
a priesthood, no rituals, beliefs nor books. It
was inspired by the teachings contained in
different sacred texts.
Social interaction of local people with
Christians, Muslims and Jews led to
conversions. Missionaries were especially
known for their educational and social service
to all people, irrespective of one’s identity
– sex, caste, creed, community etc.
Langar
Sikhism emerged in the late 15th century
CE and was founded by Guru Nanak (1469 The Bhakti movement emerged with the
CE - 1539 CE). Like Hinduism, Jainism and need to bring religious reform in Hinduism
Buddhism, Sikhism too preached the Karma during the medieval period. It rejected the
theory. Sikhism flourished in Punjab (North caste system. It criticised excessive ritualism
India) and was largely contained there. It and advocated simplicity in worship. It
rejected caste-based social hierarchy. It professed that all human beings were equal
supported equality of all persons for religious in the eyes of God. The focus was on
worship and other fields of life. The teachings devotional singing and repetition of his name
of the ten Gurus constitute the faith of Sikhs (namasmaran). Sufism also preached the unity
and their sacred literature is the ‘Guru Granth of humanity and believed in the equality of
Sahib’. all human beings in the eyes of God. Some
important exponents of this are Kabir, Rahim
and Guru Nanak. Kabir and Rahim denounced
external observances of religion such as
rituals, superstitious practices, idolatry and
pilgrimages. Guru Nanak decried the caste
system, ritualism and idol worship.

Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra :

This movement began in the 13th century
CE with Dnyaneshwar. The centre of this
movement is located at the temple of
5 K’s of Sikhism (Panj Kakkar)
Vithoba at Pandarpur. Namdev was his
Langar is the Punjabi term for community contemporary
kitchen which was institutionalised by the (1270-1350) who
founding Guru during the 16th century CE. It criticised fasts,
is a unique symbol of charity and equality, pilgrimages and
designed to provide a free vegetarian meal to all other external
all people irrespective of caste, creed, age, forms of religious
gender or social status. All Sikh gurdwaras practice.
operate langars where volunteers (sevadars)

7 Sociology Std 12
 (ii) Status of women in Indian society so, child marriage. Marriage now became the
: Religious scriptures as well as historical only sacrament (samskar) permissible for women.
studies indicate that Indian women enjoyed a You will observe that even though
comparatively high status during the early women had a relatively better status in the
Vedic period. This is not to be understood as Early Vedic period, when compared to the
if women enjoyed an equal status with men. Later Vedic period, as regards social and
Patriarchal value systems were in operation legal aspects, they did not have equal rights
then and they still continue to this day. with their male counterparts. They did not
Women during the Early Vedic period possess the right to property. The Later Vedic
had access to Vedic education; they were period witnessed a decline in the status of
entitled to the upanayana (thread) ceremony women in society. Women were now restricted
which enabled them entry into the Gurukul to household duties and were barred from
system of education. The Rig Veda renders attending social assemblies. They were
the highest status to qualified women. reduced to a subordinate status in the
Educated women were divided into two household. The family system continued to be
categories: Sadyavadhu – those who pursued patriarchal and descent was patrilineal. Hence
their education just until they were married women were more rigidly subjected to the
and Brahmavadinis – those who never married three obediences, viz. father (before marriage),
and continued studying and imparting husband (after marriage) and son (after the
education throughout their lives. Vedas and husband’s death). The birth of a daughter
Vedangas were taught to women too, but later began to be looked down upon and there is
became limited to religious songs and poems evidence to suggest the beginning of the
necessary for rituals. Some notable Vedic and practice of dowry. The Gautam-Dharma Sutra
Upanishadic women scholars were Apala, advocated that girls should be married off
Indrani, Ghosha, Lopamudra, Gargi and before attaining puberty so as to ensure purity
Maitreyi. and chastity.
Women were considered as useful and
Activity 2
productive members of society. They could
participate in social assemblies (vidath). They Discuss whether there are similarities
were also permitted to choose their life between the status of women in the Later
partners for marriage. Marriage was considered Vedic period and modern Indian women.
a sacrament and was irrevocable, though not To what extent are there changes? Do
compulsory. The main form of marriage was some beliefs and practices still continue in
monogamy. There is mention of Anuloma and 21st century India?
Pratiloma marriage in the Upanishads.
In the Later Vedic period, the caste Jainism, being a religion of religious
system and Brahminic supremacy became equality, is devoted to recognising the rights
entrenched. Caste groups became rigid with of all living creatures. Thus, it accepts that
the passage of time. The varna system now women are able to play a role on the path
turned into an oppressive Jati (caste) system. to liberation. The views of the two sects’ viz.
In all this, women became doubly oppressed. Digambara and Shvetambara differ on this
Since education for girls was stopped, so was issue. The Shvetambara sect acknowledges
the sacrament of upanayana (thread ceremony) that many distinguished women played
which initiated them into the Gurukul. It was important roles. The ‘Sola Sati’ (16 virtuous
replaced with marriage (‘vivaha’) and more women) highlight exemplary religious qualities

8 Sociology Std 12
which are emulated as role models by Jain text, Buddha states his positive view that the
women. However, in the monasteries for birth of a daughter should not be a matter
women, there are codes of conduct for nuns for worry nor despair.
that are far more difficult than those laid out The Buddha has emphasised the fruitful
for monks. At the same time, Mothers of role that women can play in society. In family
Tirthankaras have been revered and worshipped affairs, the wife was expected to be a
for fulfillment of desires like progeny, wealth substitute for the husband if he was indisposed.
and health. Several Jain nuns have played a In fact, she was expected to acquaint herself
very active part in the abolition of sati with his business or trade, so she would want
practice, abolition of daasi system of slavery to be in a position to manage his affairs in
of women and in the prohibition of animal his absence. Buddha recognised the talents of
sacrifices. Several Jain nuns and exemplary women and gave them their responsibilities
women are highly respected and praised in in the Bhikkuni Sangha. Renowned Bhikkunis
the literary and oral tradition. were Dhammadinna, Khema and Uppalavanna.
Digambara Jains believe that the principle The status of women deteriorated even
of nudity is an essential element in the path further in Medieval India. Invasions from the
to liberation. Vardhaman Mahavir himself had Central Asian region along with zealous
advocated this. Brahmanical iron laws were the main cause
Gautama Buddha permitted women to for this degradation. Freedom of women was
join his monastic community and to fully curtailed, knowledge of the scriptures and
participate in it. The various schools and literacy was denied to them and her status
traditions in Buddhism hold differing views was reduced to being dependent on men
regarding the possibilities of women’s spiritual throughout her lifetime. Only women from
achievements. Buddhist doctrines do not upper castes and aristocracy were given
differentiate between women and men since education in private.
everyone, regardless of gender, status or age, Widow remarriage which was permitted
is subject to old age, illness and mortality; thus, in the Vedic period, came to be considered
suffering and impermanence applies to all. taboo. Women continued to be excluded from
family inheritances. Practices of child
marriage, sati, purdah system and Devadasi
system made women the objects of
exploitation. The patriarchal joint family, the
customs of polygamy and early marriage – all
contributed to smothering the free development
and growth of women.
(iii) Nature of Education : In the
Harappan civilisation, inscriptions on seals
indicate that the Harappan people were
literate. There are inscriptions on household
Buddhist Bhikkhunies
objects which point out that common people
Though early Buddhist texts state that were literate.
women can gain enlightenment, it is clearly During the Early Vedic period the content
stated in the Vinaya Pitaka that there could of education was based on sacred literature
never be a female Buddha. But women were which were written in Sanskrit – which was
ordained as Bhikkhu into the Sangha. In this not the language of the masses. The language

9 Sociology Std 12
of teaching was also Sanskrit. The Yajur Veda now preached by the Upanishads, though it
commands education for all classes, women was also known to the Rig Veda. It is to be
notwithstanding. The Atharva Veda states that noted that by the time of the Upanishads (c.
“all classes have an equal right to study the 6th century BCE), the spread of asceticism
Veda”. To enter Vedic Schools, it was a was largely through the teachings of ascetics
prerequisite for students of the first three themselves and new teachings spread through
Varnas to perform the Upanayana (thread) debates and discussions. In eastern parts of
ceremony and they had to observe India there was the rise of free speculation
Brahmacharya for as long as they lived at the and the emergence of humanitarian and
school to study the Vedas. There was an oral theistic movements, which in turn led to new
tradition of imparting knowledge, which was centres of spiritual leadership – the ascetics
through rote-learning. Enunciation and and wanderers (Sramanas or Parivrayakas).
pronunciation was an integral part of the oral They now rejected the authority of the Vedas
tradition of learning. The aim of education and of Vedic priests, though they continued
was to sharpen the intellect as well as for to believe the doctrine of transmigration and
character formation. Most scholars hold the the law of deeds. They frowned upon blood
view that the art of writing was unknown sacrifices which became a part of Brahminic
during this period. Value was attached to ritual. Utmost importance was given to the
being truthful, carrying out one’s duties practice of ahimsa or non-injury of living
(dharma), devotion to the guru and to one’s beings. As you would have inferred, we are
parents, hospitality, faith and generosity. The referring now to the wandering teachers –
Kshatriyas learnt the art of warfare and Vardhamana Mahavir and Gautama Buddha.
administration. Vaishyas studied trade and After Mahavir became a Kevalin
commerce and Shudras learnt agriculture and (omniscient), a Jina (conquerer) and Mahavir
animal husbandry. The Brahmanas probably (great hero), he now became part of the sect
stayed in the school until they attained called Nirgranthas, which came to be referred
mastery of the four Vedas. There were various to as Jainas (following of Jina). Mahavir was
centres of learning. In this ‘Age of the four a religious teacher for three decades. There
Vedas’, knowledge was created, preserved were differences in the preachings of Mahavira
and transmitted to the subsequent generations and Buddha. Buddha borrowed and adapted
through Rishis, sages, seers. They were known from the popular beliefs of the region. Buddha
as Brahmanas – the possessors of Brahman chaityas were considered to be the abodes of
(supreme knowledge). earth-spirits and genii who, for the simple
It is observed that during the Later Vedic folk of the time, were far more accessible
period, women were denied access to and less expensive to worship. Unorthodox
upanayana ceremony, which then denied them holy men set up homes around the chaityas
access to learning. There was emphasis on and in doing so, they could obtain alms from
the institution of sacrifice and this led to the worshippers of the chaityas. The Buddha
growth of large amounts of literature related respected these local shrines and encouraged
to sacrifice. The first millennium CE saw the his lay followers to do the same. The Buddhist
rise of States and increasing instability system of education was conducted through
resulting from territorial expansion. There Buddhist monasteries (viharas). The centre of
was disintegration of tribal units and chieftains the Buddhist system of learning revolved
were overthrown. In this situation of seeming around the Order (Sangh) of monks (bhikkus);
hopelessness emerges asceticism as a means later Buddha permitted the entry of women
for salvation from worldly life, which was as nuns (bhikkunis). Admission into the Order

10 Sociology Std 12
of monks (bhikkus); later Buddha permitted read and write, it would have been impossible
the entry of women as nuns (bhikkunis). to study the Quran, the Hadith and other
Admission into the Order meant loss of one’s sciences. The Prophet Mohammed exhorts all
caste and identity, into an organisation people of faith to acquire knowledge.
characterised by equality and fraternity. However, unlike the previous systems of
Religious instruction was imparted in the learning, there was no requirement for the
viharas. rigour associated with Vedic schools nor
Like the Brahmanical system of renunciation of the world. The Islamic system
education, there was a special relationship of education is open to all followers of the
between the learner and teacher; the student faith irrespective of one’s status.
had to live with the teacher (Upajjhaya or Education was imparted in three ways :
Acharya) and serve him. There was clear (i) Maktab (for elementary education),
segregation of monks and nuns within the
(ii) Madrasa (for higher learning and
Order. In the Order of Nuns, some became
generally attached to a mosque), and
eminent teachers or Theris. Among the Order
of Nuns, avenues for education and social (iii) Khanqah (theological training).
service emerged. The Buddha’s teachings Maktabs had an age of admission
form the basis of what we may call humanism around four years, which was marked by a
today. You may recall studying about the rite of entry. Early training focused on the
famous and renowned ancient universities of R’s of learning - reading, recitation, writing
Nalanda and Takshashila. Both these and arithmetic. Several hours were spent on
universities no longer exist. However, the developing the art of writing. The study of
tradition of residing and studying at the Quran would start from around age
monasteries continues to this day. The history seven.
of the Buddhist system of education is
Madrasas included comprehensive study
practically the history of the Buddhist Viharas
of the Quran and its commentary by established
or Order or Sangha. Just as Vedic culture
theologians alongside practical subjects like
centered on sacrifices, Buddhist education
agriculture, accountancy, astrology, astronomy,
and learning revolved around monasteries.
history, geography, mathematics, Islamic law
Mention of this is found in the travellogues
and jurisprudence and statecraft (i.e. the art
of Hiuen Tsang.
of administration) and languages such as
Education in the Sangham period was a Arabic and Persian (which were languages
widespread social activity. It was a secular also taught elsewhere in the contemporary
factor and not the priviledge of any one Islamic world). Noted scholar Abul Fazl
community. Works on grammar, poetry, informs us that Akbar enabled the study of
mathematics, astronomy and fine arts (music, Sanskrit and Upanishads for Hindu students
dance, drama, painting, sculpture) and who wished to learn at the Madrasa. We can
architecture were the specialisations. infer that the education was based upon the
The decline of Buddhist Viharas is political, social and economic needs of the
significant as it marked the decline of an community at large. Students had the freedom
organised system of education. It also marked to choose subjects according to one’s interests
the beginning of the middle ages, with the and their aims in life. Post-madrasa training
advent of Islam in India. could be followed up by engaging the services
of a learned teacher (for example, Abdul
Education during the medieval period is
Qadir Badaoni, Abul Fazl, Faizi). Madrasas
centered on the Quran. Without the ability to
provided facilities for residence for both,

11 Sociology Std 12
 Khanqahs can be likened to monasteries and Persian. Education, however, was made
of Medieval Europe and they were often available to only a small section of people
linked to the tombs of celebrated, much loved e.g. the elite and the ulema, the Brahmins,
and respected saints. These came to be and a few upper caste groups. The education
regarded as Dargahs. of girls was perceived as being a personal
matter to be decided by their fathers or
guardians. Women from the Muslim nobility
were permitted to receive education in their
homes at the hands of teachers who were
presented with expensive gifts. Since, only a
relatively small number of people belonged
to the upper strata of society, it is reasonable
to assume that the education of girls and
women during the Medieval period was
bleak.
(iv) Social life : Harappan civilisation
was known for its well-planned towns,
Indo-Islamic Art covered drainage system, its granary which
was used for storing and trading surplus
Activity 3 grain. The Great Bath is one indicator of the
Find out more about the impact of collective life of the people. Excavations
Muslim rule on the following : indicate the existence of people who were
• Painting • Architecture • Music probably horizontally divided on the basis of
skills, without a rigid hierarchical structure.
Present your findings in class.
Thus, there were peasants, artisans, traders,
fishermen, priests, administrators, artists,
Art : It is interesting to note that various weavers etc.
arts and crafts such as music, painting,
Sangham literature makes reference to
medicine, astronomy, geography, geometry
tribes and traditional castes. This is indicative
and literature had contributed towards the
of their coexistence. Though the Brahmins
Golden Age of the Guptas. Many of these
constituted a numerical minority, they played
skills got imparted through apprenticeship.
an important role in the development of
The arts were especially boosted by the
Tamilian culture. Sangham priests though not
generosity of donors. In the course of time,
dominating were in the process of assuming
the arts themselves came to be influenced by
advisory and supervisory powers. The Bards
the tastes, ideas and interests of the patrons,
(nomadic ballad singers) were a special class.
namely, Muslim rulers in Medieval India.
Vedars (hunter and highway robbers) were
During the Medieval Period education much feared. The Marrakudi was a separate
suffered a setback due to changed political warrior section who had their own traditions
circumstances. Muslim rulers at the imperial and beliefs. Then, there were fishermen, salt
capitals at Delhi and Agra did not do manufacturers, weavers, agriculturalists,
anything remarkable for the promotion of shepherds and cowherds who were also
education of women. Educational work was important.
carried out in the villages and towns by
The Varna System during Vedic period
private individuals and institutions. The
referred to the social order or class of people.
mediums of instruction were Sanskrit, Arabic

12 Sociology Std 12
important. Mela Festival of the Sadhus. Sadhus are
The Varna System during Vedic period people who choose the path of asceticism.
referred to the social order or class of people. The Classical Period (i.e. the period of
There was flexibility and fluidity with respect the Gupta Dynasty) believed to be the
to occupation. It was only towards the end ‘Golden Age’, is when Indian society grew
of the Vedic period that Varna turned into a and thrived, setting the foundations in arts,
rigid jati (caste) hierarchy based on the science, politics, religion, philosophy and
ideology of ‘purity and pollution’. Notions of economics that define Indian culture to this
purity and pollution continue to be followed day. This period consists of the time when
in everyday practices such as food and water India was governed by the powerful Gupta
intake, dressing, occupation, worship, social Empire. When Chandragupta I ascended the
interactions, travel etc. throne, he built a mighty army and began
consolidating all the warring cities under his
BRAHMIN - priests, rule. The Gupta Empire then grew to control
teachers, intellectuals much of the Indian subcontinent. It became
a global trade centre and an epicentre of
KSHATRIYA - rulers and
artistic and intellectual achievement. This
warriors
was the time when Aryabhatta wrote on
VAISHYA - merchants geometry, trigonometry and cosmology and
traders, farmers calculated the length of the year at 365.358
days. He also predicted that the earth was a
SHUDRA - Menial work sphere. Varahamihira wrote on astronomy
and astrology. Dhanvantri wrote on medicine.
The first three varnas began to call Education and literacy were priorities of the
themselves the upper varnas. They became Gupta civilisation. Everybody including the
the ‘twice-born’ (dvija) because they were non-nobility had an equal opportunity for
entitled to the initiation ceremony (upanayana). education.

Ashramvyavastha was prescribed for Eventually, however, the empire grew so

the so-called twice-born castes. This referred large that it became unwieldy and difficult
to the four stages in the life of a Hindu. to manage. The smaller kingdoms broke
They were, away. This allowed the Huns of Central Asia
to invade and defeat the Gupta dynasty
Brahmacharyashram
Grihasthashram Vanaprasthashram
Sanyasashram
around 550 CE and finally the classical
(Studenthood, single (hermithood and
status and celibacy)
(Householder)
retirement)
(renunciation)
period declined by 650 CE.
Many texts (Nitishastras and
Hindu teachings showed its followers, Dharmashastras) were written during period
four paths to realise God and attain Moksha. of ‘second urbanisation’, (see page 15) which
Each path is called a Marg. They were Jnana elaborated on socio-political laws. The
Marg (Path of Knowledge), Bhatki Marg punishments, however, varied according to
(Path of Devotion), Raja Marg (Path of the jati of the accused. Caste hierarchy
Meditation), Karma (Path of Action). Even deepened and the Shudras were assigned the
in present times, Hindus through their daily status of mere service providers, namely,
life tend to follow one or more paths prescribed, artisans, agricultural labourers and slaves to
but with more flexibility. You may have read the ‘dvija castes’. Kinship ties continued to
about or seen YouTube videos of the Kumbh be strong, but patriarchal control of the

13 Sociology Std 12
 and their relatives, Hindu and Muslim
You should know!
Chieftains), priests (Ulemas and Brahmin),
towns people (urban wealthy merchants,
Great and Little Traditions traders and artisans), and peasants (rural
This is a conception of civilisations agriculturalists who paid taxes to the State).
drawn up by two social anthropologists During this period also, a rigid caste system
- Milton Singer and Robert Redfield who was followed.
have conducted field work in North India.
Scholars suggest that it was due to the
Civilisations were conceived by them systematic efforts of Emperor Akbar that gave
in cultural terms as co-existing and India a strong and stable political
interdependent systems. They were called: administration. There were rulers who
(i) Great Traditions : an overarching extended their empires far and wide; some
dominant ideology that includes were benevolent rulers and others were
idea systems like science, tyrants. There were some peaceful empires
philosophy, fine arts, and critical and others filled with fear and bloodshed. The
and reflexive ideas that more or Medieval Period is often stated to be the
less cover a large territory. (e.g. darkest period in the history of India, which
Hindustani and Carnatic Music) is also true of Europe. However, as sociologists,
(ii) Little Traditions : which include it is necessary for us to understand that,
folk art, folklore and the religious through this, there emerged several changes
traditions of the local people. (e.g. that transformed Indian society also.
Lavani, Lezim, Powada (ballad) Performing arts, architecture and sculpture
of Maharashtra, Kalaripayattu of flourished alongside internal and foreign trade,
Kerala.) and commerce. The establishment of Din-I-
Ilahi by Akbar was a new religion based on
ethical rationalism.
The Medieval Period of India is one of Towards the 19th century CE there
numerous conquests. Early Muslim invaders emerged a widening gap between liberals and
came to India to take advantage of India’s orthodox groups from various faiths. This
material resources. During the Delhi Sultanate, polarisation is hardly surprising as it seems
society experienced a synthesis of Indian and to be a recurring pattern among all religious
Islamic culture. Thus, Indo-Islamic groups even in 21st century India.
architecture, use of mechanical technology (v) Urbanisation : Contrary to the
and use of Hindi-Urdu language (Hindustani) popularly held view that urbanisation is the
was seen. Amir Khusro, who lived in the 13th result of industrial development, it is
century used a form of Hindustani, which he interesting to note that archeological evidence
called Hindavi, which was the language of from the Harappan civilisation suggest that
the period. At the same time, the Delhi Harappa was indeed a well-planned town
Sultanate was also responsible for large scale with a ‘way of life’ that can be referred to
destruction and desecration of temples – as ‘first urbanisation’. Archeological evidence
Hindu, Jain and Buddhist, in the Indian sub- suggests that the city life of the people of
continent. Harappa was well-developed. Some houses
The Delhi Sultanate was a feudal had wells and bathrooms. The city had a
hierarchy that was broadly divided into four covered drainage system and a well-developed
major groups – aristocrats or nobles (Sultans drainage system underground. The social

14 Sociology Std 12
conditions were well-advanced like other circumstances that influenced people’s thinking
contemporary civilisations of Mesopotamia and behaviour. As a learner in modern India,
and Egypt. There are recorded references to critically look at beliefs, practices, traditions,
trade and commerce of the Harappan customs, patterns of behaviour that continue
civilisation in Sumerian documents. to be followed even today. Surely, this is the
Towards the end of the Later Vedic result of socialisation and cultural transmission
period, after the pastoral and nomadic Indo- from one generation to the next. It is
Aryans spread from Punjab to the Gangetic important for us in the present times to ask
Plain; they deforested large areas of land to questions about why practices or customs or
pave way for agriculture. The period c.500 beliefs continue. There is certainly no
BCE to c.200 BCE is considered the period homogeneity that characterises the whole of
of ‘second urbanisation’ which brought a a complex and composite culture. There are
large-scale beginning of town life in the inherent contradictions and conflicting ideas.
middle Gangetic basin. Magadha had gained This is the beauty of plurality and complexities
prominence and formed the base of the of social life. There is no one way to
Mauryan Empire. This was a distinct cultural understand this social reality, frightening as
area, with new States arising after 500 BCE. that may sound. A world-view that
comprehends historical disruptions and
The small Indo-Aryan chieftaincies called
complexities in multi-layered realities can be
Janapadas were consolidated into larger states
called the “sociological imagination”.
called Mahajanpadas. Sixteen monarchies and
“republics” known as Mahajanpadas, stretched Check your progress
across the Indo-Gangetic Plain from modern 1. What was the nature of education
day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharashtra. during the Early Vedic period?
This period saw the second major rise of 2. State two indicators of the declining
urbanism in India after the Harappan status of women during the Later
civilisation. Evidence for it comes through Vedic period.
archaeological excavations, especially those of
3. Mention any two characteristics of
the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)
the Indian society in Medieval
culture. Jain, Buddhist and Sutra literature are
period.
among the important sources of information
about cities and socio-political life of this 1.2 COLONIAL PERIOD
period.
The colonial period in India is generally
The beginning of coinage (metallic coins)
referred to as the age of European conquest
started in this period. These cities became the
in this region. The Portuguese entered India
centres of administration as well as of trade
for trade in the 16th century CE.
and commerce. This led to the emergence of
city-based artisan and merchant guilds. A By the early 17th century CE, the Dutch
network of routes for internal and distant and British also landed on our shore. The
trade developed in both eastern and western French too came to India but their presence
regions. The position of ‘king’ gained much is felt especially in Puducherry (Pondicherry)
strength and respect. The king was assisted in South India.
by ministers and officials, who often came The British continued to rule India till
from the Brahmin and Kshatriya caste. the 20th century. The spread of Christianity in
The above themes will give you some the Anglican tradition (Church of England)
idea of specific factors and forces, or during the British presence in India is evident.

15 Sociology Std 12
in South India. fading out of cultural elements), (ii) additive
The British continued to rule India till changes (i.e. new cultural additions), (iii)
the 20th century. The spread of Christianity supportive changes (i.e. changes that support
in the Anglican tradition (Church of England) existing cultural traits) and (iv) synthetic
during the British presence in India is evident. changes (i.e. the synthesis of old and new
culture).
One cannot deny the fact that several
systems were set in place under British rule (3) Administration : The British set in
in India. Some of the social reforms were place new systems of administration. They
also possible because of British policies. started the system of Services like the
Economic Service, Education Service, Revenue
Let us look at some consequences of
Service and Administrative Service. It was
colonialism in India.
the English-educated Indians who entered the
(1) Education : The British set up a administrative services to assist the British
system of education which had far reaching rulers in governing the land and its people.
impact on Indian society. The medium of A new judiciary system was created, which
instruction in the high school now became took into consideration the earlier legal
English. It became the common language of traditions of the Indian communities. However,
communication among the learned people. its implementation was carried out on a
Schools and colleges were open to all secular basis; each individual judged on an
individuals, irrespective of caste, creed, equal basis, irrespective of one’s caste and
gender etc. In 1857, the Universities of creed. The authority of feudal lords and
Calcutta (Kolkata), Bombay (Mumbai) and zamindars was abolished; effecting gradual
Madras (Chennai) were established. The permeation of democratic values into the
content of education was not religion-oriented. Indian psyche and society. The Indian
It was secular – which included subjects like Councils Act, The Indian High Court Act
Mathematics, Science, Philosophy, Sociology, and The Indian Civil Service Act of 1861
History etc. This led to the rise of a new - all led to major changes in the Executive,
class of intelligentsia, who were of Indian Legislative and Judicial administration of
origin but trained in “Western” values, India.
customs and practices. Some of them played
a significant role in the reform movements.
New values like rationality, equality, social
justice, secular approach and individualism
gained firmer ground.
(2) Culture : Many of the educated
elite took to the lifestyle of the British with
respect to food habits, dressing, customs,
mannerisms, attitudes, beliefs, language,
sports and entertainment etc. Eminent Indian
sociologist, M. N. Srinivas referred to this Bombay High Court
process of imitation of the British, as (4) Economy : The economic system
‘westernization’. The impact of Western got transformed by industrial growth and its
culture has been classified into four types by twin process of urbanisation. Caste-based
Alatas. They are (i) eliminative changes (i.e. skills and occupations and social relationships
were gradually changing due to the impact

16 Sociology Std 12
of a changing economy and the rise of many social and religious reform movements.
factories. The emergence of economic and (See box below)
educated classes were on the rise. Traditional
barriers were gradually dropped. New Movements of Founder
Revenue systems were started by the British Social Reforms
in different parts of India which affected the Brahmo Samaj Raja Rammohan Roy
peasants adversely. There was Arya Samaj Swami Dayanand
commercialisation of agriculture also. Saraswati
Subsistence economy was replaced by a Prarthana Samaj Aatmaram Pandurang
market system that thrived on profiteering. Tarkhadkar
The spurt in growth of cash crops had an Satya Shodhak Mahatma Jotiba Phule
Samaj
inverse effect on growth of food crops. The
Harijan Sevak Mahatma Gandhi
famines in Bengal and Odisha (Orissa) in Sangh
1856 bear testimony to this.
Seva Sadan Behramji Malbari
(5) Transport and Communication : (Mumbai)
Systems of railways and roadways, and Post Dharma Sabha Radhakant Deb
and Telegraph offices were set up through Wahabi Syed Waliullah
the length and breadth of the country. These Movement
were ways in which it became possible to Self-Respect Erode V. Ramasamy
reach people in all parts of the country and Movement (Periyar)
access resources. In 1869, the Suez Canal
was opened to promote trade interests. Earlier,
the Indian raw materials could not easily be All these groups struggled to bring
transported to England. Development of about changes at the local level in which
transportation and communication led to an they operated. They worked towards reforming
increase in market outlets for Indian raw obsolete, repressive and regressive religious
materials. practices. Many groups worked to promote
education among the ‘weaker’ sections –
(6) Nationalist Movement : Use of especially women and so-called lower castes.
English as a common language of Organisations like the Arya Samaj aimed
communication among the educated elite at restoring Vedic traditions and integrating
played a significant role in networking, Vedic knowledge with the modern curriculum.
promoting nationalism and thereafter the
nationalist movement received momentum. (8) Social Legislation : It refers to laws
The awakening among the Indian masses passed to promote social justice, social
against alien rule resulted in the call for welfare, desirable social change, as well as
expulsion of British from India and to fight protection of vulnerable and weaker sections
for independence. The 19th century saw the of Indian society. The increase in the number
emergence of the Indian National Congress of reformative groups could enable Indians
and Mahatma Gandhi as the key figure in to exert pressure upon the British government,
the call for independence. for passing laws against prevalent social
evils. It may be noted that laws by themselves
(7) Social Reform Movements : It was cannot transform society, but they provided
the educated Indians, often from the upper hope to those who were victims of injustice,
social strata, who spearheaded the agenda oppression, exploitation and abuse. Some
for change at the micro-socio levels. The significant legislations include the following.
19th century is witness to the emergence of (See box on page 18)

17 Sociology Std 12
 (1) Constitution of India : The
Year Name of the Act Constitution of India was framed by the
Constituent Assembly, which was founded on
1829 The Prevention of Sati Act 6th December 1946. The head of the Drafting
Committee of the Constitution was Dr. B. R.
1843 The Indian Slavery Act
Ambedkar. It is a document based on the
1850 The Caste Disabilities Removal strengths of several Constitutions and it
Act recognises the diversity of Indian society. It
1856 The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act cherishes the goals of liberty, equality and
fraternity. It supports secularism; in the
1870 The Female Infanticide Prevention
Indian context this meant, respect for people
Act of all religions. There have been numerous
1872 The Civil (or Special) Marriage amendments to the Indian Constitution. A
Act recent change has been the abrogation of
1929 The Child Marriage Restraint Act Article 370 in August 2019 which gave
special status to Jammu & Kashmir.

Check your progress You should know !

With reference to the Colonial period:
1. Name two educational changes. The Constitution of India was made
after the Drafting Committee referred to
2. State two economic changes.
the Government of India Act (1935) as
3. Cite two administrative changes.
well as the
Constitutions of
Australia, Canada,
Activity 4 Germany (Weimer),
Discussion : Social reform Ireland, Japan,
movements are still present in India. South Africa, Soviet
Union, United
1.3 POST-INDEPENDENT INDIA Kingdom and United
States.
After Independence, the goals and
programmes of the country have seen
numerous changes. Our ancient culture and (2) Legislation : Concerns and problems
the British period had mixed impact on our of people and administration get recognised
thought patterns, behaviour patterns, our through academic research, scientific studies,
goals, aspirations, needs and so on. Alongside media, advocacy groups and interest groups.
these, have emerged new challenges as well Laws are made by the Indian Parliament.
as opportunities. We are guided by the Several laws related to civil and criminal
principles and values enshrined in the Indian matters have been enacted, which may be
Constitution and government plans and amended or repealed from time to time.
programmes for change, welfare, inclusion, Some social legislations that would be of
development of all its people. Let us examine interest to us are given in the box on page
some significant factors that have affected 19.
India after 1947.

18 Sociology Std 12
 Year Legislative Provisions
1954 The Special Marriage Act
1955 The Hindu Code Bill
1955 The Untouchability (Offences) Act, later renamed,
The Protection of Civil Rights Act (PCR Act), in 1976
1956 The Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act (SITA)
1961 The Dowry Prohibition Act
1971 The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act (MTP Act)
1985 The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPS Act)
1986 The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act
1995 Persons With Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full
Participation) Act
2005 The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (DV Act)
2012 The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act.
It was amended in 2019.
2013 The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation
Act
2015 The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act (JJ Act)
2019 The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act

entrepreneurship etc. have been key points.

(3) Economy : The economic growth of (4) Education : There has been
India until recently was guided by Planned significant expansion of number of
Development, through twelve Five-Year Plans anganwadis, schools, universities, deemed
till 2017. Each plan period has had its own universities, autonomous institutions, IITs
objectives. It is necessary to appreciate the (Indian Institute of Technology), IIMs (Indian
link between polity and economy, as they are Institute of Management), IIITs (Indian
two sides of the same coin. The dispensation Institute of Information Technology), NITs
in government influences the philosophy that (National Institute of Technology), vocational
drives economic decisions. While we were programmes, open learning, online education,
driven by socialist principles for many self-learning opportunities and so on.
decades, the government took upon itself the Enrollment numbers have been swelling and
responsibility of education and health care spinning beyond control in several cases.
in particular. It was in 1991, that a decisive Indeed there are waves of certain courses
change led to the onset, and some might say, flourishing from time to time. Number of
onslaught, of globalisation. Indeed, teachers have also risen. The challenges of
globalisation has its share of positives but education have not diminished. The National
there are criticisms too. Since 2014, changes Education Policy 2020 has been approved by
such as demonetisation, single taxation policy the Union Cabinet of India on 29th July 2020.
under GST, welfare schemes, borderless trade It aims to transform education across all
practices, Swachh Bharat drives, promoting levels.

19 Sociology Std 12
 also have a federal system of governance –
Enrolment in Higher Centre and State/Union Territory. The goals,
policies and agenda of each government is
Education in India
guided by its own principles or ideologies.
(in millions) There are differences and multiple views (for
example, Left, Right and Centre). The role
of the opposition is the responsibility of
Private keeping a check on the government in power.
Consensus is an important value in a
Central democratic society.
0 10 20 30
It is hoped that the introduction to Indian
2006-2007 2016-2017 Society has given a bird’s eye view of our
vast culture and the forces that have impacted
(5) Polity : In Post-Independent India, the same. This will perhaps equip us to
we have taken on a system of governance understand Indian social instutions, to study
based on the principle of democracy. India is social change in India, and to examine the
the most populous democracy in the world. hurdles that we face with respect to progress
The three arms of government are the and development. At the same time, we can
Executive, Assembly Legislature and the view some important challenges that lie ahead
Judiciary. We have the principle of democratic of us in the future.
decentralisation where power percolates down
to the grassroots level. The Indian political
system no longer recognises the former
statuses of Prince, nawab, Raja or Rani. All
citizens are equal in the eyes of law. Modern
India has embraced the principles and practice
of free and fair elections. Voting rights are
given to all citizens of India, on the attainment
of age 18. India also has a multi-party
system – and parties may be national, state
or regional in character. Individuals also
Voting rights to all adult citizens of India
have the right to contest in elections. We

20 Sociology Std 12
 SUMMARY
l
In this course, as learners of Sociology, l The Medieval period saw the rise and
this unit takes you through significant fall of various Hindu and Muslim
patterns that have seen changes through empires.
the ages. The study of our past has
l Though India has been influenced to a
been broadly divided into three periods:
certain degree by the Portuguese, Dutch,
Ancient and Medieval India, Colonial
and French, it is the British (or Colonial)
period and Post-Independence period.
impact which is significant on Indian
l The patterns focused upon include: the society. The impact is seen in the areas
influence of religious beliefs, customs of administration, social legislation,
and practices, the status of women in education, transport and communication,
India and educational systems. social reform movements, growth of
l The impact of three ancient indigenous nationalist movement etc.
religions – Hinduism, Jainism and l In the post-Independence era the impact
Buddhism is significant especially up to is due to the Constitution, Legal
the end of the Later Vedic period. provisions, education, economic and
l Subsequently, the impact of Judaism, political changes and reforms etc.
Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism and
Sikhism is seen in many fields –
especially social service (e.g. education,
healthcare, philanthropy).

EXERCISES

Q.1 (A) Complete the following statements (C) Identify the appropriate term from
by choosing the correct alternative the given option in the box and
given in the bracket and rewrite it. rewrite it against the given statement.
(1) Monks in Buddhist monasteries were
Brahmo Samaj, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar,
called ........... .
Harijan Sevak Sangh
(Bhikkus, Bhikkunis, Rishis)
(2) The Special Marriage Act was passed (1) An association established by Raja
in the year ........... . Rammohan Roy.
(1950, 1952, 1954) (2) Head of the Drafting Committee of the
Constitution of India
(B) Correct the incorrect pair and
rewrite it. (D) Correct the underlined words and
complete the statement.
(i) Raj Marg - Hinduism
(1) Elementary education was imparted in
(ii) Teerthankar – Jainism
Khanqahs during the medieval period.
(iii) Saint Thomas – Sikhism
(2) The Satya Shodhak Samaj was the
(iv) Eight-fold Path - Buddhism initiative of Radhakant Deb.

21 Sociology Std 12
Q.2 Write short notes. (B) State whether the following
(1) Education during the Early Vedic statements are True or False with
period. reasons.
(2) Status of women during the Medieval (1) Colonial rule has significant impact on
period. Indian society.
Q.3 Write differences. (2) Buddhism spread to several parts of
India and beyond.
(1) Status of women in the Early Vedic
period and Later Vedic period. Q.6 Give your personal response.
(2) Education in the Ancient Period and (1) Jainism and Buddhism provided hope
Colonial period in Indian society. to all people.
Q.4 Explain the following concepts with (2) Social reform movements are present
examples. even in 21st century India.
(1) Varna Q.7 Answer the following question in
detail. (About 150-200 words)
(2) Social legislation
Discuss with relevant examples, how
Q.5 (A) Complete the concept map.
the following factors have changed
Indian society today.
(i) English medium of instruction
(ii) Lowering the age for voting
(iii) Social legislations
Polity in (iv) Transport and Communication
Post-Independent
India www

22 Sociology Std 12
 2. Segments of Indian Society

correspond to the anthropologist’s definition

2.1 Tribal Community in India of tribe have lived in long association with
2.2 Rural Community in India communities of an entirely different type (e.g.
2.3 Urban Community in India rural, urban). Thus, it is very difficult to
come across communities which retain all
their pristine characteristics. Sociologist Andre
INTRODUCTION Béteille holds the view that categories in
social sciences are so diversified that it seems
In this lesson, you will learn about pointless to arrive at clear-cut definitions of
important aspects of three segments of Indian such categories. In India, Western definitions
society i.e. Tribal, Rural and Urban. Indian do not help in locating a tribe. Emphasis
society has been broadly divided into tribal, needs to be given to the historical perspective
rural and urban communities on the basis of i.e. the process by which tribes have been
their geographical differences and socio- transformed. Only by going into the
cultural features. Tribal people marked by a antecedents of a group can we say with any
distinct culture, language, economy and confidence whether or not it should be
religion, live in relative isolation. They are considered as a tribe.
considered socio-economically backward when According to Bhoumik Deshmukh, the
compared to rural and urban communities. On term ‘adivasi’ is an umbrella term for a
the other hand, the rural and urban communities heterogeneous set of ethnic and tribal groups
differ on the basis of physical environment, believed to be the aboriginal population of
way of life, norms, values and a large number India. These comprise a substantial minority
of other factors such as density of population, of the population of India. Scholars like
economic activities, poverty, caste, class, David Hardiman also prefer to use the term
family and religion. Urban community adivasi because it relates to a particular
comprises of non-agricultural sectors like historical development during the 19th century.
industries and services. However, there has Adivasis, according to Hardiman, are groups
been a continuous interaction between all which have ‘evolved a collective identity
these three segments. having shared a ‘common fate’ under
TRIBAL COMMUNITY IN ‘colonial rule.’ Today, adivasi groups are a
2.1
INDIA politically assertive category which, along
with Dalits, make up a large section of the
The term ‘tribe’ has had multiple marginalised communities in India.
meanings. Despite the lack of precise meaning
for tribe, this did not cause much confusion Thus, the term ‘tribe’, which has been
as long as it was possible to locate them and used all along, has come in for questioning.
differentiate them from other groups. This In its precise meaning it refers to a community
was the case in Australia, Melanesia and of people claiming descent from a common
North America, when tribal people were first ancestor. But in its application, it is used to
studied by anthropologists. In India as well cover a variety of social and economic forms,
as Africa however, the situation has been biological and racial entities.
quite different. This is because groups which

23 Sociology Std 12
 Region Location Names of Tribes
Himalayan It has three sub-regions: Garo, Khasi, Jainta,
Region (a) North-Eastern Himalayan region Naga, Mizo, Khasa,
(b) Central Himalayan region Lepcha, Gaddi
(c) North-Western Himalayan region
Middle Indian Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Gond, Santhal, Munda,
Region Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Over 55 Ho, Oraon, Birhor
percent of the tribal people of India live in
this zone.

Western-Indian Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra Bhil, Katkari, Warli,

Region and Nagar Haveli. It has about one crore Baina
tribal population.
South India Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Toda, Kota, Irula,
Region Karnataka and Kerala. About one-sixth of Badaga, Chenchu,
tribal population of India is found in the Kurumba
Southern zone.
The Island The Islands of Andaman and Nicobar in the Andamanese,
Region Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Nicobarese, Onge,
Arabian Sea. Jarawa, Sentinelese

Definitions of Tribe :
You should know !
Andre Béteille : A Tribe is a society
having a clear linguistic boundary and Article 366 (25) of the Constitution
generally a well-defined political boundary. It of India refers to ‘Scheduled Tribes’ as
is within the latter that “regular determinate those communities which are protected
ways of acting” are imposed on its members. under a schedule, according to Article 342
The tribe also has a cultural boundary, much of the Constitution.
less well-defined and this is the general frame As per this, Scheduled Tribes are
for the mores, folkways, the formal and groups or communities that have been
informal interactions of these members. declared by the President of India, as
L.M. Lewis : Tribal societies are possessing the following characteristics:
small in scale and are restricted in the spatial • Primitive traits
and temporal range of their social, legal and • Geographic isolation
political relations and possess a morality, a
• Distinct culture
religion and world view of corresponding
dimensions. • Shy of contact with the larger
community
Ralph Linton : Tribe is a group of
• Economic backwardness
bands, occupying a contiguous territory or
territories and having a feeling of unity
deriving from numerous similarities in a However, when specific definitions of
culture, frequent contacts and a certain tribes are applied in the Indian situation, it
community of interests. is found that many groups do not exactly fit

24 Sociology Std 12
in. ‘Scheduled Tribes’ can also be ascertained Characteristics of Tribes : Following
by the fact that they live apart in hills and are the basic characteristics of tribal
even where they live on the plains, they lead communities in India:
a separate and excluded existence and are not (1) Geographical isolation : They have
fully assimilated into the main body of usually a well-demarcated geographical
people. They may belong to any religion. In territory. They live in clusters (called ‘padas’),
brief, a tribe to be specified as Scheduled which are generally located in remote forests
Tribe should fulfill the following criteria: and hilly areas. Today however, many tribal
l It should have its distinct language, people have migrated to rural villages and
religious beliefs and culture which should cities and in the course of time, they have
qualify to be considered as primitive. mixed with non-tribal populations.
l It should have an isolated existence. (2) Economic life : They are engaged in
In case it lives in close proximity to other varied occupations such as hunting, fishing
castes or communities, it should not have and food gathering of forest produce, basket
assimilated with them. making, weaving, iron-smith etc. Besides, they
l It should be extremely backward both
also practice simple agriculture and shifting
educationally and economically. cultivation. Their economic activities are
based on rudimentary technology, usually
The terms ‘tribe’ and ‘Scheduled Tribe’
resulting in low produce. They have a low
are complementary and not contradictory.
level of literacy and poor health. In addition
Geographical Distribution of Indian their economic and infrastructural and
Tribes : L. P. Vidyarthi (1977) has given a marketing facilities are poor. Some tribes still
five-fold geographical classification of tribes depend on barter system. These are among
in India on the basis of ecological, social, the few causes that leave them economically
economic, administrative, ethnic and racial. backward, at bare subsistence level, still
(See the table given on page 24). leading a hand to mouth existence.

Activity 1 (3) Sense of identity : Tribal folk nurture

a sense of exclusive identity, which strongly
Form groups of five students. Refer binds them together as a community. This
to the geographical classification of tribes sense of identity is characterised by an
in India. Choose a tribe and prepare a awareness of territorial boundaries. The very
PPT/or Chart Presentation of 8-10 slides existence of a tribe depends upon their sense
of its cultural traits. of identity. Each tribe has a common name
(e.g. Warli, Irula, Gond, Naga, Khasi) which
adds to their sense of cohesion and solidarity.
(4) Endogamous group : Tribal people
generally do not marry outside their tribe.
Marriage within the tribe is the usual norm.
Marriage among tribals is based on the rule
of tribal endogamy. It is viewed as a contract
and usually there are no taboos on divorce
and remarriage. Recently, the increased
mobility among the tribals has changed this
condition and now, inter-tribal marriages are
Gond Tribe not uncommon.

25 Sociology Std 12
 (5) Distinctive culture and language : (7) Simple religion : Their forms of
They have independent traditions with respect religion are known as ‘animism’ (i.e.
to social customs, folklore, ecology and a worshipping the soul or ancestors), ‘animatism’
belief system. Each tribe has its own dialect. (i.e. worshipping any non-living body like
However, they may also use the regional stone or wood), ‘totemism’ (i.e. worshipping
language for communication with people a tree or any animal as the founding
outside the tribe. ancestor), ‘naturism’ (i.e. worshipping
(6) Simple society : Tribal communities elements of nature like river, stream, Sun,
are considered as simple societies because Moon, forest, etc) and ‘manaism’ (i.e.
their social relationships are primarily based worshipping force which is believed to move
on family and kinship ties. Besides, they do swiftly across the world and enter into
not have any rigid social stratification.They objects and people, giving them powers which
have their own faith systems based on natural they previously lacked). Sacred groves are an
phenomenon and beliefs in evil forces. Based integral part of tribal society. They also have
on it they have a traditional pantheon of belief in black and white magic, ancestor
gods and goddesses. Traditionally, they have worship, benevolent and malevolent spirits.
had a marginal degree of contact with other
cultures and people. Tribal Religion Term introduced by
1) Animism Edward Tylor
2) Animatism Robert Marett
3) Totemism James Frazer
4) Manaism Robert Marett
5) Naturism Max Mueller

(8) Community administration : Each

tribe has its own distinct ways of community
administration, meant for solving various
individual and community issues. They
Tribal economic life
manage the internal community issues through

“Suryadev Mandir” (Temple of the Sun God) at “Shedoba cha van” (Forest of Shedoba) Sacred
Kasatvadi Village, Jawahar Taluka, Dist. Palghar grove in Murbad Taluka, Dist. Thane

26 Sociology Std 12
 “Waghoba Mandir” (Temple of the Tiger God)
at Kasatvadi Village, Jawhar Taluka, Dist. Palghar

‘tribal panchayat’, family and kinship ties. in India are divided into exogamous clans
The authority of the Tribal Chief and Council and lineages. Clans are a basis for strong
of Elders was the governing body of each kinship bonds.
tribe. Today however, this autonomy of the (10) Egalitarian values : Tribal social
traditional authority vested in tribal chiefs has organisation is based on egalitarian principles.
weakened. There is no hierarchy defining social
(9) Clan organisation : Clans are an relationships. Thus, there are no
integral part of tribal societies. They refer to institutionalised inequalities like the caste
a number of families who are related in blood system or gender based inequalities. However,
and who trace their descent from a real or in some tribes the chief may enjoy a higher
imagined person, object or being. Most tribes social status, having more authority.

Tribal Community and Sacred Groves

Sacred Groves
Sacred Groves are tracts of forest land relationships emanate, giving rise to a
dedicated to local deities who are culture pattern. This pattern connects the
manifestations of the energy of the local people with their fields, forests and
universe. Since hunter-gatherer times, with one another. Worship in the sacred
tribal and rural people of India have been groves is related to fields, forests and to
revering the ‘Earth-Energy’ and ‘Cosmic- the survival of tribal and rural people
Forces’ manifested in the forests and living in and around the grove. Due to
groves. These deities are believed by tribal this, large tracts of forestland are
people to be fiercely protective about the preserved, which in turn have helped to
grove and the village. conserve biodiversity. Sadly, many of
Sacred Groves are like a separate these are facing threats of depletion as
institution through which a myriad of there is no law to protect sacred groves.

27 Sociology Std 12
 Sun Worship : Tribal people look upon Check your progress
the Sun as the primordial source of all energy 1. Name one tribe in South India,
(which is a scientific view). They are aware Western India and North-East region.
that it due to this energy that plants grow
2. Identify any three tribal occupations.
and their cattle can feed. If their cattle are
healthy, their fields will also bear good crop 3. Give examples of tribal belief
and the people will also be healthy. Thus, systems.
nature gods, viz. sun, rain, earth are all energy
sources and are a must in tribal worship.
Reasons for tribal exploitation :
You should know ! Following are some reasons due to which
tribal problems may have emerged.
Tiger God Worship : The Tiger God is
a prominent deity in the pantheon of gods in (i) The British wanted to exploit tribal
sacred groves in Maharashtra. The tiger is resources, which were rich in minerals
revered as the protector of the forests. There and natural resources.
are several stories in Indian mythology about
(ii) Contact with missionaries desirous of
tigers having tremendous powers. They are
shown fighting dragons, creating rain, keeping
converting tribals, which in some
children safe and having healing powers. cases, resulted in identity crisis.
Several tribal people in Maharashtra (iii) Entry of specialists like medical
(e.g. Warlis and Malhar Kolis) believe that professionals, agents and vendors
the tiger is the greatest of gods. Every into tribal areas, causing alienation
harvest season, they donate part of their of tribals from their traditional
harvest to the tiger god as a symbol of life medicine.
and regeneration.
(iv) Development of transport and
communication in tribal areas, which
The Legend of the Warli Rain Dance facilitated the entry of outsiders in
(Kambad Dance) : Most tribal song and the region.
dances revolve around nature worship.
Among the Warli Tribe found in parts of (v) Displacement of tribal populations
Maharashtra like Thane, Raigad and Palghar, from their traditional habitat due to
the Kambad Dance is dedicated to the industrial establishments, construction
goddess of food grains (Kansari Devi). As of big dams, highways etc.
the legend goes, the goddess was angry with Problems faced by the tribal community :
the people for wasting food grains, so, she
disappeared and no one could find her. The (1) Alienation from forest land : Forest
people appealed to the Rain God (Naaran land and its resources provide the best means
Dev), who then performed the rain dance of livelihood for tribal people. Many tribes
and wooed the goddess out of her hiding engage in primary agriculture, food-gathering
place in the cleft of a rock. She then came and hunting. They are heavily dependent on
on to the earth, where she could germinate the produce of the forest. Therefore when
and the people would then get food. As per outsiders exploit tribal land and its resources,
legend, tribal people are very particular the natural eco-cycle and tribal life dependent
about not wasting food grains for fear of
on it is greatly disturbed. The history of land
incurring the wrath of Kansari Devi.
alienation among tribes began during British
This dance is only performed by Warli
period. In addition, tribal lands were also
men at the start of the rainy season.
occupied by moneylenders, zamindars and

28 Sociology Std 12
zamindars and traders. Industrialisation and Tribal malnutrition is a serious problem today.
construction of water reservoirs resulted into (4) Illiteracy : Illiteracy among tribals
further acquisition of land by the State. is a major hindrance towards their
Various State governments have passed development. School hours often clash with
several acts to abolish transfer of sale of agricultural and wage earning activities of
tribal land to non-tribals but the issue of children. Children are looked upon as
tribal alienation has not abated till date. economic assets and are thus expected to
supplement their parents’ income. Hence,
Cases of Land Alienation
many parents are unwilling to send their
The Ministry of Rural Development children to school, or they come and call the
(GOI) in it’s 2007-2008 Annual Report children from school to help in the fields.
states, “Reports received from various
Also, schools are often not located in the
States, indicate that 5.06 lakh cases of
vicinity of tribal settlements. The formal
tribal land alienation have been registered,
courses in school are not taught in tribal
covering 9.02 lakh acres of land, of which
languages, so children lose interest in learning,
2.25 lakh cases have been disposed off in
favour of tribals covering a total area of leading to a high drop out rate.
5.00 lakh acres. 1.99 lakh cases covering (5) Bonded labour : Bonded labour is
an area of 4.11 lakh acres have been banned by Indian Law. However, it still
rejected by the Courts on various grounds”. prevails in some tribal areas. Bonded labour
is considered to be a serious problem, which
(2) Poverty and Indebtedness : A started due to rampant poverty and lack of
majority of tribal people live below the stable income among the tribals. In fact, land
poverty line. The tribes practice simple alienation, indebtedness, bonded labour and
occupations based on primitive technology. poverty are problems which exist hand-in-
Most of the occupations fall into the primary hand. However, due to the efforts of the
categories such as hunting, gathering and government and voluntary organisations many
agriculture. There is no profit nor surplus tribals are being freed from this problem.
making in such economy. Hence their per (6) Shifting cultivation : Shifting
capita income is very low, far less compared cultivation among tribals is a problem since
to the national average. Most of them live it involves large-scale deforestation and soil
in abject poverty and are steeped in debt. erosion. Shifting cultivation is known by
Local moneylenders and zamindars, take various names such as Jhum (among the
advantage of this situation and exploit the North-eastern tribes), Khallu (among Maler
tribals. In order to repay the debts they often of Bihar), and Podu (among Khonds of
have to mortgage or sell their land. Central India region).
(3) Health and Nutrition : In many
parts of India the tribal population suffers Activity 2
from chronic waterborne infections and Visit a tribal settlement in your
diseases, which often prove to be life region and document different aspects
threatening. They also suffer from malnutrition of their life (e.g. clothing, shifting
since childhood and various deficiencies cultivation, sacred groves). If a physical
caused by it. Infant mortality is quite high visit is not possible then take information
among the tribals. Lack of proper medical from the internet. Make a short
and sanitary facilities and poverty among the presentation to your class and follow it
tribals also lead to various difficulties in up with a discussion.
maintaining proper health and nutrition.

29 Sociology Std 12
 ‘Panchsheel’ Philosophy of Pandit and Institutional Finance.
Jawaharlal Nehru : Since Indian
Independence, particularly with the inception Programmes for Tribal
of Five-Year Plans, the concern for tribal Development by Government
development has always been high on the Construction of hostels for Tribal
government’s agenda. The first Prime Minister, students, educational complex in low
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, not only took a literacy pockets for women in Tribal
great deal of interest in tribal development, areas. This scheme provides complete
but also created long term guidelines in this financial assistance to NGOs/
regard. He strongly believed that no Organisations established by government
development activity in the tribal areas as autonomous bodies/educational and
should take place at the cost of tribal other institutions like co-operative
heritage. This is evident from his views, on societies, to establish educational
tribal development termed as ‘Panchsheel’. complexes in identified districts.
Grants-in-Aid to state Tribal
Summary of ‘Panchsheel’
Development Cooperative Corporation
(i) People should develop along lines of and others, Village Grain Banks, Grants-
their own genius and we should avoid in-Aid to Voluntary Organisations,
imposing anything on them. Research and Training to Tribal
(ii) Tribal rights to land and forests Development, Post-Matric Scholarships,
should be protected. Overseas Scholarships and Book Banks,
Upgradation of Merit and Coaching,
(iii) We should try to train and build up
Tribal Advisory Council (TAC), Point
a team of their own people to do the work
11(b) of 20-point Programme, The new
of administration and development.
paradigm shift for Tribal Development
(iv) We should not over administer these Strategy etc.
areas or overwhelm them with a multiplicity By these different programmes the
of schemes. We should rather work together government aims at overall development
and not in rivalry with our own social and of tribal people. However, not all
cultural institutions. programmes were successful. So, at
(v) We should judge the results not by present we continue to see tribal problems
statistics or the amount of money spent on and their backwardness.
them, but by the quality of human life that
is evolved.
No doubt, in keeping with these broad Activity 3
guidelines and the provisions of the
Find out about any tribal scheme
Constitution, a number of special schemes
started by the government or an NGO.
and programmes have evolved.
Share your findings with your class.
Tribal Development Efforts after
Independence : After Independence, the
Check your progress
Government of India has taken various efforts
1. Why are tribal people slow to
for Tribal Development. The government
change? Give two reasons.
made available, funding of Tribal
Development Programmes i.e. State Plan, 2. Identify three forms of tribal religion.
Special Central Assistance, Sectorial 3. State two problems caused by cultural
Programmes of Central Ministries/Department contact with non-tribal people.

30 Sociology Std 12
 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR TRIBAL COMMUNITY
The constitution has given more than 20 articles for the redressal and upliftment of the
underprivileged, with policies on positive discrimination and affirmative action with reference to
Scheduled Tribes. They have helped in the educational development of the tribes.

Article No. Provision

14 Confers equal rights and opportunities to all.
15 Prohibits discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of sex, religion, race, caste etc;
15(4) States to make special provisions for advancement of any socially, educationally backward
classes.
16(4) Empowers the State to make provisions for reservation in appointments or posts in favour of
any backward class of citizens, which in the opinion of State, is not adequately represented.
46 State to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker
section, especially the ST and protect the social injustice and all forms of exploitation.
244(1) Provisions for administration and control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes.
275 Grant-in-aid for promoting the welfare of STs and raising the level of administration.
330 Seats shall be reserved in the House of the People.
332 Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative
Assemblies of the States.
335 Stipulates the claims that the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes
shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of
administration, in the making of appointments to services and posts in connection with
the affairs of the Union or of a State.

2.2 RURAL COMMUNITY understanding Indian rural community and its

dynamics, albeit with its limitations. They
Rural community is one that is agrarian throw light on village solidarity, village
in nature and is dependent on natural settlement patterns, rural class structure, impact
resources. Rural economy rests predominantly of land reforms, agrarian unrest and so on.
on agriculture, pastoralism and allied
activities. The density of population in rural Definitions of Rural Community
areas is low. The rural way of life revolves
around a traditional value system. India is A.W. Green : “A village community
basically a land of villages. or rural community is a cluster of people
living within a narrow territorial radius who
The autonomy, independence and self- share a common way of life”.
sufficiency which Indian villages enjoyed for Encyclopaedia Britannica : Rural
centuries gradually declined during the British society is one in which there is a low ratio
Period. This was the period when the rural of inhabitants to open land and in which the
people began to get exposed to different ways most important economic activities are the
of life. Sociologists started some systematic production of food stuffs, fibers and raw
studies of social organisations in Indian materials.
villages during colonial and post-independence In simple words, the Indian rural
period. These studies are significant for community may be defined as a group of

31 Sociology Std 12
about 5000 people (Census of India, 2011) population density. In the Indian context a
depending on agriculture and allied community with a population of about 5000
occupations, permanently residing in a is designated as a “village”.
geographic area and participating in common (3) Dominance of agriculture :
socio-economic and cultural activities. Agriculture is the major occupation in villages.
The rural community has a long history However, it is not to be viewed as the only
of its own. Rural life has preceded urban life. source of income but also as a way of life
In spite of the growth of cities, the population needs to be ascertained. Almost 40% of our
of the world is largely rural. According to national income is obtained through agriculture
the 2011 Census, 68.84% of Indian population and more than 60 % of the people still
lives in rural areas. There are around 6.4 depend on agriculture. It was associated with
lakh villages in India having varied population various crafts like pottery, carpentry, smithy,
strengths. basket-weaving etc.
Rural social formations such as caste, (4) Primary relations : The impact of
class and family have received popular primary relations is still significant in Indian
attention of sociologists. Majority our villages. The relationship is informal, personal
sociological literature in India belongs to the and inclusive. Community spirit prevails over
study of rural society. individual interests. The ‘we-feeling’ helps to
build social cohesiveness.
Panchayati Raj : The recommendations
(5) Social homogeneity : Homogeneity
of the Balwantrai Mehta Committee in the
is an underlying thread due to similarities in
1950s, led to the institutionalisation of
Panchayati Raj as a three-tier system of the ways of thinking, behaving, dressing,
democratic functioning in villages, from the acting and living. There is a tendency to
grassroots level upward. The three tiers of conform to traditions and customs. Group
the Village Panchayat today include: feeling and mutual cooperation is evident
• Zilla Parishad among village dwellers. They cooperate with
• Panchayat Samiti each other in times of exigencies. Due to
• Gram Panchayat
political interference this cohesiveness has
been adversely affected in recent times.
In the old days, the village panchayat
was made up of about five elders of the (6) Significance of family : The rural
village, whose role was to administer justice. community is built around the institution of
The purpose of the modern panchayat is family. The joint family was once upon a
administrative - to promote rural reconstruction time a significant pillar of village organisation.
and development. This has diminished significantly and yet
decision making has the impact of collective
Characteristics of Rural Community thinking.
The rural community has the following
characteristics: According to Sorokin and
Zimmerman such an agrarian society
(1) Community living in villages : The shows traits of “Familism” i.e. the
village largely satisfies needs of its residents. family is the unit of social responsibility,
They have a sense of togetherness. The it is the basis of social norms and
development of villages is influenced relationships.
considerably by local needs.
(2) Small size : It means that the (7)
Status of women : Women in
villages are comparatively smaller in size and villages continue to live under patriarchal

32 Sociology Std 12
control. The “ideal” of “Pativrata” (conjugal society is not able to fulfill even its basic
fidelity of women) is strongly instilled in the necessities of life. A vast majority of rural
minds of women and men alike. This was population works in villages under the grim
glorified in the Indian tradition to the extent shadow of poverty, unemployment as well as
that women accepted it as their inherent duty. pitiable economic conditions. Large portions
Women are expected to fulfill their traditional of the rural poor are small and marginal
roles. There is an unstated approval for the farmers, agricultural labourers and rural
subservient role of women. artisans.
(8) Religiosity : Faith in religious (2) Illiteracy : When compared to urban
practices and rituals is a dominant feature of population, illiteracy continues to be rampant
village community. They have deep faith in in rural areas. Primary education is the
religion, God and in religious traditions. Each fundamental right of every child and
village has its own deity called ‘Gramdevata’. accordingly, the government has made special
People of all castes normally worship it and provisions (e.g. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan) for
at least once in a year they celebrate fairs or the same. High illiteracy rates among children
‘utsav’ (festival). Additionally, people would as well as adults continue even to this day
worship their own family deities. because of inadequate budgetary provisions
(9) Dominance of caste system : Indian for rural education. The quality of education
village life is inextricably linked with the in rural areas is a matter of grave concern
caste system which is hierarchical (according despite various programmes and provisions.
to notions of “purity and pollution”, their
religious customs and practices, and the
nature of their occupation). This inter-
dependence among caste groups in seen in
the practice of the “balutedari system”, where
traditionally upper castes received services
from the lower castes.
It is important to note that the above
characteristics of Indian villages have
undergone vast changes, especially after
Independence. Hence, they are to be understood Rural development
in their dynamic perspective and in a relative
sense. (3)
Traditionalism, Conservatism and
Superstitions : Rural India till date can be
Problems of Indian rural community : called a conservative society because it still
It is true that Indian villages are undergoing holds on to traditional mindsets and beliefs.
rapid changes now. These changes have not Conformity to traditional customs, religion
always brought positive results in all spheres and ways of life still hold sway. There is
of village life. There are a large number of usually a reluctance to change their way of
villages which suffer from major problems life and outlook. Rural folk are slow to
such as poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, change and very often resist changes. Change
indebtedness, superstition and the like. is unwelcome due to habit; fear of the
Problems faced by the rural community are unknown; it also encourages a fatalistic attitude.
as follows:
(4)
Caste influence : The traditional
(1) Poverty : Poverty is a socio-economic rights, authorities and sanctions based on
phenomenon in which a section of rural caste hierarchy may not be apparent today.

33 Sociology Std 12
However, it is so deeply entrenched in people’s some patterns of rural transformation as a
minds that it permeates social interactions. result of developmental programmes. He had
Nevertheless, in the ordinary transactions of identified four major trends of rural social
daily life, village people tend to cooperate change:
with each other. Members of each caste have i. Rapid transformation of agrarian
their assigned roles at common festivals and society from subsistence economy to
those are carried out with willingness. market economy;
(5) Farmers’ suicides : The phenomenon ii. Rapid transformation followed by the
of suicide by farmers is especially worrisome introduction of modern technology;
for India because the majority of the workforce
iii. Abolition of intermediaries such as
is dependent on agriculture for its livelihood.
zamindari system; and
A large percentage of farmers who took their
own lives were financially indebted. iv. Emergence of various associations
Undoubtedly, there has been a little positive and institutions having linkages with
impact of economic reforms in the agricultural urban and national organisations.
sector in India and in some cases it has been In the light of views of A. R. Desai
showing negative trends. we see changes in rural community due to
Lower status of women : As a
(6) efforts of the Government. After Independence,
result of the control of family, religion, the Community Development Programme
customs and traditions, a subordinate status is (CDP) was started in 1952. It was an initiative
given to women on the whole. Patriarchal meant for all-round development of villages.
values and practices pervade all aspects of The aim of CDP was to facilitate involvement
social life. This in turn feeds discriminatory and participation of the village community for
practices and gender stereotyping. its own welfare. Later on in 1957, Panchayati
Raj (Local Self Government) was started. The
(7) Family disputes : This is a common
Integrated Rural Development Programme
problem in rural areas – conflict over land
(IRDP) replaced the CDP in 1979.
holdings. Due to this, many joint families have
broken and land has become divided to such You should know !
an extent that it is hardly cultivable. For
Some important recent schemes for
example, even if land as small as one acre gets
Rural Development launched by
divided into four shares, it becomes uneconomical
Government of India are – Pradhan
to cultivate the same. Rural farmers suffer due Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, Deen Dayal
such property disputes and their children are Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana,
then not motivated to continue farming on land Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
that is in state of dispute. (SGSY)/ National Rural Livelihood
Efforts for Rural Development : Rural Mission, Prime Minister Rural
social change has been among the most Development Fellows Scheme, Mahatma
important subjects of study in the ‘developing’ Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS),
countries since 1950’s, partly because major
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana
national efforts in these countries have been
(SGRY), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA),
directed towards economic development and
Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY),
such efforts have been located in predominantly National Social Assistance Programme,
agrarian social settings. What is the direction Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana (Gramin)/
of social change in rural community? Indian Indira Awas Yojana, Antyodaya Anna
sociologist, A. R. Desai had tried to identify Yojana (AAY).

34 Sociology Std 12
 The Indian rural community has undergone has its own urban community. Different
considerable changes, particularly since criteria are used to identify a community as
Independence, as a result of a series of land urban. Some of them are, for example, density
reform legislations that have accelerated the of population, types of occupation, social
pace of this change. organisation, having a distinct ecology and
Rural and urban communities have culture different from that of the dominant
continuous interaction among them due to culture. The city, in the words of Louis Wirth
interdependence. For example, dependence of refers to a relatively large, dense and
city people on the farming community for permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous
agricultural produce. Likewise, the rural individuals. Early sociologists in Europe and
community is dependent on urban areas for the United States of America i.e. Ferdinand
new technology, to enhance agricultural Tonnies, Emile Durkheim, George Simmel,
production. Gradually, some sense of Robert Park and Louis Wirth extensively
heterogeneity becomes imminent in rural studied the rise and growth of cities. They
characteristics. Thus, the term, rural-urban presented their views on urbanism as a way
continuum (i.e. continuous interaction). of life.
Construction of roads and transportation have An urban area or urban agglomeration is
brought about lot of social and economic a human settlement with a high population
changes e.g. weakening of the caste system. density and infrastructure of built environment.
Now, there is more mobility and it is changing Urban areas are categorised as cities, towns
into a cash market from the previous barter or suburbs.
system etc.

Check your progress

1. State three characteristics of rural
community.
2. Enumerate three changes in rural
community.
3. Identify any three programmes started
by the Government for rural Urban Community has a dense population
development.
Definitions of Urban Communiy
Max Weber : ‘Five attributes define
Activity 4 an urban community: it must possess (1) a
Class Debate/Discussion: fortification, (2) a market, (3) a law code and
court system of its own, (4) an association
‘The impact of caste on Indian
of urban citizenry creating a sense of
society has reduced today.’
municipal corporateness, and (5) sufficient
political autonomy for urban citizens to
2.3 URBAN COMMUNITY IN
choose the city’s governors’.
INDIA
Henri Pirenne : ‘Two characteristics
Urban community includes towns, cities were fundamental to the development of an
and metros with their different way of life. urban culture: a bourgeoisie, or middle class,
Due to industrial development there is that depends on trade for both - wealth and
urbanisation as a result of which urban political autonomy from non-urban feudal
communities have emerged. Every country power holders; and a communal organisation

35 Sociology Std 12
of the urban citizenry that creates the density of population due to large population
municipal integration necessary to free the in a smaller area and also because there is a
city from control by local feudal lords or steady influx of people pouring into urban
religious authorities’. centres. Major cities are like ‘urban octopuses’
Merriam-Webster Dictionary : ‘A drawing people into their area of influence.
society that is typical of modern industrial (3) Different occupations : Occupations
civilisation and heterogeneous in cultural are more specialised. There is wide spread
tradition, that emphasises secular values, and division of labour and specialisations are
that is individualised rather than integrated numerous. The occupation in urban areas is
contrasted with folk society’. mainly non-agricultural, i.e. based on
As per the above definitions, an urban manufacturing, trade and commerce,
area is characterised by higher population professional and governance, services etc.
density and vast human feature in comparison (4) Large-scale social mobility : As
to the area surrounding it. The growth of urban people adapt to the class structure,
large cities that contain the bulk of society’s social mobility increases, thus breaking down
population is a very recent development. caste barriers. Achieved status (based on
Urban areas are created and further developed education and occupation) is given greater
by the process of urbanisation. Urbanisation value when compared to ascribed status
is a part of the development process. (based on birth). An individual can rise on
Characteristics of Urban Community : the basis of qualification and merit.
Urban societies have the following You should know !
characteristics:
(1) Heterogeneity : In urban areas you Mumbai city has one-sixth of an acre of
will find people belonging to diverse groups open space per thousand population though
such as class, occupation, caste, language and four acres is the suggested standard according
religion etc. – all living in the same territory. to the Master Plan of Greater Mumbai.
Metropolitan cities of India are overcrowded
There is continuous migration from tribal and
both in ‘absolute’ and ‘relative’ terms.
rural areas as people come in search of
Absolute, in the sense that these cities have
employment, education, health care - and a real high density of population; relative in
with the hope of raising their standard of the sense that even if the densities are not
living. Heterogeneity can be an advantage very high, the problem of providing services
because it creates a cosmopolitan and tolerant and other facilities to the city dwellers makes
approach, but it can also create tensions. it so. This leads to tremendous pressure on
infrastructural facilities like housing, electricity,
Activity 5 water, transport, employment etc. The
experiment of developing villages in the
Debate the positive and negative hinterland land of Delhi, to reduce the density
effects of heterogeneity in an urban in the city, has been successful.
setting.

(5) Secondary relations : In urban areas,

(2) High density of population : As interaction among people is largely based on
urban society is diverse and complex, the anonymity and secondary contact. It is not
degree of urbanity is greater here. In urban personal nor face-to-face; rather, cities are
communities, there is a confluence of many characterised by formal interactions, and
cultures. Cities and towns have a higher impersonal relationships which tend to become

36 Sociology Std 12
time-bound and based on vested interests. (11) Complex division of labour : A
Cultural diversity, formal communication, very clear and specialised division of labour
friends’ circle are hallmarks of cities. For is found in every walk of life. People are
instance, people spend their leisure time at trained for their job and skills according to
multiplexes, gardens, hotels, social clubs and institutional and professional requirements. An
markets. interdependence of professions is observed in
(6) Market-based economy : The almost all fields of life. For example, in the
economic organisation of cities is based on medical profession there are gynaecologists,
its markets and financial system. Marketisation radiologists, paediatricians, anaesthetists and
is an essential feature of urban centres today physicians.
e.g. E-marketing, E-biz etc. It is a market
Check your progress
that is profit-driven. This creates an
1. State three characteristics of urban life.
individualistic attitude wherein the profit
2. Why are nuclear families more common
motive guides most activities.
in urban than rural societies?
(7) Advanced infrastructure : Urban 3. Why are secondary relationships a
facilities like gas, telephone, drinking water, significant characteristic of urban areas?
internet connection, road networks, airports,
Metrorail, shopping malls and commercial
centres etc. are typically seen in cities. City Major Urban Problems : The rapid
Development Plans are revised frequently to growth of urban population, both natural and
include diverse civic amenities such as roads, through migration, has put heavy pressure on
electricity, water, garbage treatment plants etc. public utilities like housing, sanitation,
(8) Nuclear Family : Joint families are transport, water, electricity, health, education
comparatively less in number; nuclear families and so on. Although India is one of the less
are on the rise. Individualism has led to the urbanised countries of the world, with only
significant increase in nuclear families. Family 31.16% (2011 Census) of population living
is less stable today. More than the family as in urban agglomerations/towns, this country
a unit, it is the individual who is given more is facing a serious crisis of urban growth at
importance. present. Poverty, unemployment and under-
(9) Class consciousness : People are employment among rural immigrants, beggary,
more class-conscious and progressive. They theft, burglary and other social evils are on
are exposed to modern developments in the the rise. By 2030, more than 50 per cent of
fields of science and technology. There is India’s population is expected to live in urban
greater awareness about one’s rights as well areas.
as participation in movements to protect them The following urban problems are
too. highlighted:
(10) Formal social control : Formal (1) Urban Sprawl : Urban sprawl or
means of social control such as formal real expansion of the cities, both in population
education, law and legislation, police and and geographical area, of rapidly growing
courts are needed, in addition to informal cities is the root cause of urban problems. In
means for regulating the behaviour of people. most cities the economic base is incapable of
Traditional authority vested in figures such as dealing with the problems created by their
family elders, religious leaders and teachers excessive size. Massive immigration from
have decreased greatly. rural areas as well as from small towns into
big cities has taken place almost consistently;

37 Sociology Std 12
thereby adding to the size of cities. The urban (4) Unemployment : The unemployment
sprawl is taking place at the cost of valuable rate in urban India is approxemately 15 to
agricultural land. 25% of the total workforce. The rate of
(2) Overcrowding : Overcrowding is a unemployment is higher among the urban
situation in which too many people live in educated. It is observed that of the total urban
too little space. Overcrowding is a logical educated population, majority of them reside
consequence of over-population in urban in four megacities (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata
areas. It is naturally expected that cities and Chennai).
having a large size of population squeezed in (5) Beggary : For a majority of the
a small space will suffer from overcrowding. urban poor, beggary has become a way of
This is well exhibited by almost all the big life, due to sheer lack of education and skill
cities of India. to find employability. Many people are pushed
(3) Housing and Slums : Overcrowding into beggary, due to reasons that range from
leads to a chronic problem of shortage of - abject poverty to beggary as a profession.
houses in urban areas. This problem is There are organised gangs of beggars which
specifically more acute in those urban areas are known to operate in big cities. Also, there
where there is large influx of unemployed or are instances of children who are sold into
underemployed immigrants who have no place beggary by their parents or are kidnapped and
to live, when they enter cities/towns from the then coerced into begging by maiming them.
surrounding areas. In Mumbai, beggary has been criminalised
under the Bombay Prevention of Begging
Slums are a serious problem in urban
Act, 1959.
areas. In Mumbai city, almost 50% of the
population is found in slums. In spite of the (6) Transport : With traffic bottlenecks
efforts of the Municipal Corporation to and congestion, almost all cities and towns
rehabilitate these people the problem remains of India are suffering from acute transportation
unsolved. Even a planned city like Chandigarh problems. They get worse and more complex
could not escape slums. as towns grow in size. As towns become
larger, even people living within the built-up
area have to travel by car or public transport
Do you know ?
to cross the town. Wherever trade is important,
Slums are known by different terms commercial vehicles such as vans and trucks
in various cities of India. make the problem of traffic more complicated.
City Term used for
Slums
Mumbai Jhopadpattis
Delhi Jhuggi – Jhompdi
Kolkata Bustees
Chennai Cheris
Bengaluru Keris
Kanpur Ahatas
Jaipur Kachchi Basti
Urban crowded transport
Bhopal, Indore (M.P.) Gandi Basti
In tea estates Barack (7) Water shortage : Supply of water
In mining areas Ghobara falls short of demand as cities grow in size
and number. Today, we have reached a stage

38 Sociology Std 12
where practically no city in India gets
sufficient water to meet the needs of city-
dwellers. In many cities, people get water
from municipal sources for less than half an
hour on every alternate day. In the dry
summer season, taps remain dry for days
together and people do not get water supply
at a time when they need it the most. Many
small towns have no main water supply at
all and depend on such sources as individual
tube wells, household open wells, private
tankers or even rivers. In big cities like
Mumbai, water is resourced from the rivers Trash disposal is a problem in cities
and lakes in Thane and Palghar, thereby
(10) Urban crime : Like other problems,
causing hardship in the lives of those people
the problem of crime increases with the
also.
growth in urbanisation. The problem of urban
(8) Sewerage problems : Urban areas in crime is becoming more complicated in the
India are almost invariably plagued with present day world because criminals often get
insufficient and inefficient sewage facilities. protection from politicians, bureaucrats and
Not a single city in India is fully sewered. other urban elite. Some criminals reach high
Resource crunch faced by municipalities and political positions by using their money and
the unauthorised growth of the cities are two muscle power. In fact, the increasing trend in
major causes of this pathetic state of affairs. urban crimes leads to much tensions and
Most cities do not have proper arrangements insecurity which makes city life unsafe. Not
for treating the sewerage waste and it is only the poor, deprived and slum dwellers
drained into nearby rivers (as in Delhi) or take to crime; people from well-to-do families
into the sea (as in Mumbai, Kolkata and also resort to crime in order to make a fast
Chennai), thereby polluting the water bodies. buck and to meet cravings for a lavish life.
(9) Trash disposal : As Indian cities Occasional failures in life also may drag
grow in number and size the problem of trash youngsters to crime. Violent urban crimes like
disposal is assuming alarming proportions. abuse, rape, murder, kidnapping, cyber-crime,
Huge quantities of garbage generated by our economic offences, and various forms of
cities pose serious health hazards. Most cities white-collar crime are rampant in many large
do not have proper arrangements for garbage cities.
disposal and the existing landfills are full to
the brim, which become hotbeds of disease Activity 6
and innumerable poisons into the environment.
In schools located in urban areas
Wastes putrefy in the open, inviting disease-
conduct a survey using questionnaire
carrying flies, mosquitoes and rats. Also, a
or interview technique, to understand
poisonous liquid called leachate is emitted,
about problems in slum area. Students
which contaminates ground water. People
from rural and tribal areas should do
who live near the rotting garbage and raw
the same exercise on farmers’
sewage fall easy victims to several diseases
problems. Write and present your
like dysentery, malaria, plague, jaundice,
report to the class.
diarrhea, typhoid, dengue and leptospyrosis.

39 Sociology Std 12
 Efforts towards Urban Development : Eradication Programme (IUPEP).
We cannot think of a strong India
economically, socially and culturally, when Recent urban development
our cities remain full of squalour, when the programmes in India
quality of urban life declines and the urban (1) Smart Cities Mission
environment is damaged beyond repair. Cities (2) Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and
are the backbone of economic expansion. Urban Transformation (AMRUT)
Urbanisation can be positively viewed as an Project
engine of economic growth and an agent of (3) Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana
socio-political transformation. (Urban) or Housing for All by 2022
The share of urban areas in the total Mission.
National income has been estimated at 60 (4) Heritage City Development and
per cent and the per capita income was about Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY)
three times higher than rural per capita
(5) Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
income. But, this is not sufficient, partly, due
Renewal Mission
to high cost of living and partly, because of
growing economic disparity in urban areas. (6) Urban transportation
The rich are becoming richer and poor are (7) Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)
becoming poorer. Several steps have been
initiated to meet the challenges posed by the Almost all the major programmes of
urban crisis but with little or no success. urban development suffer from the chronic
National Commission on Urbanisation disease of resource crunch. Right from the
(NCU) has, in its policy proposal of 1988, beginning of the planning period, urban
stressed the need for : (a) the evolution of a development has been low on the development
spatial pattern of economic development and agenda with only 3-4 per cent of the total
hierarchies of human settlements, (b) an plan outlay being allocated to the urban
optimum distribution of population between sector.
rural and urban settlements and among towns
and cities of various sizes (c) distribution of Activity 7
economic activities in small and medium- Gather information on various
sized growth centres, (d) dispersal of economic tribal, rural and urban development
activities through the establishment of counter-
programmes in your area. Present
magnets in the region, and (e) provision of
your findings to your class and
optimum levels of services in urban and rural
areas. follow it up with a discussion.
The other major development programmes
include: (i) Urban Basic Services for the In this Unit we have examined how
Poor (UBSP) (ii) Environmental Improvement Indian society has a mix of all kinds of
of Urban Slums (EIUS) programme people and cultures that are classified into
(iii) Integrated Development of Small and tribal, rural and urban communities. We have
Medium Towns (IDSMT), (iv) various examined the differences between one segment
housing and infrastructure financing schemes and another. You will have noticed greater
e.g. Housing and Urban Development similarities between tribal and rural
Corporation (HUDCO) (v) Mega Cities communities when compared to urban
Project, and (vi) Integrated Urban Poverty communities. The influence of one segment
on another continues till date and is the

40 Sociology Std 12
for development as well as social change. features that are associated with traditional
This interaction also creates certain future societies. Much has changed in the present
challenges. It is important to bear in mind but the speed of change is not uniform.
that the characteristics of tribal and rural
segments of Indian society are the typical

SUMMARY
l
The tribal segment constitutes 8.6% of the l Rural people are also faced with
total Indian population. Tribes have different numerous problems and especially the
identity and are referred to by various problems of poverty, indebtedness,
names. The Constitution of India calls them exploitation, resistance to change, farmer
Scheduled Tribes. Each tribe has its distinct suicide etc.
identity (e.g. Warli, Mizo, Toda, Gond, l Several programmes have been started
Bhil, Jarawa). for rural development and reconstruction.
l Tribes are found in various parts of l Urban areas are distinct when compared
India. They have their unique to tribal and rural segments of Indian
characteristics and their culture has set society. This is due to tertiary
them apart from others. occupations like business, trade,
l However, due to contact with rural and commerce, professions etc.
urban people, tribal people have undergone l Urban areas are more heterogeneous,
many changes and this has impacted impersonal and individualistic.
their way of life. There is cultural l Urban areas have their own set of
disintegration taking place in tribal areas. problems from inadequate infrastructure
l Most of India lives in its villages. to meeting growing demands, crime,
Villages constitute the rural segment. poverty, class extremes, alienation,
Their predominant economic activity is environmental pollution, diseases etc.
agriculture. l The government has taken up various
l Institutions such as joint family, caste programmes for urban development.
and panchayat are considered the pillars
of rural society.

EXERCISES

Q.1 (A) Complete the following statements by (B) Correct the incorrect pair and
choosing the correct alternative given rewrite it.
in the bracket and rewrite it. (1) (i) Landlord - Zamindar
(1) Secondary type relations are significant (ii) Initiative for rural development
in ___ society. programme - Community
(rural, tribal, urban) Development Programme
(2) Over 55% of the tribal population in (iii) Three-tier system of governance
India is found in the ___ region of the - Integrated Rural Development
country. (Western, Central, Southern) Programme.
(iv) Primary occupations – traditional
societies

41 Sociology Std 12
 (C) Identify the appropriate term from Q.5 (B) State whether the following
the given option in the box and statements are True or False with
rewrite it against the given statement. reasons.
(1) Division of labour is complex in urban
Urban society, Devrai, Gramdevata
community.
(1) Sacred groves in the tribal community. (2) The traditional influence of caste has
(2) Instances of white collar crime. changed today.
(D) Correct the underlined words and Q.6 Give your personal response.
complete the statement. (1) Why is there lack of community
(1) Individual status in urban society is feeling in cities?
mostly ascribed. (2) Explain the need for rural development
(2) The custom of worshipping non-living Q.7 Answer the following question in
bodies is called animism. detail. (About 150-200 words)
Q.2 Write short notes. ‘Traditional societies tend to hold on
(1) Problems of tribal society. to their customs, traditions and beliefs.
Using examples of your own, explain
(2) Characteristics of urban society.
the statement with special reference to
Q.3 Write differences. either family or religion. Also, discuss
(1) Rural economy and Urban economy. any three ways by which change is
(2) Tribal community and Urban introduced into traditional societies.
community.
Q.4 Explain the following concepts with Activity
examples. Visit a government primary or
(1) Urban crime Ashram school in a tribal or rural or
(2) Sacred groves urban area. Find out from the School
Q.5 (A) Complete the concept map. Head about enrolment numbers,
classes taught, number of teachers,
subjects they teach, problems they
face, needs that they have. Write a
report on your findings.
Purpose for
cultural contact
with tribals Activity
What do you mean by rural
reconstruction ? Find out about
programmes started by (a) government
and (b) voluntary associations for
people in rural India. Prepare a poster
exhibition in your school or library.

www

42 Sociology Std 12
 3. Diversity and Unity in Indian Society

as variety or different. We will discuss in

3.1 Diversity in India Society
this part about the most powerful sources of
3.2 Unity in Diversity diversity i.e. race, religion, language, region,
3.3 Challenges to National Unity caste, class and sexuality in Indian society.

INTRODUCTION

India is a land of “Unity in diversity”.

In light of this statement we will discuss in
this unit, aspects and indicators regarding
diversity and unity in Indian society, together
with the challenges posed for national Equality
integration. The sources of diversity in India
may be traced through a variety of ways, the Racial Diversity : A simplistic definition
most obvious being the ethnic origins, of race could be that it is a group of people
religions, castes, tribes, languages, social with a set of distinctive physical features.
customs, cultural and sub-cultural beliefs, A.W. Green says, “A race is a large biological
political philosophies and ideologies, human grouping with a number of distinctive,
geographical variations etc. Despite this, one inherited characteristics which vary within a
feature that is most often noticed about India certain range.” Racial classifications are
is its unity in diversity. Unity implies oneness made on the basis of certain genetic traits.
or a sense of ‘we-feeling’; it holds tightly Such types of traits used in classification of
together various relationships and belief races are referred to as racial criteria. It is
systems of diverse ethnic communities or a difficult task to construct a systematic
institutions into some form of acceptable ethnography of the teeming millions of Indian
unity, through bonds of contrived structures, population. However, several anthropologists
norms and values. The term “Unity in like J.H. Hutton, D.N. Majumdar and B. S.
diversity” refers to the state of togetherness Guha have given racial classifications of
or oneness in-spite of immense diversity. Indian people. Let us look at the classification
“Unity in diversity” is based on the concept given by - Dr. B.S. Guha. He classifies the
where the individual or social differences in population of India into six main racial
physical attributes, caste, gender, creed, groups, as follows:
cultural and religious practices, etc. are not
looked upon as conflicting. In this unit, we
shall also examine how the dynamics of
racial, religious, linguistic, regional, caste,
class and gender differences generate forces
that question this oneness.

3.1 FORMS OF DIVERSITY IN

INDIAN SOCIETY
Indian society is a land of various types
of diversity. The dictionary defines ‘diversity’,

43 Sociology Std 12
 It is observed by scholars now, that there
are no ‘pure’ racial types across the world, Category Population Population
rather there are mixed types of the archetypal in Crores %
racial groups. Migrations across time and
space have ensured that there occurred a lot Hindu 96.63 79.8
of intermixture of these above mentioned Muslim 17.22 14.2
races and this resulted in enormous racial Christian 2.78 2.3
heterogeneity among the people of India. Sikh 2.08 1.7
Thus even though there are racial Buddhist 0.84 0.7
classifications of human beings, at present, Jain 0.45 0.4
the basis for identifying differences is no Other Religions & 0.79 0.7
longer limited to external physical attributes. Persuasions
The use of scientific technology has enabled Religions Not Stated 0.29 0.2
the study of physical qualities through genetic Source : Census 2011 on Population by Religious
studies and DNA testing, which have greater Communities
validity and reliability.
We cannot assume that all members of
Religious Diversity : The institution of
a faith are unanimous with regard to their
religion is universal. It is found in all
beliefs and practices. There are various
societies - past and present. Religious dogmas
interpretations of sacred literature and
have influenced and conditioned economic
ethnocentric positions on the part of many
endeavours, political movements, social
sub-groups within. Religion tends to bring
hierarchies, and cultural differences. Religion
together people of the faith to celebrate
is one of the key facts of diversity in Indian
commonly cherished festivals and events.
society. Although India is a multi-religious
These festivities have brought together people
and multi-cultural country, the secular
of differing faiths to celebrate festivals like
mandate informed by the Constitution of
Ganapati, Diwali, Ramzan Eid, Pateti,
India ensures that the secular fabric of
Christmas and so on. Also, the Government
society is maintained. It is a land where
of India through its declaration of public
tribal beliefs of animism and naturism, and
holidays for various religious festivals of
religions like Hinduism, Jainism and
significance, enable people of various faiths
Buddhism, have originated and flourished.
to mark the occasion. For example, Good
Later there has been the influence of
Friday, Ram Navami, Eid-ul-Fitr etc. For
Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism and
example, in Kolkata the festival of lights
Sikhism. The basic ideas and faith of each
(Diwali) is celebrated along with the Jewish
religion may differ, but they continue to
coexist in Indian society.
The Right to Freedom of Religion is also
declared as a Fundamental Right by the
Indian Constitution. Indian religions have
exerted significant influence all over the
world. Each major religion is sub-divided
along the lines of religious doctrines, sects,
and cults. In the next column is a table
showing the distribution of religious groups
in India based on religious identity.
Religious Diversity

44 Sociology Std 12
Festival of Lights (Hannukah). protection to linguistic minorities. A unique
feature of India is the concept of protecting
Activity 1 the interest of children to get basic education
Form groups of 5-7 students. in their mother tongues (i.e. home language).
Identify a specific religion. 21st February was declared as an
Interview 5 people of the specific International Mother Language Day by the
religion chosen by you and find United Nations. Long before this, the founders
out about their religious customs of the Constitution of India had already given
and traditions. Write a report and top priority to teaching in the mother-tongue
present your findings in your class. thus enabling the child to develop its full
potential. The language policy of India is
Linguistic Diversity : Multilinguism is pluralistic and it gives priority to the use of
a way of life in India. In 1956, Indian States mother–tongue in administration, education
were organised on a linguistic basis. Hence, and other fields of mass communication. To
domiciles of a particular State speak a implement and monitor this policy, the
particular language. India is a land of many Government has set up ‘The Language
languages. Bureau’ under the Ministry of Human
The Constitution of India has approved Resource Development.
of 22 official languages. Among these, three Today, linguistic diversity needs to be
languages have been recognised as classical preserved. Speakers of diverse languages are
languages viz. Sanskrit, Tamil and Kannada. becoming rare and the major languages are
All three have been given a special status being adopted after abandoning the ‘mother–
and recognition by the Government of India. tongue’.
These classical languages have a written and Community participation is required to
oral history of over 1000 years. conserve language diversity which is a major
The Language Policy of India guarantees part of the cultural wealth of India.

Classification of Language Family in India

Indo-Aryan Dravidian Austro - Sino – Andamanese

(Arya) (Dravida) Asiatic Tibetan
(Nishada) (Kirata)
Sanskrit, Telugu, Munda Has 3 sub Spoken by
Kashmiri, Hindi, Kurukh, [comprised of – divisions tribal people
Bengali, Punjabi, Oraon, Maler, 14 languages viz. Tibeto- of the
Rajasthani, Kui, Parji, e.g. Mundari, Himalayan, Andaman
Gujarati, Sindhi, Kolami, Santhali, Ho, Himalayan Islands viz.
Kutchi, Marathi, Tamil, etc.] Mon languages, Aka – Jeru,
Oriya, Assamese, Malayalam, – Khmer [has Bhutia Ongan and
Urdu, Konkani, Kannada, 2 sub – Languages Sentinelese
Bihari, Avadhi, Tulu, Kota, groups viz.
Chhattisgarhi, Coorgi, Toda. Khasi,
Bugheli, Alawari. Nicobari.

45 Sociology Std 12
 identities. For instance, all regional
2011 Census: Total Speakers as a identifications need to be read contextually.
percentage of the total population
OUR WORLD
Language % of Speakers
Hindi 57.1
English 10.6
Bengali 8.9
Marathi 8.2
Telugu 7.8
Tamil 6.3
Gujarati 5.0
Urdu 5.2
Kannada 4.94 Layered regional identities
Odia 3.56 Region refers to territorial entities found
Punjabi 3.02 within the country. For example, one might
Malayalam 2.9 talk of the North Eastern region, which
comprises the “seven sisters”. However, even
Sanskrit 0.01
within a State, there are regions. For example,
in Maharashtra State the regions include –
Konkan, Vidarbha, Khandesh, Marathwada
You should know !
and Western Maharashtra.
As a part of linguistic diversity, the You should know !
Prasar Bharati of All India Radio has to
broadcast in twenty-three languages and The North Eastern States of India
179 dialects. include the following – Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram,
Activity 2 Manipur and Tripura known as the “seven
sisters”.
Make groups of 5 students.
This region has a very hilly terrain
Identify one State in India and the
and is immensely rich culturally. A large
languages and dialects spoken in it. If
section of the tribal population of India
possible make audio recordings of
live here. For example: Garo, Khasi, Naga,
some languages and dialects. Share Mizo, Zomi, Lepcha, Kuki, Bodo.
with your class. Display their written
You might observe that they also
script (if any).
have distinctive physical characteristics in
terms of skin colour, hair texture, sunken
Regional Diversity : Region can be
nose, almond-shaped eyes, double fold of
understood as a spatial and temporal construct
the eye lids.
that exhibits some degree of cultural
homogeneity. People within this geographical While each community has its own
history, folklore, dance, traditions, and
space identify with the present through its
music, many of these have been affected
shared past. Narrow regional identities are not
by culture-contact with other communities.
however independent of wider networks of

46 Sociology Std 12
 (food grains, clothes, and many other
Conversion of large sections to Hinduism, considerations like free residential plot, free
Buddhism, Islam or Christianity is not food, aid in litigation, use of animal and
uncommon. This region also has seen an instruments etc.) However, the jajmani system
influx of people from other parts of the is gradually fading away with the advent of
Indian subcontinent and outside India. market and monetary economy.
Each region, has a rich and unique The practice of caste system is not
diversity of its own. Its natural environment confined to Hindus. Caste-like divisions are
– rivers, water sources, soil, forests, minerals seen among Muslims, Christians and Sikhs as
and its socio-economic and political well. We have heard of the hierarchy of Amir,
environment. People within a region are Shaikh, Sayyed, Pathan among the Muslims.
diverse as regards their race, ethnicity, Furthermore, there are castes like Teli (oil
language, dialect, food, customs, mannerisms, pressure), Dhobi (washerman), Darjee (tailor)
beliefs and practices, control mechanisms etc. among the Muslims. Similarly, caste
such as laws, mores etc. Every region has its consciousness among the Christians in India
own and unique history which has shaped its is not unknown. Since a vast majority of
present. For example, in Maharashtra the role Christians in India were converted from the
and significance of Chhatrapati Shivaji Hindu-fold, some converts have carried their
Maharaj is well-established. caste system into their Christian identity.
Under the Constitutional Order of 1950,
Caste Diversity : Caste is a major source
which was amended in 1990, the term
of diversity in Indian society. The etymology
“Scheduled Caste” can only be used by
of the term caste is found in the Portuguese
Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist people who are
word ‘casta’ meaning race. The British used
listed on the schedule, whereas “Scheduled
the term caste to define various ethnic groups
Tribe” persons may have any religious
of India. Sociologists today define caste
identity. In view of this we can well imagine
through two axis i.e. varna and jati. Varna is
the extent of caste diversity in India.
the overall, overarching ideological division
of Hindus into the four-fold hierarchy of Class Diversity : Diversity is also based
Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. It on “class” about which you have studied in
is believed that there are about 3500 jatis the first year Sociology course. Class is
found in India, out of which 751 are classified typically based on: (i) financial position that
under the Scheduled Caste communities. is, economic criteria, and (ii) education.
The caste system provided the bases of Our sense of economic class influences
social structure. The different castes functioned the way we think, the choices we make, the
in an interdependent barter relationship which prejudices we harbour, our dreams, hopes and
was the basis of the agrarian economy. It was aspirations. A consciousness about one’s
also a source of inequality and marginalisation economic class identity is a lived reality.
of some communities. It maintains exchange Thus for example, one makes a choice
of goods and services between various jatis. whether to use public transport or one’s own
It was based on a patron-client relationship. vehicle to go to work; one decides whether
The patron is known as Jajman who used to to buy grains from a store in our neighborhood
be a landlord. The client is known as Kamin or at a mall, where to study, or how to get
(from the artisan/ service castes). The Kamin married and so on. Those who identify as
used to provide services to the Jajman and “Upper Class” constitute a small minority in
in return was given rewards in terms of kind Indian society as a whole. The masses identify

47 Sociology Std 12
“Upper Class” constitute a small minority in the dominance of ‘heteronormativity’ (that is
Indian society as a whole. The masses the norm that reinforces and “normalises” the
identify as belonging to the middle or lower gender binary) in society and in all its
economic strata. institutions such as family, marriage, polity,
Gender Diversity : In order to understand economy, religion etc. There are individuals,
gender diversity it is necessary to appreciate groups and societies which have challenged
the difference between sex and gender. You the notion of a binary and thus are more
might recall discussing gender as a basis for inclusive of sexual and gender pluralities.
social stratification in Standard XI Sociology. When discussing gender diversity, we
Gender diversity is linked to the notion need to be aware of a related term which
of ‘gender’ (a social construct), which in turn also leads to diversity - gender expression.
is related to concepts such as gender binary, This is inextricably linked to gender
gender expression, sexuality and sexual socialisation. Most of us are coerced into
orientation. conformity to follow the expectations of
gender linked to one’s sex. Today however,
societies are gradually opening up to
understanding and accepting gender fluidity
(that is, those persons who do not limit
themselves within the binary). Gender fluidity
is not a western import but has been a part
of our traditional Indian culture. There are
references to Hindu deities who were gender
Gender diversity fluid.

Gender includes diversities that go beyond Sexuality : Each individual may

gender binaries of female-male, feminine- relate to another person physically,
masculine, her-his etc. Today, our understanding emotionally and/or sexually. This
of gender diversity also includes the sexual constitutes one’s sexuality and helps
orientation of people. In this context, you us to understand the sexual orientation
may be familiar with the acronym ‘LGBT’. of a person. It is not a preference; it
• Lesbian : Female-Female relationship is not a matter of choice.
• Gay : Male-Male relationship
• Bisexual : People who are attracted to You will recall reading about
any two sexes (example, Female and decriminalisation of homosexuality by a
Male) historic judgement of the Supreme Court of
• Transgender : A person whose biological India on 6th September 2018. The Government
sex does not match one’s psychological of India has also recognised transgender
sense of self. people and their rights.
Awareness about and sensitivity to
What constitutes appropriate behaviour diversities based on gender will help: (i)
for girls/women and boys/men is a result of dispel ignorance and myths related to gender
social conditioning, indoctrination and cultural (ii) restore dignity to people with different
definitions. Hence, there is variability between gender identities (iii) eradicate hate, violence,
societies, as well as within groups in a prejudice and discrimination towards gender
specific society. This leads us to understand non-conforming individuals (iv) promote

48 Sociology Std 12
 different cultures that it came into contact
Activity 3
with and at the same time has retained the
There have been protests regarding essentials of its own. This is a fact that has
The Transgender Persons (Protection of struck several foreign scholars also. Despite
Rights) Act, 2019. numerous invasions, the people have managed
Find out more about this and hold to maintain the spirit of the past. From early
a class discussion. times as far back as 2000 years ago, there
have been attempts to bring about political
3.2 UNITY IN DIVERSITY unity of India. Towering examples are Emperors
Ashoka, Harshvardhan, Vikramaditya and
Akbar.
The fact that Indians today, despite their
differences, have adapted to political
democracy, indicates the underlying unity in
diversity. One important point is that the
Indian people have never regarded diversity
as a problem but more as a treasure to be
cherished.
Unity amidst Diversity The inner strength of India lies in our
ability to accommodate variety and multiplicity
India is a country where people from within the framework of larger unity. It is the
diverse social locations function as a society. sign of a healthy organism that the processes
It is not as though no conflicts exist. Indian of integration and differentiation go on side
society is characterised by integration of the by side. This is indicative of civilisational
plural traditions and cultural practices that unity.
give it a sense of we-ness. This assimilation
of diverse traditions is enabled by the
In the words of D. P. Singhal, “The
constitutional mandate of India to remain a forces of unity are like the red blood
secular society. There have been phases where corpuscles whose proportion in the blood
the secular nature of Indian society has been stream should neither rise above nor fall
questioned. Nonetheless Indian society has below a certain point. To preserve this
demonstrated much accomodation and balance is not an easy task.”
resilience.
According to D.P. Singhal, in his book-
Process of unity in India : At the root
“India and World Civilisations” unity in
of all the co-existing diversities, there exists
diversity is a theme that runs through the
an underlying unity. This has created a
entire course of Indian history. There is so
composite culture decisively pan-Indian in
much diversity in India along lines of region,
nature.
language, religion, caste etc. that a picture of
unity becomes complex. However, through all Unity implies oneness or a sense of
these differences, there are cross-cutting oneness meaning integration. However, unity
solidarities which helps us as a nation to does not mean uniformity, which implies
combine and recombine. What does this similarity. The bond of unity in relation to
mean? India’s heritage in a certain underlying
uniformity of life, has been reflected in the
India has always assimilated strands of
observations of many foreigners too. Unity

49 Sociology Std 12
amidst diversity is visualised in the geo- parts of India, though the overarching
political sphere, institution of pilgrimage, monsoon season connects the whole of the
tradition of accommodation, tradition of country.
interdependence, emotional bonding etc.
You should know !
The concept of secularism in the Indian
context is particularly useful, given the nature Interestingly the term monsoon
of our religious plurality. In India, secularism originates from the Arabic word,
implies respect and tolerance for people of Mausum coined by the Arab traders
all faiths. This is beautifully encapsuled in who did business with the various
the term, ‘sarvadharmasamabhav’. India has kingdoms in this region.
been and continues to be a land with multiple
faith systems. This necessarily includes
acceptance of people who do not subscribe One would find some kind of unity in
to any religious identity, custom or practice, the agrarian cycles such as the sowing season
but who may express their loyalty and and the harvest season. The natural resources
commitment to secular values such as such as rivers, minerals and forests cut across
scientific endeavour, humanitarianism, the length and breadth of India. Sharing of
humanism and so forth. these resources gives the people a sense of
oneness. Festivals such as Onam in Kerala,
Makar Sankrant in Western and South India,
Why do we need unity?
Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Baisakhi in Punjab
l To strengthen and enrich our cultural and Bihu in Assam revolve around the harvest
heritage
season.
l To protect the multiple diversities of
Religious Unity : Although various
Indian society
religious groups in India present external
l To protect Human Rights of all
difference, it is not impossible to trace some
citizens.
commonly shared elements. Each religion
l To boost workplace, organisational preaches fundamentally religious faith, and
and community morale. shares a belief in the value of life, benevolence,
l For effective and inclusive piety and virtues such as honesty, simplicity,
communication goodness etc. India is a land of diverse
l For conflict resolution religious faiths.
l For peaceful coexistence Religious unity in India finds its
l For the welfare of all people expression through places of worship scattered
irrespective of caste, creed, sex, gender, all over the country. Visitors from India and
race, economic class, culture etc. abroad throng to religious places of Hindus
l For prosperity of our land and its as Badrainarayan in the North, Dwarka in the
people West and Ramashwaram in the South and
Puri in the East; the Golden Temple of the
Sikhs in Amritsar, the Christian church at
Geographical Unity : India like every
Velankanni, the Jewish synagogue in Fort
other country has its own boundaries that are
Kochi, shrines of Muslim saints, Ajmer
natural. In the North stands the Great
Dargah etc. Festivals such as Kumbh Mela,
Himalayas and water bodies on the other
Feast of Mother Mary, Kurukshetra festival,
sides of the Indian peninsula. Climate
Ganpati, Durga Puja, Moharram, Thrissurpuram
conditions vary to a large extent in different
attract lakhs of people of all faiths, year after

50 Sociology Std 12
year. Despite differences of individual religious both in letter and spirit. It is rightly
practice, religious celebrations and days continue characterised by its unity and diversity.
to represent the religious unity of this vast National unity and integrity have been
country. maintained even though sharp economic and
social inequalities have obstructed the
emergence of an egalitarian society. The Five-
Year Plans and several developmental schemes
were geared towards uplifting the poor and
weaker sections of society as a whole.
The Constitution of India has established
the “rule of law” throughout the country. All
citizens are equal and subject to the same
authority. Religion, language, region, caste,
gender or community is no longer the basis
of special social status, powers and privileges.
Thrisurpooram festival (Kerala)
The weaker sections of society - the Scheduled
Castes, the Scheduled Tribes, Denotified
Role of Religion in Social Tribes, Other Backward Classes, Religious,
Integration Linguistic and Sexual Minorities have been
M.N.Srinivas examines the role of given special concessions for their
religion in social integration as a binding amelioration. Colonial exploitation has been
force among individuals and groups. He replaced by processes of development and an
refers to three points: (1) The relations egalitarian ideology.
between different castes and religious
Activity 5
groups at the village and other local
levels, (2) The general role of religion Find out about various schemes
in the economic development of the started by the government for welfare
country; and (3) Religion and socio- of: (i) STs (ii) SCs (iii) Women (iv)
economic privileges. There is an Disabled persons. Share your findings
association between religious communities in your class.
and specific economic functions they
perform. The spread of various Linguistic Unity : Linguistic unity means
communities all over the country and that every language in the country, whether
diversification of their economic activities regional or national language, must be treated
have strengthened the process of social equally. The Indian State recognises linguistic
integration. diversities and also makes special provisions
to protect and support some of the languages
and dialects that are on the verge of extinction.
Activity 4
The three-language formula followed
Class Discussion in small groups: by all State Education Boards enables the
Topic: Religion can be a force inculcation of Hindi and English as languages
that unifies and divides society. to connect with the Union, English to connect
Assignment based on discussion. with the outside world and the regional/local
language for communication within the State.
Classical languages and languages of linguistic
Political Unity : India is a plural society

51 Sociology Std 12
 You should know !

The Three Language Formula Modern Indian Language (in

The Three Language Formula (TLF) Hindi speaking States)
was devised in the Chief Minister’s English or Modern Indian Language
conference – 1961. The Kothari Commission not studied as 2nd language (in non-
(1964-66) examined and recommended Hindi speaking States).
the same. As per the policy the three Most States in India have
languages recommended were: implemented the TLF. Challenges for a
(i) 1st language : Regional Language meaningful implementation continue.
or Mother Tongue.  Find out the States that have
(ii) 2nd language : English or adopted the TLF.
Modern Indian Language (in Note: Today you can use the term
Hindi speaking States) ‘Home Language’ instead of “Mother
Hindi or English (in non–Hindi Tongue”. This is especially useful when
speaking States) relating to families where spouses come
(iii) 3rd language : English or from different linguistic backgrounds.

minorities have also found a place in Amte, Tagore, Bhimsen Joshi, Ara, Nizzim
educational curricula. Many educational bodies Ezekiel) through their life work have evinced
offer learners the option of answering their the feeling of belonging to each other, a
examinations in a range of mediums (e.g. sense of identity of purpose and emotion.
Marathi, Hindi, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, There are various patriotic renditions
English). Doordarshan and Akashwani have of the National Anthem or films based on the
programmes in multiple Indian languages that principle of cultural integration. These have
reach out to millions of persons who tune in showcased classical musicians, singers, folk
to them. These are measures that promote a artists, crafts persons, artists, sportspersons,
sense of linguistic unity among multi-lingual dance forms, defence services, philanthropists,
people of the land. reformers etc. Such presentations evoke a
However, language is a double-edged sense of love, concern as well as pride for
sword: it can act as a barrier for many on that which is Indian.
the one hand, and on the other, it serves as CHALLENGES TO
a bridge, linking people from across the country. 3.3
NATIONAL UNITY
Cultural Unity : Indian culture exhibits
cultural unity, reflected in the literature and India has always been seen by scholars
thought of different communities despite the as a unique example of unity in diversity in
obvious differences in customs and traditions. spite of regional, linguistic, religious and
Festivals like Diwali, Onam, Eid, Raksha ethnic differences dividing India into apparently
Bandhan, New Year, Christmas are remembered irreconcilable social groups. The diversities in
and celebrated all over the country. This is terms of communities, races, classes, languages
possible only because cultural unity does and sub-cultures are bound to pose obstacles
exist in India. Various saints, writers, artistes to the achievement of national integration.
(for example Aurobindo, Mother Teresa, Baba The following factors which obstruct the

52 Sociology Std 12
growth of national feeling viz. casteism, particularly evident at the time of elections,
communalism, regionalism, linguism, and with political parties wooing members of
economic inequalities have been outlined their own caste for the sake of votes.
below.
Caste and Reservation
Casteism : Casteism refers to loyalty to
one’s own caste before loyalty to the nation. The Constitution of India, allows
Caste ties are so strong that people are affirmative action through positive
discrimination (reservation) in education
inclined to think in terms of caste before the
and employment, which is based on caste
nation. This may lead to caste members
and socio-economic backwardness for STs
protecting their own caste group through
and SCs. Later, this was extended to Other
social service, education, medical and other
Backward Castes (OBCs). Recently the GoI
welfare schemes. This can lead to several has announced 10% quota for Economically
problems viz. it can restrict interaction in Weaker Sections (EWS). These reservations
society. Also, when such caste loyalty takes are restricted to government-run or
political overtones, it becomes dangerous. government-aided institutions. The Central
This is because caste members take with Government has fixed 15 per cent
them their biases and prejudices into politics. reservations for Scheduled Castes (SC), 7.5
They then begin to express their petty per cent for Scheduled Tribes (ST) and 27
jealousies and sectarian interests in various per cent for Other Backward Castes (OBC).
ways. People are influenced by them and vote A sizeable proportion of Scheduled Castes
for their own caste members. Those castes who have embraced Buddhism and
having numerical strength rise up through Christianity also qualify for such
politics. Those who win the elections then reservations.
favour their caste groups in various ways. In
view of all this, the problem of national Communalism : Communalism refers
integration becomes very serious. mainly to loyalty to one’s own religion before
the nation. India is one of the countries in
Despite laws, urbanisation, industrialisation
the world where so many religions co-exist
and education, the caste system continues in
side by side. While on the one hand this
the mindsets of many people. Caste has
enriches our cultural heritage, at the same
become a means for competing for access to
time we also make sure that this does not
resources and power in modern India.
become a cause for separatism.
Discrimination on the basis of caste is a
major hurdle for national integration. People Communal conflict is one of the worst
engaged in weakening the unity of the country blots on national reputation. It is a displeasing
tried desperately to create divisions and rifts factor that affects the unity of the nation.
in the name of caste, creed and culture. They Whatever may be the cause of the conflict,
succeeded in creating mistrust among Indian the damage it does to the nation is very deep
people. The feeling of social neglect among and far reaching.
scheduled castes due to suppression by upper Socially speaking, communal conflict
castes has disturbed the sense of ‘we feeling’ creates feelings of deep hatred, bitterness and
and unity. antagonism between members of different
Caste atrocities get reported from time to religious communities. Such conflicts also
time. Caste prejudices are yet another factor lead to feelings of insecurity and they loosen
that affects the way people behave or relate bonds of solidarity.
to others. Excessive caste-based loyalty is Economically speaking, communal

53 Sociology Std 12
conflicts retard economic growth and So long as this Inter-State rivalry is
development. Often, resources have to be economic and social (e.g. for funds and
diverted for the damage caused by communal welfare schemes), it is healthy. But when this
riots and clashes. Production suffers and there rivalry takes political overtones, it becomes
is severe monetary loss for the nation. very dangerous. Political parties give more
Politically speaking, communal conflict importance and weightage to local and
weakens democracy. It allows politicians to regional matters and problems rather than the
use religion as leverage into positions of nation as a whole. Regionalism thus strengthens
prominence for their vested interests. Also, on sectarian biases by political parties. Inter-
the international front, communal conflict regional tensions escalate over economic,
affects India’s image adversely and weakens political and such issues. This has led to
it considerably. regional movements for State rights and
militant movements for separatism. For
Religious antagonism has posed a serious
example, the Jammu and Kashmir issue, the
challenge to national integration in India. Our
Punjab problem, Assam issue etc. All this, if
history is fraught with accounts of frequent
unchecked, can strike at the very root of
conflicts due to religious differences. People
democracy.
belonging to different religions feel that their
religion is superior; this is a problem of Linguism : Linguism has its origin in
enhanced ethnocentrism. Religious the linguistic division of States and the
fundamentalists try to impose their religious linguistic minorities within the State. In every
practices on others, which leads to situations State, there is one dominant regional language.
of conflict. Along with this, there are other large sections
speaking other regional languages and dialects.
Political manipulation is often known to
They constitute the linguistic minorities. For
project one religion against the other which
example, in Maharashtra, Marathi is the
has resulted in communal riots, mutual distrust
dominant regional language. At the same time,
and disintegration. Large scale illiteracy and
there are a large number of people speaking
superstitions are responsible, along with other
Gujarati, Konkani, Sindhi, Punjabi, Tamil,
causes for the rise of communal violence and
Kannada etc. Even among Marathi-speaking
divisive tendencies in the country.
people, there are variations in dialect. If these
Religious fundamentalism can lead to minorities begin to feel that their interests are
acts of terrorism which can create a fear being disregarded and their welfare ignored,
psychosis in the minds of people. such a feeling is harmful to our national
Regionalism : Regionalism refers to unity and solidarity.
loyalty to one’s own State or region before Linguism today has acquired seriousness
one’s nation. This interferes with national and intensity. It has led to a definite form of
integration to a great extent. The history of linguistic nationalism which can provide
a particular region is glorified and often it is enough impetus for separatism in India.
misused to stress divisive forces, thus ignoring
Language plays an important role in
the common cultural legacy and heritage.
communication in an organisation. It enables
Regionalism emerges due to the desire us express opinions, share feelings and convey
of people speaking one language to have one messages and build knowledge. When
State. There is also a strong urge to give language becomes the basis for conflict
priority to the economic development of one’s between people, this problem is called
own region. This leads to Inter-State rivalries. linguism. It is a form of excess loyalty

54 Sociology Std 12
towards one’s own language. Linguistic hand, and on the other, there are very few
fanaticism poses a threat to national integration. who own excessive property. It is true that
Indian States have been divided on a the large part of resources available are
linguistic basis. People of one language try consumed by relatively few people who have
to establish their language over others. There the means to do so.
is conflict on the language issue even today. (3) Educational differences : This is
The notion of Hindi as an official language often influenced by the economic strata to
of the union does not find complete acceptance which one identifies and belongs. Ask yourself
across the country. There are many parts - ‘Who are the persons who can avail of
within India, where Hindi is largely unspoken professional courses? Who can afford private
– especially in South India and in some North school education? Who can afford an
Eastern States. international education?
The hounding of people who speak (4) Availability and access to
languages other than the dominant language opportunities : The purchasing capacity of
is well-known. The atrocities committed on individuals and groups determine our patterns
linguistic minorities deserves mention. The of consumption and the extent of consumption.
underrepresentation of tribal dialects and For example, so many anganwadis and
minority languages and decline in the study Primary Health Centres have no budgetary
of literature of various languages is also a provisions to improve their infrastructure and
matter of concern. services. How many children can have access
Economic Inequalities : The economic to mental health care, counsellors and
standard of people in a State depends on a psychologists?
number of factors like resources available, (5) Individual differences : All of us
management and organisation, fertility of land, have different capacities and capabilities.
distribution of wealth and so on. All States are These are a combination of our individual
not equal in this regard and this leads to potential as well as one’s societal experiences.
economic imbalances. Unequal distribution of For example, an individual may have a flair
wealth within a State causes tension and conflict. for art, music or acting. However, unless
Very often, wealth is concentrated in the hands there is scope to develop these abilities/skills,
of a few. Profits from the private sector end up it may be impossible to utilise one’s talent
in the hands of a few privileged sections and for individual or social benefit.
not for the common good. This kind of monopoly (6) Social environment : The social
does not allow healthy competition. environment in which one experiences life
There are several factors that are (for example: family, neighbourhood, peer
responsible for economic inequality in society. group, work place) influences and impacts
These include: how we develop as individuals and as a
(1) Family influence : The family to society.
which we belong influences our choices and The impact of globalisation has both
opportunities. For example, if one belongs to positive and negative consequences. One
the ‘Below Poverty Line’ (BPL) category it demerit is that it has widened the gap between
may be difficult for the parents to provide the rich and the poor. For example, the “mall”
healthy nutrition. Don’t we come across news culture found in the big cities clearly favour
of malnutrition deaths of infants? those who “have” than the “have nots”.
(2) Private property : Numerous people Privatisation of health care, insurance,
do not own physical property on the one occupation and education are more beneficial

55 Sociology Std 12
to the upper economic strata of society. need a collective effort. As we address such
Economic inequality persists in all social issues, welfare does not only remain at
systems of society. Even liberal democracies material prosperity, but about the overall
that are committed to equal citizenship have wellbeing of all people. Some policies have
not been able to escape this problem. In a to promote social cohesion and
free market system, inequality inevitably interdependence. So also, rights and
arises. People have different access to rewards responsibilities are for all; from the bottom
(such as money, influence, power etc.) because of the social hierarchy to the top.
of their personal or group characteristics. This Check your progress
exists in all societies across the globe. So 1. Identify two Constitutional provisions
those with higher status generally have better to protect weaker sections in Indian
access to rewards compared to those with a society.
lower status. Inequality is thus built into the 2. What do you understand by three-
fabric of society and tends to get passed language formula?
down from one generation to the next. 3. Identify three factors that hinder
Welfare State and differing slabs of national unity.
taxation were ways in which attempts were
made to minimise economic inequalities. It Activity 6
was thought that perhaps redistributing wealth Conduct a debate on :
from the affluent to the needy would help to
(a) Laws to protect minority groups
eradicate poverty. However, this does not
help to integrate them into society.
always work because help may not necessarily
reach those in need. Equality then seems like (b) The caste system should be abolished.
a receding horizon. (c) Protective discrimination is necessary
However, our understanding of equality in Indian society.
and inequality is undergoing a change. Today,
significant changes are observed in the status Activity 7
of women, minorities and the underprivileged. Conduct a class/group discussion
Side by side, we face new risks and threats on:
to our environment – which do not discriminate
‘Measures to promote National Unity.’
between the rich and the poor. For example,
pollution, global warming, and terrorism, lack
of hygiene or cleanliness – these are problems
which are created by human beings and which

56 Sociology Std 12
 SUMMARY
India
l is a land of diversities and yet l There are also forces that threaten
there is a sense of we-feeling which national unity as well as national
unifies us, as a people. integration. These factors are:
l Diversities are of various kinds: casteism, communalism, regionalism,
race, religion, language, region, linguism and economic inequality.
caste, class, gender. l The need of the hour is to
l Factors that have contributed develop an empathetic
towards a sense of unity include understanding of our multiple
the following: geographical factor, diversities, and work towards
religious factor, political factor, strengthening the overall sense of
linguistic factor and cultural factor. national unity and emotional
integration.

EXERCISES

Q.1 (A) Complete the following statements by (2) Promotes healthier relationships
choosing the correct alternative given (D) Correct the underlined words and
in the bracket and rewrite it. complete the statement.
(1) Gender is ___. (1) Conflict based on caste is called
(innate, genetic, learnt) communalism.
(2) “Social disparity encourages ___. (2) Sarvadharmasmabhava denotes the
(unity, divisiveness, homogeneity) Indian concept of unity amidst diversity.
(B) Correct the incorrect pair and Q.2 Write short notes.
rewrite it. (1) Gender Diversity
(1) (i) Conflict based on language - (2) Importance of Unity in Diversity
Linguism
Q.3 Write differences.
(ii) Conflict based on religion -
(1) Regionalism and Linguism
Terrorism
(2) Casteism and Communalism
(iii) Conflict based on caste -
Casteism Q.4 Explain the following concepts with
examples.
(iv) Conflict based on region -
Regionalism (1) Heteronormativity
(C) Identify the appropriate term from (2) Communalism
the given options in the box and
rewrite it against the given statement.

Totalitarianism, Class, Egalitarianism

(1) It is an achieved status.

57 Sociology Std 12
Q.5 (A) Complete the concept map. uniforms in Indian schools, with regard
to the value of unity?
Q.7 Answer the following question in
detail. (About 150-200 words)
What does unity mean to you? Discuss any
three factors which hinder unity. Describe two
Obstacles ways in which tribal and urban people can
to National Unity benefit each other to promote unity. Give
examples to illustrate your points.

Activity
As a class, collaborate with any
(B) State whether the following
association/club within your school
statements are True or False with and organise a co-curricular activity
reasons. open to all staff, students, parents and
(1) Economic inequality has no effect on the neighbourhood.
society. Aim: To promote unity.
(2) Constitutional and legal provisions Examples: Food Festival, Traditional
provide hope to weaker sections in Day, Fancy Dress, Poetry Reading,
Indian society.
Skit, Group Dance.
Q.6 Give your personal response.
(1) How can participation in sports foster
www
national integration?
(2) What is the significance of school

58 Sociology Std 12
 4. Processes of Social Change in India

When we speak of industrialisation

4.1 Industrialisation
as a process of social change, the industrial
4.2 Urbanisation revolution of the 17th and 18th century
4.3 Modernisation Europe comes to mind. It was a process
4.4 Globalisation whereby there was a change in the production
4.5 Digitalisation process as a result of the use of heavy
4.6 Impact of process of change machinery and which led to the decline of
guilds on one hand and growth and expansion
of factories on the other. This process spread
INTRODUCTION from Europe to other regions of the world.
Definitions of industrialisation
In the previous year you learnt about the
concept of social change, its characteristics B. Kuppuswamy : “Industrialisation
and factors that bring about change. You will means the use of unbiotic power such as
recall the impact of demographic, natural, electricity and steam for the mass production
educational, economic and socio-cultural of goods and easy transportation and
factors responsible for social change. These communication.”
are to be borne in mind when we discuss Fairchild : “Industrialisation is the
the processes of social change that have process of technological development by the
influenced Indian society and continue to do use of applied science, characterized by the
so even today. expansion of large scale production with
the use of power machinery, for a wide
Activity 1 market for both.”
Identify any four cities and study “Industrialisation is a process of
data about their industrial growth. social and economic change whereby a human
Present your findings to your class society is transformed from a State pre-
and follow it with a discussion. industrial to an industrial.”
Characteristics of industrialisation
4.1 INDUSTRIALISATION
(1) Growth of industries : This is a
significant characteristic of industrialisation. A
spurt in the growth of factories and industries
is apparant. You will recall learning in
Standard XI Sociology, about Industrial
Revolution in England, the Feudal system as
well as the Guild system. There is necessarily
a shift from handmade products which were
produced within the environs of one’s home
or shop, to machine-made products
manufactured in factories.
(2) Mechanisation : The development of
Industrialisation industries led to the mechanisation of

59 Sociology Std 12
workplaces. Mechanisation also implied the 4.2 URBANISATION
use of precision techniques and accuracy in
production. This in turn led to mass production
due to which machine-made goods were much
cheaper than handmade products. Workers
began to be replaced by machines. Also,
mechanisation led to workers feeling alienated
from the process of production.
(3) Capital-intensive : When one thinks
of industries today, there is intense
mechanisation and automation. Due to
advances in science and technology, industrial
Urbanisation
processes are largely automated. The extent
of automation would naturally depend on One of the inevitable effects of industrial
financial resources available. growth is the emergence of towns, cities that
(4) Labour-intensive : Early industries eventually grow into a metropolis. Modern
required skilled and unskilled human workforce urbanisation was the result of industrialisation.
to complete various tasks at all levels. The It is the opportunities of work that attracted
need for skilled workforce demanded skill- people to urban areas, thus giving momentum
specific training of apprentices at the to large scale exodus of people from villages
workplace. Later, special institutes came to cities. It led to urbanism – which is a
to be established to impart technical education typical feature of urban living.
and also for professional education. For Definitions of urbanisation
example, institutes for management training, Anderson : Urbanisation is a two-
colleges and universities offering courses in way process that involves movement from
Engineering, Pure Sciences, Organisational villages to cities and change from agricultural
and Industrial Psychology etc. occupation to business, trade, service and
(5) Division of labour : With changes profession and change in the migrants attitudes,
in the production processes brought in because beliefs, values and behavioural patterns.
of industrialisation, various tasks came to be Thomas Warren : (in the Encyclopedia
assigned on the basis of specific skills, level of Social Sciences) has defined urbanisation
of training, specialisation and expertise. This as “the movement of people from communities
led to differential wage payment and it furthered concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture
the formation of economic classes and the to other communities, generally larger, whose
subsequent growth of the trade union movement. activities are primarily centred in government,
trade, manufacture or allied interests”.
Activity 2
Marvin Olsen : Urbanisation must
Get 4 volunteers from your class consist of an inward flow of large number
to share their experiences (physical of people from scattered rural areas to urban
environment, economic life, customs, communities.
food, religious practices etc.) in a rural
Characteristics of urbanisation
village or city, in 5-7 minutes each.
They may make a PPT with visuals (1) Migration to urban centres : The
to support their presentations. Follow gradual emergence of factories led to the
up with a class discussion. migration of people from rural and tribal

60 Sociology Std 12
areas, to the factory locations. This in turn, areas. There are secondary modes of security
led to gradual increase in the number of control. For example, law enforcement
families living in and around the factories. systems such as traffic signals, city police,
Over a period of time, it led to population etc.
growth and residences around the factories. (6) Specialised division of labour :
Even today, the flux of people from all over Skills, training, specialisation and super
the country continuously, is reaching the specialisation carry a special significance in
urban centres in search of work. This the urban scenario. Division of labour is
movement of people for the purpose of based on one’s skills and expertise. For
employment has resulted into cities getting example, in a factory, different managers are
overpopulated. Such cities are expanding, appointed for specific tasks - production,
turning into metropolises. For example, finance, marketing, sales, advertising etc.
Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur. Even within these specific areas, the work is
(2) Industrial growth and commutation further divided, based on skills and
: Industrial growth is an essential feature of specialisation.
urban centres today. India has had earlier 4.3 MODERNISATION
phases of urbanisation. Migration as a result
of industrial expansion led to ‘spatial
segregation’, which means, the place of
residence and one’s place of work drift apart
with the passage of time. It is not uncommon
to find people in large cities, spending 3-4
hours in commuting to and from the workplace.
(3) Heterogeneity : Urbanisation led
to a heterogeneous gathering of people of
different gender, sexuality, caste, creed, class,
language, and so forth. This heterogeneous
co-existence has led to break down of several
traditional barriers, where one’s contribution
The term modernisation was coined by
becomes more valued.
Daniel Lerner. When one uses the term
(4) Urbanism as a way of life : Louis modernisation, it may be with reference to an
Wirth used the phrase “urbanism as a individual or group, or even to society as a
way of life” to describe what urbanisation whole. There is often a tendency to think of
does to people living in urban areas. They modernisation in economic terms. However,
develop a certain way of life which is typical along with the reference to economic life,
of the urban mind-set: distant, secondary-type modernisation can also be understood in terms
relations, calculative, independent, rational, of social life, technology, polity, culture,
less impact of traditions, family, religion, education and so forth. Modernisation has led
customs etc. to changes in values, beliefs and norms. Given
(5) Civil administration : Urbanisation below are some definitions of modernisation.
implies controls and obligations that are not Definitions of Modernisation
administered by traditional bodies such as
Daniel Lerner : “Modernisation is the
panchayats but municipal corporations. Such
current term of an old process of social change
bodies are responsible for planning,
whereby less developed societies acquire the
development and redevelopment of urban
characteristics, common to more developed

61 Sociology Std 12
societies.” able to explain the constructive and destructive
Rustow and Ward : “Modernisation is aspects of a phenomenon. Self-criticism,
the application of modern science to human willingness to introspect critically, is also an
affairs.” aspect of critical thinking.
Alatas : “Modernisation is a process Activity 3
by which modern scientific knowledge is
introduced in the society with the ultimate Conduct a 2-minute extempore
purpose of achieving a better and more speech competition in class on the
satisfactory life in the broadest sense of the topic: ‘Modernisation may be
term, as accepted by the society concerned.” perceived as a challenge in a
traditional society.’
Characteristics of modernisation
(1) Scientific temperament : This refers 4.4 GLOBALISATION
to the development of a scientific way of
understanding and explaining any phenomenon.
This may come from an education that is
based on scientific methods and an emphasis
on the need for empirical evidence in support
of given arguments.
(2) Rational outlook : This is linked
to the notion of rationalism; the approach
and ability to provide logical explanations
for any phenomenon. Scientific reasoning Globalisation
explains causal relationships (i.e. cause and
effect relationship) between factors. There is The process of globalisation in
a shift to secular and rational values from the Indian context received an impetus in
spiritual-religious values. 1991, when Dr. Manmohan Singh, the then
Finance Minister of India put into effect the
(3) Technological advancement : New Economic Policy. It was popularly
Several definitions of modernisation tend to called the ‘LPG Policy’ – Liberalisation,
emphasise on the fact of advancement in the Privatisation and Globalisation. It is a process
use of technology, which in turn is a that ‘opened up the skies’ for Indian economy.
characteristic of industrial societies. It calls India became part of a wider global economic
for precision techniques, specialised skills world where there could be free trade, free
and accuracy. flow of capital and resources, free enterprise
(4) Openness to new ideas : There is a etc. This economic policy brought in much
willingness to receive new ideas, examine scepticism and criticism. Globalisation has
alternatives, find new pathways, to explore had several positive and negative consequences.
creative ways to solve problems. Being Let us understand the nature of globalisation.
‘modern’ cannot be limited to only using Definitions of globalisation
modern devices or gadgets.
Martin Albrow and Elizabeth
(5) Critical thinking : This refers to King : Globalisation refers to “all those
the ability of critical evaluation. Persons who processes by which the peoples of the world
claim to be modern are willing to examine are incorporated into a single world society”.
daily events, literature, culture, art, customs,
beliefs from a critical point of view and be Anthony Giddens : “Globalisation

62 Sociology Std 12
worldwide social relations which link distant example, if one goes to a large shopping
localities in such a way that local happenings mart, you will find rows of products of a
are shaped by events occurring many miles wide variety. Large-scale markets have
away and vice versa”. provided people with options to choose from.
Roland Robertson : Globalisation is It has indeed resulted in increased consumerism,
“the compression of the world and the and thus made us more materialistic.
intensification of the consciousness of the world (5) Interdependence : You have heard
as a whole”. the term ‘global economy’. How has it
Characteristics of globalisation affected us all? It has made all people and
nations interdependent. We have numerous
(1) Liberal principle : The principle of
examples of parts of a product being
‘laissez faire’ is an integral aspect of
manufactured in one country and assembled
globalisation as a process of change. In the
in faraway places.
economic context it refers to opening up of
the economy to private players. This is called (6) Knowledge distribution :
the process of liberalisation. Such a process Globalisation is characterised by sharing of
brought together people from all walks of life. resources. This includes the sharing of
technological know-how, made easier by
‘Laissez-faire’ : The term is originally digital transformation across borders. We are
a French term which literally translates as familiar with the concept of ‘outsourcing’; it
“let do’. In the context of economics, the is the way by which people go beyond
term has come to mean free trade and geographical borders: people having required
free competition. It is a doctrine that skills and training get opportunities to perform
opposed governmental interference in the specific tasks, without moving out from their
economic sphere. location. For example, Business Processing
Outsourcing (BPO) in India operating for
American, British, Canadian firms.
(2) Private enterprise : Privatisation
is an allied process that accompanies Activity 4
globalisation. It is a process where services Given below is a way of finding
which were previously subject to government out about people’s lives. It is called
control, were opened up for private service narrative research. It is all about
providers in the fields like healthcare, hearing people’s stories.
insurance, radio, television, education etc.
Few volunteers from your class
(3) Profit motive : One of the main may speak to 1-2 small shops in the
motives for privatisation is to make profits. area and find out about their business.
With globalisation, there has been a sharp When did it start? Who started it? Are
increase in competition in every field. There there changes in their sales? Are there
are more opportunities and options available changes in people’s behaviour? Are there
to aspiring individuals. It has encouraged any problems faced by the sellers? If so,
many service providers to indulge in profiteering. what are they?
For example, numerous private educational Write about their stories in about
institutions, which operate like business houses. 200-300 words. Share with your class.
(4) Marketisation : Globalisation also See if you can see a pattern of
led to increase in production. This in turn experiences or behaviour.
has led to large-scale marketisation. For

63 Sociology Std 12
 4.5 DIGITALISATION aided the process of computerisation, which
in turn has digitised processes for several
sectors, for example, education, banking,
revenue, taxation, marketing etc.
(2) Frequent change : Digitalisation had
led to frequent changes in business models
due to growth in newer technologies. Have
you heard of the use of AI or Artificial
Intelligence for various purposes such as
production, manufacturing, surgery, robotics,
designing?
(3) Speed and accuracy : Digitalisation
Digitalisation has escalated the speed of the processes with
Digitalisation is the use of digital a far greater extent of accuracy. For example
technologies for handling data of various data mining, data processing, data analysis,
nature for various purposes. It involves the data management enables faster speeds, higher
process of digital transformation – which is degrees of accuracy and these in turn aid
basically a process to “radically improve the process of enhanced efficiency in various
performance or the reach of business”. This sectors – governance, medicine, trade,
term ‘digital transformation’ was coined by commerce, banking, insurance, real estate,
CapGemini (a French data processing stock markets, communication and
company) and the Centre for Digital Business transportation systems.
of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (4) Technology driven : Needless to
(MIT), USA. This includes overhauling the say, digitalisation is based on technology,
process, operations and customer relationships. innovation, research and development. You
Definitions of digitalisation might recall the days when one used 386 and
486 microprocessers in the 1980s; and today
Digitalisation is the integration of we talk of fifth generation microprocessors;
digital technologies into everyday life by the in the world of mobile technology one is now
digitisation of everything that can be digitised. shifting to 5G technologies.
Brennen and Kreiss : Digitalisation (5) Spurred creativity : The need for
is “the way in which many domains of social instant data and quick solutions to problems,
life are restructured around digital has encouraged human minds to invent,
communication and media infrastructures”. innovate, patent and create. For example even
Gartner : “Digitalisation is the use in the field of education, we are working
of digital technologies to change a business towards integrating technology for the purpose
model and provide new revenue and value of education in the 21st century. In the
producing opportunities”. context of pilot training, we have simulators
Characteristics of digitalisation to enable the trainees get a feel of the real
cockpit experience before they graduate to
(1) Computerisation : There is an
actually flying aeroplanes. It would have had
expansion of the use of computers in all
to be a creative mind that invented the
walks of life. Processes which were earlier
cockpit simulator.
manual or cumbersome, have now been
simplified through programming, information (6) Importance to customers :
technology and computer science. This has Digitalisation is finally meant to have utility

64 Sociology Std 12
value to the end users, i.e. the clients who breakdown of joint families and the shrinking
are recipients of such processes. For example, size of families. The advantages of the joint
for filing Income Tax returns, obtaining both family system are not always available in
Birth and Death certificate from the Municipal nuclear homes. Likewise, some disadvantages
Corporation, for On-line admission, for of large-size families may not be found in
declaration of Election results, etc – all of smaller homes.
these processes make use of digitalisation (2) Impact of Urbanisation : In terms
and it has radically transformed the processes, of the hold of customs, traditions, religion on
compared to those used just a few decades people’s behaviour, this too has diminished.
ago. The urban environment and way of life is
Activity 5 more materialist, radical, commercial,
individualist and non-conforming. Urbanisation
Identify any three Higher Secondary has led to the notion of being “lonely in a
School teachers in your locality or crowd”. The challenges of urban living are
school. Collect information about (a) the quite different from the environment in a
subject they teach, (b) their qualifications traditional society.
(c) number of years of teaching
(3) Impact of Modernisation : The role
experience, (d) whether they have
of education in demolishing obsolete notions,
computers in their school/college, (e)
beliefs and superstitions have paved a way
whether they use computers and if yes,
for developing a scientific temperament. The
for what purpose? Report your findings
debate of tradition versus modernity still
in class.
continues.
IMPACT OF PROCESSES OF (4) Impact of Globalisation : In post-
4.6 SOCIAL CHANGE ON INDIAN 1991 India, the impact of the world economy
SOCIETY on Indian society has brought about numerous
We have learnt about the processes of changes too. India is now an integral part of
industrialisation, urbanisation, modernisation, the global economy. Globalisation had led to
globalisation and digitalisation. Although criss-crossing between nations in terms of
industrial development, urban growth and knowledge, technical expertise, know-how,
modernisation got a boost with the effects of human resources etc. We are beset with the
British rule on Indian society, the processes positive and negative impact of globalisation.
of globalisation and digitalisation are relatively Activity 6
recent. These processes are not uniformly
'Globalisation has a positive effect
spread across the length and breadth of the
on Indian society.' Form two teams of
country.
four students each, and conduct a
Let us examine some aspects of their class debate. The teacher may prepare
impact. a black board summary of the
(1) Impact of Industrialisation : The learning points. It can be followed
process of industrial growth led to large-scale by an open discussion of observations
emergence of factories. This in turn resulted made by students.
in migration to places nearer the factory sites,
leading to the growth of towns, which soon (5) Impact of Digitalisation : This is also
became cities and then metropolitan cities. the era of computerisation and digitalisation.
With the growth of cities we have the The impact of changes resulting from these two
processes have had far-reaching changes in

65 Sociology Std 12
Indian society in terms of access to knowledge, challenges such as the impact of big industries
artificial intelligence, e-governance, e-commerce, on smaller ones; the impact on marketing,
e-learning, e-trade, e-shopping etc., the list is consumer behaviour, effect on educational and
endless. The click of a button can open up a job prospects, greater accountability and its
range of options to the user through a very effects, questions relating to individual privacy
simple procedure. While digitalisation has in the web-world, etc. A result of digitalisation
speeded up the processes of data mining and has been an increase in social networking.
data management, it has also led to various

SUMMARY
l
Indian society has undergone many l Globalisation is basically an
changes. Sociologists have studied these economic process that has opened
changes and identified concepts to the markets to a global economy.
explain these changes.
l Digitalisation is a process of the
l Industrialisation is a process whereby
impact of computers on various
human energy to produce was aspects of life.
replaced by mechanical process and
machines to enable higher production. l The impact of these processes are
far reaching and wide – on family,
l Urbanisation is the process of religion, traditions and customs,
migration of people from rural to lifestyle, occupations, understanding
urban areas. Louis Wirth refers to of gender, emergence of economic
‘Urbanism as a way of life’. disparity among classes.
l Modernisation is the process where
there is the use of scientific and
rational thinking that is deep seated.

EXERCISES

Q.1 (A) Complete the following statements by (B) Correct the incorrect pair and
choosing the correct alternative given rewrite it.
in the bracket and rewrite it. (i) Competitive market -
(1) The use of computers to streamline job Computerisation
applications is called ___ . (ii) Growth of cities - Urbanisation
(industrialisation, globalisation, (iii) Increase in production -
digitalisation) Industrialisation
(2) An urban way of life is characterised (iv) Radical transformative use of
by ___. (cohesiveness, uniformity, technology - Digitalisation
impersonality)

66 Sociology Std 12
 (C) Identify the appropriate term from (B) State whether the following
the given options in the box and statements are True or False with
rewrite it against the given statement. reasons.
Urbanism, Industrialisation, Digitalisation (1) The clothes one wears is indicative of
an individual’s level of modernisation.
(1) The FYJC On-line Admission process (2) Urbanisation can have negative effects
in metropolitan cities. on our social relationships.
(2) Mechanisation of the process of Q.6 Give your personal response.
production.
(1) Shagufta Ranawat and her joint family
(D) Correct the underlined words and have been living in Nagpur city for
complete the statement. almost three generations. Their
(1) The Industrial Revolution took place grandchildren are uninclined to want
in the sixteenth century. to settle down in their grandparent’s
(2) The LPG Policy was started by Smt. village. Give two possible reasons for
Indira Gandhi. the grandchildren’s views.
Q.2 Write short notes. (2) Some people feel insecure about
(1) Negative effects of digitalisation digitalisation processes, for example,
in banking or online purchasing. Why
(2) Consequences of industrialisation
do you think this is the case?
Q.3 Write differences.
Q.7 Answer the following question in
(1) Industrialisation and Urbanisation detail. (About 150-200 words)
(2) Modernisation and Globalisation ‘The World Wide Web is a source of
Q.4 Explain the following concepts with information and misinformation.’ Discuss this
examples. statement with regard to the impact of internet on:
(1) Digitalisation (i) Parents
(2) Urbanisation (ii) Children
Q.5 (A) Complete the concept map. (iii) School

Activity
Hold a class discussion at the
end of each process of change, to
discuss the positive and negative
Negative effects of impact of each process. Develop a
Urbanisation flow chart or concept map for each
process of social change.

www

67 Sociology Std 12
 5. Social Movements in India

It involves a collective action. A group

5.1 Meaning and Nature of Social collectivity has to be part of the movement.
Movements
(2) Planned and deliberate action :
5.2 Women’s Movement in India Social movements have to be preplanned to be
5.3 Workers’ Movement in India executed effectively. Movements are deliberate
5.4 Farmers’ Movement in India initiatives and not spontaneous in nature.
5.5 Environmental Movements in India (3) Ideology and objectives : A social
movement is backed by an ideology. The
ideology guides the course of the movement.
MEANING AND NATURE OF It has a set of objectives to fulfill.
5.1
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS (4) Social change : Social movements
Meaning and Definitions are oriented towards bringing about a change.
It usually demands change in the already
The term Social Movement was introduced established order or it resists change initiated
by the German Sociologist Lorenz Von Stein by the authorities.
in the book, ‘History of the French Social
Movement from 1789 to the Present’ in the Types of Social Movements
year 1850. It became popular in the European Collective actions like protests, agitations,
discourse in the early 19th century. There is rebellions, resistances and even riots are
no single definition of a social movement. understood as forms of social mobilisation.
Different Sociologists have highlighted varying However, these actions differ from social
constituents of social movements in varying movements.
contexts. Social movements can be classified in
Turner and Killian : A collectivity various ways using different criteria. All the
acting with some continuity to promote or classifications are based on scope, objectives
resist a change in the society or group of and operations.
which it is a part. (a) Cultural Anthropologist David Aberle
Herbert Blumer : Collective enterprises has identified four kinds of social
to establish a new order of life. movements, based on two criteria
Sidney Tarrow : Collective challenges what is the target group for change
to authority, established cultural codes by people and how much change is advocated.
with common purposes and solidarity in sustained The types are: Alternative Social
interactions with elites, opponents and authorities. Movements, Reformative Social
Movements, Redemptive Social
Characteristics of Social Movements Movements, and Revolutionary Social
Social Movements are different in nature, Movements.
features, pace and operations. The important (b) Herbert Blumer has classified social
characteristics of social movements are as movements into three major
follows : categories  : General social movements,
(1) Essentially collective in nature : Specific social movements and
Social movement is not an individual action. Expressive social movements.

68 Sociology Std 12
 Social Reform Movement in India : of child marriage. His wife, Savitribai
Social reform has continued throughout our Phule also worked alongside for the
Indian history. However organised social emancipation of women.
movements for reform started since the 19th l Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj was
century. These movements were especially the ruler of the princely state of Kolhapur
driven by the intelligentsia of society and (1874-1922). He was a broad minded
included stalwarts such as Raja Rammohan visionary and a dedicated social reformer.
Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Mahatma He vehemently attacked the caste system
Jotiba Phule, Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj, and worked ceaselessly for the cause of
Maharshi Karve, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, ‘untouchables’.
Mahatma Gandhi and so on.
l Maharshi Karve was known for
These movements made efforts to his efforts to promote the education of
promote change in various ways. They women. In 1907 he started the Mahila
covered a wide range of areas such as Vidyalaya and in 1916, the Karve Women’s
religion, caste, women’s empowerment, University (now renamed SNDT University).
untouchability, exploitation of the poor,
l Dr. B. R. Ambedkar a jurist, an
farmers’ issues etc. We shall briefly examine
economist and a reformer, worked against
the significant contributions of some of
discrimination of the marginalised
these reformers.
categories. His slogan, “Educate, organise,
l Raja Rammohan Roy in 1828, agitate” inspired millions of people. The
through the Brahmo Samaj, took up Depressed Classes Education Society was
religious, social and educational reforms established by him in 1928.
and began a crusade against the practice of
l Mahatma Gandhi was a lawyer
Sati. The abolition of Sati Act in 1829 is
and political leader. He employed non-
a result of his efforts.
violent resistance to lead the successful
l Swami Dayanand Saraswati campaign for India’s Independence. He led
through the Arya Samaj (1875) rejected a nationwide campaign for eradicating
caste system, idol worship and superstitions. poverty, expanding women’s rights and
He strived for the progress of women and building religious tolerance. His mission
eradication of illiteracy. was to end untouchability and achieve
l Mahatma Jotiba Phule established swaraj (self-rule). He is regarded as ‘The
the Satya Shodhak Samaj in 1873. He was Father of the Nation’ and is affectionately
deeply concerned with women’s issues - called Bapu.
education, widow remarriage and prohibition

Causes of Social Movements expectations in society. When the gap between

The emergence of social movements may what is expected and what is accepted widens
be due to various factors. Considering the fact beyond the permissible range in a given
that society is a continuously growing organism; society, conflict emerges, resulting in the
the emergence of a social movement can be possibility of a social movement.
attributed to the following causal situations: (2) Social Disorganisation : Different
(1) Cultural Drift : A cultural drift may processes of change like industrialisation,
imply rapid change in values, ideas and urbanisation etc. may lead to uneven and
unequitable growth in society. New norms

69 Sociology Std 12
can clash with the already established norms. specified cause and declines. Social change
Existence of old as well as new norms in does not follow any such sequence. Secondly,
the society at the same point of time can a social movement is an organised, planned
lead to a sense of confusion. activity, however social change is embedded
(3) Perceived Social Injustice : When a in society; also it may not always be a
group of people develop a sense of deliberate and conscious struggle. Thirdly,
dissatisfaction and discontent towards certain though social movements are found in all
decisions taken by the authority, they feel societies, it cannot be said that they are
frustrated and unhappy. Such a feeling can universally present all the time in all societies.
result in a sense of social injustice, eventually Social change is universal and inevitable in
culminating into a movement. society.
(4) Rigidity in the normative structure : WOMEN’S MOVEMENT
5.2
To ensure order and discipline, every society IN INDIA
lays down a set of norms suitable to its
In the broad framework of social
members. Behaviour patterns have to match
movements that India has witnessed,
with the normative structure of society.
experienced and grown with; the Women’s
However in certain cases the norms lose their
Movement continues to hold special
flexibility and thus do not match with
significance. In terms of the scope and
expectations of the masses.
spread, it spans over a long period and has
Activity 1 influenced majority of the population over
the globe. The Women’s Movement can be
Small group discussion: Form studied with the help of the following phases:
groups of 5-7 students. Identify various
forms of social injustice that you have
observed in your village/town/locality.
Make a list of the same. Find out
names of various organisations that
work to remove such injustices or
which create awareness about the
injustices. (For example, the problems
faced by specially abled persons, or
migrants.)

Social Movements and Social Change

Women’s movement
Social movements and social change are
interconnected. This implies that every social (1) Impact of Social Reformers : The
movement aims to alter the society and thus roots of the Women’s Movement can roughly
is instrumental in bringing about change. be traced to the beginning of the 19th century,
However, it does not imply that every form when small groups of women and a few
of social change is the result of social enlightened (progressive) men addressed the
movements. The two processes though are issue of unequal status of women in India.
strongly connected; it is important to The then Women’s movement overlapped
distinguish between social movement and with the Social Reform Movement in many
social change. Firstly, a social movement has ways. Mahila Mandals were formed by
a life cycle - it emerges, operates for the Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj. These

70 Sociology Std 12
provided a platform to women, to exchange struggle. When men freedom fighters were
ideas and grow. Social reformers like Raja imprisoned; their women counterparts handled
Rammohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, the difficult and challenging circumstances.
Mahadev Govind Ranade, Behramji Malbari Women leaders who deserve mention in this
challenged the customary practices which context are Kasturba Gandhi, Vijayalakshmi
were discriminatory. The concerted efforts of Pandit, Annie Beasant and Sarojini Naidu.
reformers resulted in the British government Annie Besant led the famous Home Rule
intervening in the matters. The government Movement in which many women participated.
enacted laws like, The Prevention of Sati Act Sarojini Naidu worked for Women’s Suffrage
(1829), The Widow Remarriage Act (1856), (right to vote) and led the Congress wing in
The Female Infanticide (Prevention) Act (1870), the Civil Disobedience movement. In addition,
The Age of Consent at Marriage Act (1891). Muthulaxmi Reddy, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur,
Conscious efforts were made to educate Sarala Devi, Sucheta Kriplani, Aruna Asaf
women in order to bring them on par with Ali participated in the Non-violence
Indian men. The Irish born feminist, Margaret Movement. The Quit India Resolution passed
Cousins was instrumental in establishing in the year 1942, addressed women as
Women’s Indian Association in Madras ‘Disciplined Soldiers of Indian Freedom
(today Chennai). It can be looked at as an Struggle’.
important development because it was almost (3) Post-Independence Era : The Post-
like India’s first feminist group. She organised Independence period witnessed a slowing
a conference in Pune in which delegates of down of the Women’s Movement because
different women’s groups pooled in their political independence overshadowed it’s
ideas about education for women. This focus and purpose. The Constitution of India
meeting crystallised ideas and inputs about incorporated several clauses highlighting
promoting women’s education in India. The equality and justice to the Indian citizens,
All India Women’s Conference was men and women alike. Several issues like
established in the year 1926. The impact of tribal unrest, economic crisis, student’s
the British on the general aim and philosophy agitation led to collective struggles and
of the Women’s movement cannot be denied. protests, thus taking away the singular focus
Liberalism in thoughts and approach had set of the women’s movement.
in, encouraging women to educate themselves. The decade 1975-85 was announced as
Though most women beneficiaries belonged the International Women’s Decade and the
to the upper caste with an elite background; year 1975 was declared as the International
the British period did push the women’s Women’s Year by the United Nations
cause for the welfare of humankind. Women (U.N.O.). A committee was formed to study
became more aware of their status and the status of women in India. The committee
position in Indian society. published its report in the year 1974. The
(2) Impact of Nationalist Movement : report, ‘Towards Equality’ addressed issues
The Nationalist Movement witnessed increased of invisibility of women, patriarchy and
participation of women. The impact of violence against women. The findings of the
Gandhiji on the thought and participation of report proved to be of pivotal importance
women was manifold. Mobilisation of women because it brought to the forefront the
to fight for political independence implied discriminatory and exploitative practices
women becoming aware about their rights. against women in post-independent India. It
Women participated in large numbers in surveyed and reviewed several issues
protests and agitations during the independence pertaining to the problems of women that

71 Sociology Std 12
were assumed to be handled by then. activitists, enlightened men, voluntary non-
This phase of Women’s movement governmental organisations and government
focussed more on violence against women, itself. It continues to operate vehemently with
sex stereotyping, and further legislative shifting paradigms and perspectives.
demands for equality of women. By the You should know !
1980s, women’s organisations were active in
Bombay (Mumbai), Pune and Delhi. The Vishaka Guidelines refer to
Newsletters like Baija, The Feminist Network, the problem of work-place related sexual
Manushi were published, to bring women’s harassment. These were initially
issues to the forefront. By the end of the announced by the Supreme Court of
International Women’s Decade in 1985, the India in 1997, and further revised in
focus of the movement had shifted 2013. Such a legal provision ensures a
considerably. Cases that proved decisive in safe and healthy work environment for
determining the modern course of the women.
Women’s Movement are – Mathura Rape
case (1972), Roop Kanwar Sati case (1987), Activity 2
Nirbhaya Rape case (2012). Increasing
Find out about women’s groups /
instances of crime against women like dowry
NGOs in your locality (e.g. anganwadi
deaths, eve teasing, and domestic violence
women teachers, lesbian women, Dalit
were the reference points for feminists to
women’s groups, Muslim women’s
sharpen the focus of the movement.
organisations). Visit their organisation
Recently, a Dalit feminist movement has to find out about the work that they do.
also emerged, that addresses issues related You may interview the group members
specifically to this section. or their volunteers, to find out about the
(4) Towards Women’s empowerment : nature of their work or outreach
The movement continues to gather momentum programmes, problems they face etc.
by percolating into the rural and tribal parts Present your findings in class. Initiate a
of India. It takes variety of forms ranging discussion.
from women as beneficiaries to women as
participants. Women from different professions WORKERS’ MOVEMENT
5.3
like journalism, academics, medicines and IN INDIA
corporates have enthusiastically joined in the
An appropriate starting point to
mission of empowering women.
understand the workers’ movement in India
The Women’s Movement can said to be would be the process of industrialisation in
the most prolific and pluralist movement. Its India. The advent of factory system and
evolution and growth cannot be described in modern industry changed several of the
a monolithic fashion, using a singular important features and patterns in Indian
criterion of chronology, ideology or geography. society. It transformed our economy and
It has gone through several phases. The basic revised the division of labour with reference
objectives of the movement can be summarised to the new production system. There emerged
into three important points : (i) struggle for two classes in society namely, the industrialists
equal rights, (ii) elimination of discriminatory (factory owners) and the labourers (workers).
practices, (iii) realisation and actualisation of Since modern industry thrives on profit
women’s potential to empower themselves. maximisation, the exploitation of workers in
The participants in the movement are: women terms of extraction of work, minimisation of

72 Sociology Std 12
wages, long hours of work, delays in promotion, in this stage. Several philanthropists took a
reduced wages, poor work conditions, became conscious note of the dissatisfaction among
a feature of industrialising societies. Such workers and tried to bring in welfare measures
situations prompted workers to get together to remedy the situation. According to many
to protest against the system in India. scholars, it was more like a movement for
The course of industrial working class workers, than a movement by workers.
movement can broadly be divided into four Moreover the movement was quite moderate
stages: in its approach.
(2) Rise of Pressure Groups (1918 to
1947) : After World War I several changes
in the economy and industry took place.
Costs and profits went up. However, the
wages and work conditions for workers did
not improve. This resulted in mass discontent
and unrest. Strike is a major power weapon
in the hands of labour. Several strikes from
the period 1918 to 1920 made workers
dissatisfaction palpable. There were upsurges
from Textile mill workers from Bombay
(Mumbai), Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Madras
Workers’ movement
(Chennai), and the woollen mills of Kanpur,
(1) Emergence of the Workers’ the jute mills of Calcutta (Kolkotta), the steel
Movement (1850 to 1918) : The first phase company of Jamshedpur, the Railway workers
was preliminary and revolved around of Bombay (Mumbai) and Jabalpur and the
spontaneous, isolated incidents of protests by Seafarers of Bombay (Mumbai). Most of
groups of workers without prior planning and these strikes emerged spontaneously and in a
organisation. general sense, the causal factors were related
In March, 1875 Shapurji Bengalee to wages and remuneration.
revolted against the bad conditions of labour. The emergence of Trade Unions as a
His efforts resulted in enactment of the First pressure group can be said to be a very
Factories Act in 1881. Another important important development in the Workers’
activist who deserves mention is Narayan movement. The industrial environment of
Meghaji Lokhande. The first workers’ mass discontent led to the emergence of a
organisation in India the ‘Bombay Mill Hands more organised Trade Union Movement in
Association’ was started on 23rd September India. In October 1920, a conference of the
1884 under his guidance. He organised a representatives of 64 Trade Unions was
conference of mill workers in Bombay organised. It resulted in the establishment of
Presidency to consolidate the demands and All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)
problems of workers and passed resolutions under the chairmanship of Lala Lajpatrai. In
to improve the conditions. Narayan Meghaji 1926, the government passed the Indian
Lokhande is recongnised as the Father of Trade Union Act whereby all registered
the Indian Workers Movement. unions were granted constitutional recognition.
The second phase was marked by a The Bombay Textile Labour Union which
conscious understanding of the issues and operated under the leadership of N. M. Joshi,
problems faced by workers. The formation of was the first union to get its recognition
Trade Unions was an important development under the Act in 1926.

73 Sociology Std 12
 The period also witnessed the emergence were pertaining to wages, bonus, overtime
of the Leftist ideology with a prominent which consequently changed to suspension
influence of Marxian thought in the Workers’ from work, unfair dismissal, and workers’
Movement. This culminated into training the rights. As industry advanced, grievances
working class to mobilise themselves against changed further to include lack of opportunities
the capitalist structure with the aim of for promotion, scope to experiment, workers
overthrowing the exploitative system. dignity etc. Every established political party
The world economic crisis known as the developed its own Trade Union wing with
‘Great Depression’ adversely affected the the purpose of having an element of control
Workers’ Movement in India. The number of on workers and expanding its vote bank.
strikes increased and leaders like Muzaffer This consequently implied that the bigger the
Ahmed and Shripad Amrut Dange played an political party, more powerful was its hold
important role in intensifying workers struggle. on workers. Similarly, a split in a party
The Trade Unions diversified according to resulted in division of unions. For example,
different ideological orientations. In order to when the Communist wing split into CPI and
bring in coordination, the National Trade CPM, the Union was taken over by CPI and
Union Federation (NTUF) was established. the latter established a separate body called
The united efforts of AITUC and NTUF did the Centre for Indian Trade Unions (CITU).
not bring in much relief; the tension and (4) Consolidation and Diversification
enmity among different unions continued. of the Movement (after 1960) : Up to the
(3) Role of INTUC (1948 to 1960) : In early 1950s, Workers’ Movement successfully
the year 1947, the Indian National Trade fought the battle of workers marked with
Union Congress (INTUC) was formed. In considerable gains with regard to
1948 a separate organisation, independent of remuneration, work conditions etc. The 1960s
political affiliation, to safeguard and promote witnessed a lull in economic growth and
rights of workers was established. It was expansion. The managements started resisting
known as Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS). demands of the workers due to economic
Those who did not agree with the principles slow down. The Industrial Disputes Act
of HMS consequently established a parallel 1947, was passed to ensure industrial peace
body called United Trade Union Congress and harmony by providing a mechanism and
(UTUC) in 1949. The Bharatiya Mazdoor procedure for the investigation and settlement
Sangh (BMS) was established in the year of industrial disputes. It allowed the usage of
1955. When Congress came to power in mechanisms like conciliation, arbitration and
1947 the activities of Trade Unions were adjudication to mitigate the conflict between
scrutinised and even criticised. The most workers and management.
important criticism being that the workers’ Even in adverse conditions, up till 1970s
unions and their activities were now monitored the movement did a promising job of representing
by the government itself. the interests and problems of workers.
Besides these four major central workers The Workers’ Movement lost its
organisations, several other trade unions momentum after 1970s. The Textile industry
continued to play an important role in the strike which lasted roughly for eight years,
workers’ movement. In the subsequent years proved to be the last strike of its kind. The
strike continued to be used as a mechanism historical Great Bombay Textile Strike
by workers, against industrialists. In the started in January, 1982 by the mill workers
1960s the grievances among the workers in Mumbai under the Union leader Datta

74 Sociology Std 12
Samant. In all 65 Textile Mills, which the union leaders emerged as a category, (iv)
implied 250,000 workers, stopped working. the significant role played by the government.
The main aim of the strike was a demand With globalisation the role of the government
for hike in wages and bonus related matters. is altered as well, (v) Politicisation of unions.
Along with the demand for a wage hike,
Datta Samant also demanded scrapping of Activity 3
The Bombay Industrial Act of 1947. The Form groups of 6 students. Identify a
then government firmly rejected the demand workers’ movement in your locality or
of the workers’ unions. The strike continued region. Make a PPT of 12 slides. The
for years, resulting in major loss for industry content should provide information on how
and extreme pauperisation among workers. they were established, the significant
Many workers had to sell off their subsistent, persons associated with the movement,
meagre assets and move to suburban parts their major output or successes, the
of Mumbai. The strike left quite a negative challenges they faced. Make your
impact on the industrial relations between the presentation in class. All group members
labour, industry and the government. should discuss a minimum of 2-3 points.
As per the Report of Labour Bureau of The presentation may be followed by a
the Ministry of Labour, Government of India, Q&A session.
2012, there were approximately 16,154 Trade
Unions in India. Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh FARMERS’ MOVEMENT
continues to be the largest Trade Union in 5.4
IN INDIA
India. The movement is largely divided along
political lines. Given the current situation in
industry, the role of the government is
significantly altered. Certain prominent
Central Trade Union Organisations recognised
by the Ministry of Labour, Government of
India are AITUC (All India Trade Union
Congress), INTUC (Indian National Trade
Union Congress) and SEWA (Self Employed
Womens’ Association). The trade unions are
often affiliated to larger federations. Trade
Union Federations like The All Indian Bank Farmer’s movement
Employee Association and Railway Trade
Unions continue to operate. One of the India is predominantly an agricultural
prominent federations in the country which country. A majority of the Indian population
represents labour at a national level is the follow agricutlure-related occupations. A
Central Trade Union Organisation (CTUO) range of groups are associated with farming
in India, the most predominant of which may
The Workers’ Movement has come a be said to be the farmers. Farmers are a
long way. Certain remarkable changes that geographically scattered category. However
deserve mention are: (i) workers’ issues for instances of the consolidation of their power
which the movement had fought, (ii) the as a response to unrest and suppression are
leadership under which it was shaped. It documented in Indian history. The Farmers’
began with philanthropists working for the struggle in India is documented with reference
betterment of workers, (iii) workers themselves to the following important phases:
who started fighting for the cause, from here

75 Sociology Std 12
 (1) Early Agitations (1857 to 1921) : leadership of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati,
Kathleen Gough has described the British with the purpose of raising voices against the
period highlighting the changes that impacted Zamindari system. The representatives of the
the rural pockets of India. Firstly, the early Kisan Sabhas from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh,
part of the British rule was marked by presented a memorandum in the All Party
exploitative revenue system. The farmers, Conference, covering the major demands.
peasants had to rely on the money-lenders to Two struggles of the peasantry of Bardoli
pay lagaan (Taxes) to the British authorities. district, Gujarat broke out in succession; the
During this phase the Zamindari system first in 1928-29 and the second in 1930-31.
became prevalent through which landlords, The movement gathered momentum in
could snatch away land from poor farmers the 1930s. In 1935, the first Kisan Congress
when the farmers were unable to pay taxes. was held which was successful in putting
Many small cultivators lost their right over forth the unrest and agony of farmers. This
their hereditary land and resources. The resulted in the formation of the All India
problem was further compounded by famines Kisan Sabha (ALKS) at the Lucknow session
and natural calamities during this period. of the Indian National Congress in April
Indebtedness increased and exploitation 1936. The struggle spread to the other parts
multiplied. This led to massive discontent of India as well. In Punjab, the farmers’
among farmers. movement erupted under the leadership of
Several revolts took place during this Raja Mahendra Pratap. The Ghadar party
period. Several sociologists like A. R. Desai, played a very important role in mobilising
D. N. Dhanagare have documented the series farmers and peasants of Punjab together. In
of struggles by peasants and farmers against Gujarat, Mahatma Gandhi led the struggle of
the British government. To name a few, the poor farmers against the British government
Deccan riots against money lenders, the in Kheda. In the Southern belt (e.g. in
upsurge by Bengal tenants against Zamindari, Andhra Pradesh), the struggle erupted against
the Punjab Kisan struggles against money the Forest Law. This phase is also
lenders etc. During 1917-18 two peasant characterised by worsening of peasant
struggles led by the National Congress are position, consequently culminating into a
important, namely, the Champaran Struggle series of revolts and rebellious actions.
in Bihar against Indigo planters and the (3) Post-Independence period : Political
Satyagraha movement of the peasants in independence did not translate into
Kaira against collection of land revenue in a improvement of the conditions for peasants
situation of crop failure. The Congress formed and farmers. The emergence of farmers’
Peasant Committees to take note of the unrest movement in the Post-Independence era can
and demands of peasant grievances. be located somewhere in the 1970s.
(2) Emergence of Kisan Sabhas (1922 Understandably the unrest was felt in the
to 1946) : The initiative by the Congress States that were agriculturally, commercially
party to support the interests of landlords and developed States, in their economic orientation.
Zamindars triggered a backlash. The Congress e.g. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
supporting the capitalists did not go down Gujarat, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. New
well with a section of struggling farmers. In ideological perspectives influenced the course
1926-27 many Kisan Sabhas were organised of the movement in the Post-Independence era.
in Bengal, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh with In the 1960s and 70s the movement
revolutionary plans in mind. The Kisan became more organised. Charansingh became
Sabha movement started in Bihar under the a very important name in the farmers’

76 Sociology Std 12
struggle. He opposed heavy mechanisation ENVIRONMENTAL
and industrialisation; and championed low 5.5
MOVEMENT IN INDIA
capital investment in agriculture. He formed
the Bharatiya Kranti Dal (BKD) and the Gadgil and Guha have defined
Bhartiya Lok Dal (BLD) in 1974. By the Environmental Movement as, “An organised
1970s farmers started forming their groups, social activity consciously directed towards
without the backing of any political promoting sustainable use of natural resource,
organisation. In 1973 a convention of farmers halting environmental degradation or bringing
was held in New Delhi, it was followed by about environmental restoration.” The terms
yet another convention in 1978. It presented Green Movement, Conservation Movement
a 20-point charter of demands to the are also used alternatively to refer to the
government. Demands like representation of Environmental Movement.
farmers on decision-making bodies, bridging Environmentalism is a broad philosophy.
the imbalance between agriculture and It is centred around a genuine concern for the
industry etc. were included. During this time conservation and improvement of the habitat
Tamil Nadu and Punjab witnessed emergence around us, more specifically the environment
of strong farmers’ organisations. In 1980, the and civilisation. Several direct and indirect
formation of the Shetkari Sangatana under threats to the well being of human life are
the leadership of Sharad Joshi and Karnataka perceived as an inevitable consequence of
Rajya Ryot Sangh under the leadership of modernisation and industrialisation. The
M. D. Nanjundaswamy are milestones in the erratic demographic, social and cultural
Farmers’ movement in India. inconsistencies in lifestyle are posing serious
With the processes of industrialisation problems to ecological balance.
and globalisation, conditions have changed (1) Emergence of the Environmental
rapidly for farmers. With seasonal fluctuations, Movement in India : Modern environmentalism
apathy of the government and negligence by began in the 1960s. Increased awareness and
masses, farmers continue to suffer in India. mass consciousness about environmental
Abysmal work conditions are drawing farmers degradation led to the organisation of many
to a state of despair. Farmers’ suicide has activities, programmes and publications.
become a common affair. In March 2018, President Richard Nixon signed the US
thousands of farmers from different parts of Environmental Policy Act in the year 1970.
Maharashtra got together to march to Azad Since then, 22nd April is celebrated as ‘Earth
Maidan (Mumbai), to convey to the Day’ all over the world. In 1972, the United
government their grievances and frustrations. Nations Conference on Human Environment
For the first time ever, the term ‘Farmers’ held at Stockholm triggered the interest of
Strike’ was used by media personnel, when many environmentalists. The Green Movement
farmers ignored the market in disgust, in Germany and North America in the early
throwing agricultural produce on roads. A 1980s played a significant role in spreading
radically new chapter was added to the awareness about the importance of protecting,
farmers movement in India. preserving and harnessing ‘Mother Earth’.
Activity 4 Consequently the movement spread to other
parts of the globe as well.
Collect newspaper and journal
Indian society like most developing
reports on farmer suicides in the past
countries is characterised by an almost
year. Display this information on your
insensitive and unrestricted exploitation of
class bulletin board.

77 Sociology Std 12
resources. The Environmental Movement in reliance on modern science and technology,
India can be said to be unique in its and viewing environmental degradation as
orientation and objectives than other social rooted in the inequalities in society. Thus, the
movements for the following reasons: causes of the environmental movement are
The movement aims at the collective more than mere ecological; these are more
goodness of humankind as against most of economic and social.
the other movements where the target group (3) Significant Environmental Movements
is specific and defined. in India : The environmental movement does
The scope of the movement is wide not have a monolithic profile. It has a broad
and inclusive in the sense it has incorporated scope. It encompasses issues related to
within its folds, categories that are ecology, health, human rights, tribal rights,
marginalised for different reasons, like tribal, eco-feminism etc. To appreciate the broad
farmers and women. spectrum of the movement it is important to
note that the movement is more like a series
The movement has utilised non–violent
of independent but constituent revolts,
yet assertive means to present its agenda of
insurgencies and rebellion. Harsh Sethi has
preservation of environment.
presented five prominent categories of
The movement has constantly struggles associated with environmentalism,
compelled authorities to factor in the collective namely, (i) forest and forest resources, (ii)
goodness of ecology while making policies land use, (iii) water, (iv) anti-dam and (v)
and implementing laws. against different types of pollution and
(2) Causal Issues : Environmental marine resources. Some significant
movements have emerged as a reaction to environmental movements are mentioned
several threats to ecological balance. The below:
causes are interconnected and inevitable.
Rapid environmental degradation due to
industrialisation, urbanisation and excessive
use of technology is a prime cause of
concern. Rapid population growth has led to
indiscriminate use of natural resources. Major
issues pertaining to land, water and
biodiversity are adversely affecting the
ecological balance of society. Problems like
deforestation, air pollution, marine and
coastal problems, soil pollution have become
common manifestations of ecological imbalance.
Scholars insist that the environmental
movement in India is the product of the
conflict between different ideological views.
The theme of the interface between humans
and nature is central to the movement.
Gandhiji’s idea of Gram Swarajya is based
on rationalism and self-sufficiency rooted in Chipko movement
the indigenous soil with the aim of harnessing
Chipko Movement : It was started by
and sustaining our own sources, as against
Amrita Devi. It is a unique movement. From
the model of Radical Marxism with a heavy

78 Sociology Std 12
its very inception and throughout the course; Narmada Bachao Andolan : Jawaharlal
it is marked by the Gandhian principle of Nehru referred to dams as ‘Temples of
non-violence and is known for the active Modern India’. In the post-Independence
participation of women in it. Chipko stands period several large scale dam projects were
for ‘hug-the-tree’. The movement was started sanctioned. Though the purpose of building
in March 1973, in Chamoli district in the dams can never be contested, the inevitable
Himalayan region under the leadership of impact of building dams in most cases is
Sunderlal Bahuguna. Most of the Chamoli displacement. Displacement leads to loss of
district is covered by forests. The livelihood livelihood for tribals and local people.
of inhabitants residing there is closely linked
to the forests. The subsistence economy was
primarily based on agriculture and forests
produce. With the predominance of agrarian,
food-gathering and pastoral economy, there was
heavy reliance on forests produce.
However, demographic and economic
factors led to indiscriminate use of forests and
led to deforestation. Processes of
industrialisation and development led to Medha Patkar and demonstrators
improvement in the means of transport and
communication. People involved in
developmental projects challenged the
established claim of local people on forests.
Loss of means of livelihood affected and
angered people leading to the emergence of
the movement. In April 1973, when the
contractors along with the workers reached
Mandal village to cut trees and to clear
jungles spaces allotted to them by the State
government, the inhabitants hugged the trees,
to resist and to mark their protest. The action
happened at a mass level, as a result of which
the authorities had to retreat. The women of Sardar Sarovar Dam
the village also participated in the protest.
This incident boosted the morale of several Narmada is the largest West-flowing
other groups facing similar problems to get river supporting the habitat, which includes
together and to protest against deforestation. tribal and rural pockets also. The construction
of the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the river
Narmada would have benefited three States,
namely, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya
Pradesh. This most promising multi-crore
project would have generated huge revenue
for the government. The supporters claimed
that it would have been a source of power
(electricity) and drinking water to the
neighbouring settlement, villages and towns.
Environmentalist - Sunderlal Bahuguna

79 Sociology Std 12
 The need to mobilise and protest against The environmental movement continues
such a venture was perceived when the to gather new dimensions as a modernising
building of a dam implied taking away the society revises its demands and requirements
livelihood of local inhabitants and displacing to ensure the wellbeing of all people.
them. In 1985, the Narmada Bachao Andolan In this Unit we have learned about the
(NBA) emerged as one of the powerful difference between social change and social
resistance movements under the leadership of movement. Social movements lead to social
Medha Patkar. It became an international changes. The focus has been on the women’s
movement and thousands of activists from movement, farmers’ movements, workers’
India and abroad joined hands against the movements and environmental movements.
construction of this dam. In October 1994, All these movements continue to be relevant
Medha Patkar went on an indefinite dharna even in the present times.
to pressurise the three State governments.
The movement suggested the use of alternative Activity 5
methods for generation of electricity and
(A) Have you heard of Greta Thunberg?
adequate rehabilitation of the displaced.
Discuss the effect of her activism.
The Narmada Bachao Andolan has
(B) View the film 'Lakir ke is Taraf' by
brought issues of sustainable development to
Shilpa Ballal. Then have a class
the forefront. It has questioned the validity
discussion.
of policy decisions about development and
the utility of the same.

SUMMARY
l This unit explains the meaning of l The Women’s Movement started in
social movement as an effort of the British period with social
human beings to bring about or reforms, bringing about changes for
resist change. women. In the post-Independence
l There are different types of social
phase several women’s issues for
movements – reformative, their empowerment have come to the
revolutionary, expressive, general, fore.
alternative social movements. l The Workers’ Movement focuses on

l The characteristics of all social their rights, in an industrialising

movements are – they are collective society. It sees the emergence of
efforts, planned and deliberate, trade unions with varying affiliation,
driven by an ideology and objectives, under significant leaders.
and they bring about social change. l The Farmers’ Movement focuses
Social movements lead to social on the lives of farmers, their
change but all social changes are livelihoods, land rights and farmers’
not necessarily social movements. issues.
l Different kinds of movements l The Environmental Movement has
include: Women’s Movement, concentrated on the various issues
Workers’ Movements, Farmers’ affecting the environment – from
Movements and Environmental protecting our forests, water
Movements. resources, impact of climate change
and global warming, sustainable
development issues and the like.

80 Sociology Std 12
 EXERCISES

Q.1 (A) Complete the following statements (2) Environmental Movement

by choosing the correct alternative Q.5 Complete the concept map.
given in the bracket and rewrite it.
(1) The Chipko Movement is for ___.
(women’s empowerment, labour rights,
saving the environment)
(2) The Bhartiya Lok Dal was started in
Significant concerns
the year ___.
of 19th century
(1954, 1964, 1974) Indian Women’s
(B) Correct the incorrect pair and Movement
rewrite it.
(1) (i) Women’s Movement – Gender
equality
(ii) International Decade of Women –
From 1991-2001
Q.6 Give your personal response.
(iii) Towards Equality – Report on the
Status of Women in India (1) Has the study of Environmental
Education had any effect on your
(iv) Feminist Movements – India after
behaviour?
Independence
(2) Why is it important to raise social
(C) Identify the appropriate term from
concerns through social movements?
the given option in the box and
rewrite it against the given statement. Q.7 Answer the following question in
S. A. Dange, Sarala Devi, Medha Patkar detail. (About 150-200 words)
‘Social movements play an important role in
(1) Leader of Narmada Bachao Andolan bringing about changes in society.’ With reference
(2) Significant role in the Trade Union to this statement, choose any two different social
Movement movements that you have studied and comment
(D) Correct underlined words and on:
complete the statement. (i) the issues related to the movement, and
(1) The first Kisan Congress held in 1935 (ii) how the movement has brought about
led to the establishment of the United changes in Indian society.
Trade Union Congress.
(2) The Women’s Indian Association was ACTIVITY
formed in Bombay. • Identify any 5 conservation/
Q.2 Write short notes. environmental initiatives (e.g. Go
(1) Farmers’ Movement Green, Save the Forests, Save
(2) Characteristics of social movement Aarey, Eco-friendly Ganpati)
Q.3 Write differences. • Make group presentations in class
(1) Pre-Independence and Post- about their aims, objectives and
Independence periods of the Women’s activities.
Movement in India
• This may be followed by a class
Q.4 Explain the following concepts with
discussion or home assignment.
examples.
(1) Social Movement www

81 Sociology Std 12
 6. Social Problems In India
may be located in one’s group or the larger
6.1 Meaning and Nature of Social Problem society. For example, lack of job opportunities
6.2 Ageing matching one’s education or skills,
6.3 Unemployment conventional mindsets of a community, lack
6.4 Farmers’ Suicide of political will etc.
6.5 Domestic Violence (3) It is the individual who must make
6.6 Addiction (Substance, Internet, Mobile) an effort to solve one’s problem. So for
example, if as a student you are scoring low
marks, and if you realise that this is due to
MEANING AND NATURE OF minimal or no effort on your part to study,
6.1
SOCIAL PROBLEM then you can solve this personal problem by
consciously deciding to tackle it. You need
In the previous unit you learnt about the self-motivation and will to overcome the
social movements in Indian society. You have problem.
realised that several social movements (4) Solving or tackling an individual
emerged to solve social problems which were problem is easier said than done. While some
commonly felt by a large number of people individuals may have the motivation to
in society. resolve their problem, others may need help,
Before we try to understand the meaning encouragement and support from others like
of ‘social problem’, let us examine the family members, friends, teachers, religious
meaning of ‘individual problem’. We must leaders, counsellors etc. Sometimes it is
however bear in mind that individuals don’t necessary to solve the problem with
live in isolation but are part of a larger group. professional help.
Hence it is necessary to appreciate that What does the term ‘social problem’
problems are a two-way process. For example, mean? Let us examine few definitions.
an individual may have a personal problem
of loneliness. This could be rooted in the fact Fuller and Myers : A social problem
that the people around her/him have isolated is “a condition which is defined by a
her/him due to some reason. On the other considerable number of persons as a deviation
hand, this same individual may feel lonely from some social norms which they cherish”.
because of one’s own peculiar personality Broom and Selznick : A social
traits which the larger group disapproves of. problem is “a problem in human relationships
For example, having excess pride due to which seriously threatens society or impedes
one’s self-image. the important aspirations of many people’.
What characterises an individual problem? Horton and Leslie : A social problem
(1) It is a problem experienced by an “is a condition affecting a significant number
individual. This means, the problem is not of people in ways considered undesirable,
felt by others. about which it is felt that something can be
done through collective social action”.
(2) The cause of the problem may rest
with the individual. For example, one’s own All the above definitions point out to
habit, lethargy, inertia, personality certain common characteristics of social
characteristics etc. The cause of the problem problems:

82 Sociology Std 12
 Types of behaviour seen as (2) Ageing is progressive; it is a
unacceptable by several persons and continuous process.
groups. (3) Ageing is intrinsic to the organism.
Such behaviour is problematic as it (4) Ageing is degenerative.
goes against existing social norms The commonest criterion for measuring
or the aspirations of people. the process of ageing in an individual is one’s
People feel the need for collective chronological age. Chronological age implies
action to solve the problem. defining age on the basis of the number of
This unit will focus on specific social years a person has lived since her/his birth.
problems which are widespread in 21st century It is a specific and countable measure. In
India. India, the age of 60 has been adopted by the
Census of India for classifying and categorising
6.2 AGEING
this population.
All of us have family members and In India the size of ageing population is
relatives who are very senior in age. We have continuously increasing. Higher longevity and
probably seen or experienced the problems lower mortality have resulted in the increase
that arise from having to care for them. Their in the number of ageing population in India.
needs are different and demand our attention.
You might have come across reports of Activity 1
children and younger adults who abandon or Hold a class discussion to share
neglect their ageing parents. We have read about the problems faced by the ageing
about crimes being committed against them population. Speak to your family
for sheer greed, especially with regard to members and share inputs. If you can,
matters dealing with family property. What is speak to the elderly/ageing people in
ageing? Ageing is a natural and inevitable your neighbourhood, informally, and
process. Ageing, on a simpler note, implies share these insights too.
changes in the body and mind of a person
along with its gradual impact on social life The Problems of Ageing :
and life style.
The problems of the ageing population
Definitions : include the following:
Hess : “An inevitable and irreversible (1) Health concerns : Health includes
biological process of life.” physical, mental and emotional wellness. As
Birren and Renner : “Ageing refers one ages, there is a tendency for various parts
to the regular changes that occur in mature of the physical body to begin deteriorating.
genetically representative organisms living Problems can relate to any physiological/
under representative environmental conditions biological problem, such as dental, bones,
as they advance in chronological age. stomach, heart, hearing, vision etc. In addition
to physical problems, there are mental health
Characteristics of Ageing
issues revolving around feelings of alienation,
Strehler has given four characteristics of conflict, dissatisfaction, disappointment,
ageing, as follows : anxiety, loneliness. Health also includes the
(1) Ageing is universal, it occurs in all emotional well-being of people.
members of the population, unlike (2) Loneliness : This is a psychological
disease. problem but it could well be rooted in the

83 Sociology Std 12
real life experiences of the elderly. Loneliness slowly.
is particularly relevant when dealing with (7) Absence of adequate health care :
people who are single, without child, isolated, The aged may not have access to health care
living in homes or remote areas. Loss of a of any kind – for physical or psychological
spouse or loved one can cause much loneliness. ailments. Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s
Inability to do things which one was capable disease, Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS),
of previously can add to the sense of incontinence, invalidity, and mental health
loneliness. There are instances of the aged concerns like Schizophrenia, Bipolarity,
being literally thrown out of one’s own home Depression, boredom, loss of self-esteem – for
or the homes of their children. There is a all these treatments and more, there may not
sense of being neglected by others in the be facilities, nor access.
family, or even in the neighbourhood.
(8) Lack of Old Age Homes : Old Age
(3) Abuse : One comes across reports of Homes or Homes for the Elderly are woefully
the elderly and aged who are forced to do inadequate. Even if they exist, they may not
all kinds of work and also of those who are be affordable to the masses. Many homes or
subjected to cruelty, abuse, mockery, harassment shelters for the aged lack basic amenities or
– from within the family as well as from are impersonal in their care of the inhabitants.
outside. There are instances of physical abuse One cannot rule out the reality of commercial
and domestic violence. We observe the aged greed.
begging for alms, food, clothing or assistance.
(9) Weaker Sections : This includes
(4) Economic insecurity : Many aged elderly/aged who particularly belong to the
persons are fully or partially dependent for weaker sections of society, for example,
financial support on their families. In a women, LGBT persons, disabled persons. The
patriarchal society, this financial dependence identity of being a single woman, physically,
more often than not falls on the son/s. Not mentally or emotionally disabled, becomes a
all elderly/aged persons have pension to take huge barrier, especially when care givers are
care of their daily and medical needs. no longer available.
(5) Lack of empathy : In a world where (10) Exploitation : Elderly/Aged persons
one is living amidst tight schedules, mechanical may become victims of exploitation especially
life styles, materialistic comforts there is often when become increasingly dependent on others
the lack of willingness to pay heed to the for all kinds of services – for personal hygiene,
needs of aged. Family members and relatives signing bank and legal documentation etc.
too tend to address the problems of the aged
Measures to tackle the problems of
in their homes, from their own vested
ageing :
perspectives. The youth, younger adults and
care givers may also fail to understand the (1) Role of Government : The Ministry
problems of the aged. They may use coercive of Social Justice and Empowerment has the
methods in dealing with the aged/elderly. responsibility to formulate policies and
implement programmes for the care of aged.
(6) Mental health issues : Anxiety and
They do this through collaborative efforts with
depression are significant among the aged.
State governments, NGOs, and civil society.
This may be accompanied by a sense of guilt;
a tendency to feel that one is a burden to (2) Policy : The National Policy on
one’s family, friends and relatives. The social Older Persons (NPOP) was announced in
stigma of consulting clinical psychologists, January 1999 to look into the matter of well-
psychiatrists or counsellers is changing very being of older persons. This policy envisages

84 Sociology Std 12
 (2) Policy : The National Policy on Older
Activity 2
Persons (NPOP) was announced in January
1999 to look into the matter of well-being of Form groups of 10 students. Each
older persons. This policy envisages support group collect data from 10 persons in
from the State government towards their care your neighbourhood. Prepare a tool for
through the provisions of shelters, support, data collection and use a personal
sensitisation programmes, healthcare facilities, interview technique or questionnaire to
protection for the vulnerable sections etc. find out about their families: size of
(3) Action Plan : The Inter-Ministerial family, educational level of each
Committee on Older Persons is a mechanism member, whether they are employed or
for effective implementation of NPOP through not. Write a group report of about 10-
ministries and departments that work under 15 pages. Present your findings in class.
the Ministry at the Centre.
6.3 UNEMPLOYMENT
(4) Role of organisations/NGOs : Non-
Governmental Organisations have contributed Look at the statistics given below.
significantly towards helping the problem of
the aged in India. For example, HelpAge Department Jobs No. of
India, Harmony India, Dada Dadi, Dignity available applicants
Foundation, Nightingales Medical Trust, Animal Husbandry 729 3.3 lakhs
Seenagers etc. Today there are online Finance 932 1.7 lakhs
communities which can lend support. Forest 951 4.02 lakhs
(5) Role of Education : Schools can Revenue 1,802 5.64 lakhs
through Community Service Projects, Outreach Total 4,414 14.66 lakhs
Programmes, Socially Useful Productive Work
(SUPW) and NSS create awareness about the Source: Times of India, Mumbai edition,
problems of the elderly, aged and senior 21/8/2019, P-1)
citizens. Such programmes can inculcate It does not require much effort to figure
values of caring for them and becoming out from the above data that the number of
sensitive to their changing needs – physical, applicants have far exceeded the number of
emotional, economic, psychological, and vacancies. Can you imagine what could
medical. happen to the majority who will not get
(6) Role of Family : Parents and selected for the job? Some may get jobs that
relatives have a major role to play in creating don’t match their training, others may
a suitable atmosphere within the home; one become entrepreneurs, but the majority will
that is enriching; one that is enabling; one remain unemployed. This is the gravity of
that instills respect and value of the elderly, the problem of unemployment.
regard for their wisdom, involving them in Meaning of unemployment
activities within the homes, neighbourhood When one refers to people who are
and community at large. unemployed, it is almost always in the
context of who is employed. Also, the
Check your progress convention is to focus on the age group
1. State any three problems faced by between 15-59 years. The term unemployment
the ageing population. is used to refer to “people who are jobless,
2. Suggest three measures for the actively seeking work and available to take
a job”. According to The Periodic Labour
problems faced by senior citizens.
Force Survey (PLFS) of the National Sample

85 Sociology Std 12
Survey Office (NSSO), unemployment in great, there is a boom in employment.
rural India was 5.3% and urban unemployment (4) Seasonal shift : In the same way as
was 7.8%. On the whole, unemployment in seasons come and go, seasonal periods of
the Financial Year 2018 stood at 6.1%. employment are common in certain sectors.
According to NSSO, an unemployed person This is seen for example in agriculture,
is one who puts in less than 14 hours of banking sector, and shipping industry. Seasonal
paid work in a week. Disturbances in global migration of people from rural to urban areas
economy, like periodic industrial recessions is has an effect on urban unemployment too.
one of the causes of unemployment. For In India, agricultural activity is dependent on
example, tourism, shipping, information the monsoons, and is thus seasonal in nature.
technology, education, construction, textile
(5) Gap in demand and supply : The
industry etc.
number of individuals who fit a job are far
Factors responsible for unemployment higher than the openings available. Many
The causes of unemployment may be educated youth aspire for white collar jobs
attributed to several factors. They are as and are unwilling to accept work that does
follows: not fit their needs.
(1) Inadequate skills : Sometimes skill
sets of an individual do not match the
requirements of the industrial and corporate
world. Such people are likely to be unemployed
or underemployed. Also, advances in
technology has rendered numerous workers
unemployed as their skill-sets have become
redundant today. For example, the Government
Typing Examination has now become an on-
line examination in Maharashtra. Typing skills
Unemployment crisis
on the age-old manual typewriter has very
limited use in present times. Consequences of unemployment :
(2) Frequent shift in jobs : When Ordinarily, individuals would like to be
individuals are temporarily unemployed or employed for the most obvious reason that
when they are switching jobs, there is period the monetary benefits earned through a stable
of no employment between one job and the source of income will provide them a capacity
next. For example, a farmer who is able to to spend and perhaps even manage some
work during the monsoons, may remain savings for future. However, the fact is that
unemployed after the harvest season and may many people in the “productive age group”
have to search for other odd jobs in urban are unemployed. As per the Census of India
areas. This leads to an influx of people in definition, the productive age category refers
urban areas. to people within the ages of 15-59 years. If
(3) Changing economy : The world you examine a typical Indian scenario, most
economy has its ups and downs. For example, of you who are studying in Std.XII, belong
the construction and real estate sector, is well to the age group of 16-17, you are not
known for periods of huge economic activity employed and have no regular earnings. Also,
and lull periods. In the lull periods there are you are dependent on your family for your
greater chances of workers losing their jobs; basic needs and more. Your dependency is
and when the economy seems to be doing likely to continue for few more years until

86 Sociology Std 12
you get employed. As far as girls are feel lonely, depressed and suicidal.
concerned, families are only slowly beginning (6) Adverse impact on national
to recognise the need for female education. development : Have you wondered what are
Yet there are many homes where adult the long-term implications on national
women are not expected to work, or are development if the scale of unemployment,
prevented from working outside the home for especially that of the youth, is on the rise?
an income. So what are the effects of Youth and young adults make up the future
remaining unemployed? They are: of our society. Unemployment among them
(1) Unutilised human resources : All can have a negative effect on national
individuals are valuable human resources, development.
whether they are skilled or unskilled. To have
You should know !
an adult population which is unemployed is
a sorry state, as these human resources are STARTUPS!
unable to add value to the economy but
What are they? A startup is a young
become dependent on others for satisfaction
company founded by one or more
of their needs. They become a burden on the
entrepreneurs to develop a unique product
working population.
or service and bring it to the market. It
(2) Educational Stagnation : There are can get its funding from incubators (they
many individuals who receive formal training help startups get started and running)!
and who continue to remain unemployed.
The field of IT has given a significant
Perhaps their training has failed to equip
boost to startups in India.
them adequately for the world of work. It
is true that many educational programmes are Startups that you may be familiar
out of touch with the needs of the outside with are:
world. The government spends crores of OLA, Flipkart, Make My Trip,
rupees on education and yet the educated ShopClues, Trazoo, Zomato.
output is largely skill-deficient or
unemployable. Measures to tackle the problem of
(3) Underemployment : There are unemployment
copious examples of persons who are trained (1) Educational change : Changes need
in one field but who work in a totally to be made in the content of educational
unrelated area. Take the case of a person with courses as well as the overall curricular
a professional degree or PhD, who works as experience. Academics need to develop mind
a clerk. sets that are open to change. The educational
(4) Anti-social activities : Lack of programmes on offer must become choice-
opportunities may drive people to engage in based, need-based and learner-centred. If
anti-social activities. Several children who educational programmes are relevant to
drop out from the school system could find community needs, local needs, industrial
themselves engaged in various anti-social or needs, they will help to develop useful human
undesirable activities to make quick money. resources for needs in a changing world.
(5) Impact on mental health : There (2) Skill Development : Much of what
are those who end up being disappointed is learnt is knowledge-centric. While the role
with life, studies or who are trapped in of knowledge is invaluable, there is a
boredom. They may become frustrated, desperate need to also cultivate skills,
develop a negative outlook on life; and even especially those which are employment-

87 Sociology Std 12
worthy or those which can promote self-
You should know!
employment, and develop entrepreneurial
potential of the learners. For example, Find out about the following schemes
Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan started by the Government of India:
(RUSA), the salient feature of which is to l Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
enable institutions of higher education for Employment Guarantee Scheme
capacity building in different fields of (MGNREGS) - 2009
employment. l Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana
(3) Vocational Training : The need for (PMKVY) - 2015
vocationalisation has been a long standing l Startup India Initiative - 2016
need. This will provide options for learners
to branch into vocational programmes of
study. The National Education Policy 2020 Activity 3
lays emphasis on integration of vocational Interview 5 working adults in the
training at all stages of education. age group 22-30, in your local area.
(4) Industry-Education symbiosis : The Find out about their educational
encouragement of industry-university background, work life and aspirations
endeavours has been talked about, discussed in life. Do you see any pattern in the
and implemented in several institutions- responses that you receive? Discuss
especially in areas of science, engineering, these in class.
pharmacy, medicine, technology, media
studies, fashion designing and management. 6.4 FARMERS’ SUICIDE

(5) Entrepreneurship and Self India is described as an agrarian society,

Employment : The government has been where over 70% of the total Indian population
encouraging Start Ups in various fields. This works in primary and secondary sector
is a boost to those who are willing to take occupations. Farmers are a significant
up challenges and risks, based on their percentage of the agrarian work force. The
personal strengths and training. Self- past decade has witnessed an increasing
employment is one measure to minimise the number of farmer suicides. Farmer suicide is
extent of unemployment. a serious social problem. Let us examine the
factors that have led to the problem of
Check your progress farmers’ suicide.
1. In your opinion what do you think Causes of farmers’ suicide
our educational system needs to do (1) Impact of environmental
to solve the problem of unemployment deterioration : Over the past several years,
among youth and young adults? there has emerged much concern for the
2. Give two reasons why unemployment safegaurd of natural environment. Human
is unhealthy for a democratic society. beings have always endeavoured to maximise
3. Is there a connection between returns from nature. It has ended up in
population growth and deterioration of natural environment because
unemployment? Discuss in brief. of deforestation, over exploitation of natural
resources, destruction of natural spaces in the
name of ‘development’. Human intervention
has led to increased pollution and the emission

88 Sociology Std 12
of greenhouse gases that has caused depletion (4) Ignorance : Farmers may not be
of the ozone layer, consequential melting of aware of new technologies and farming
polar caps and unforeseen climate change. methods. This lack of awareness becomes an
Thus in India we have in recent times seen impediment to their progress.
instances of flooding and drought (5) Disparity of land holdings : Farmers
simultaneously in different parts of the country in India’s villages belong to various categories
and also in Maharashtra. Under such such as large farmer, medium farmer, small
situations, crops get completely destroyed and farmer and landless labourers. The zamindars
it creates adverse conditions wherein farmers are farmers with large land holdings. However
find it extremely difficult to engage in gainful the majority of land holdings of most farmers
agricultural activity. are medium to small. Zamindars have greater
(2) Impact of globalisation : It is true economic security than farmers with small
that we live in a globalised world. Thus, the land-holdings. Landless agricultural labourers
impact of globalisation has led to increase in are the largest section of farmers who depend
marketisation and the resultant rise in on others’ land for survival.
consumerism. Dumping of agricultural produce (6) Dowry system : The custom of
in India due to free-trade policy has adversely dowry has wrecked havoc with farmers in
affected pricing of local products. rural India. Often, they end up borrowing
(3) Indebtedness : Farmers who take money from institutions or money lenders on
loans from government agencies, private the pretext of agricultural needs, but end up
individuals or organisations, are often unable utilising the loans for personal purposes such
to repay loans and its interest, if the crops as giving in to dowry demands. This social
fail for one or more seasons. The impoverished evil continues despite the law which treats
farmers live a life steeped in debt. This its practice as a criminal offence. This has
weighs heavily on farmers, many of whom been seen in the case of suicides in the
are men and sole earning members of their Vidarbha and Marathwada regions of
families. The psychological burden of being Maharashtra.
indebted passes on to the next generation. In
situations of despair, many farmers are known
to end their lives. By having to purchase
expensive seeds every year from the market,
the farmer is forced to seek additional loans.
This pushes several farmers to bankruptcy.
You should know!

In the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra

Consequences of farmers’ suicides
many farmers switched to using BT cotton
seeds to gain higher yield. BT cotton seeds When farmers commit suicide there are
are more expensive. several consequences. They are:
However, BT cotton seeds require (1) Impact on farmers’ families : If the
good irrigational facilities, which are not farmer who commits suicide is the main
always available, especially with irregular earning member, it obviously proves to be a
monsoons. It leads to crop failure. Besides, life-long economic and emotional trauma for
the seeds obtained from BT crops cannot the rest of the members of the family,
be used for the next sowing. especially for the wife and children. They

89 Sociology Std 12
are left without any financial and emotional (2) Insurance : Life insurance for
support. distressed farmers and their families as well
(2) Impact on spouse : The wife may as crop insurance against crop failure, failure
have to resume the responsibility of the sole of monsoons, destruction of agricultural
bread winner. She may not have previous produce by locusts or viruses etc. should
experience nor the necessary skills, thus be provided to farmers.
leaving her with no option but to accept hard (3) Provision for direct sales from
physical labour. farmers to buyers : Farmers work in rural
(3) Impact on children : The children areas but their crop must reach various parts
may also have to assume new responsibilities of India. This brings in many middlemen who
prematurely. Many children are forced to operate between the farmer and markets
abandon their education, thus adding to the located faraway. Middlemen and agents are
statistics of school ‘drop outs’. The known to grab a large share of the profits
psychological scars of losing a parent has leaving a meagre sum for especially small
several effects on the child. and marginal farmers. Removal of the need
for the systems of middlemen will be a step
(4) Impact on economy : A farmer
towards eliminating such forms of exploitation.
committing suicide, even an isolated instance,
is enough to create an atmosphere of despair (4) Water harvesting : Since water is
in the entire village. The resultant negative an essential requirement for farming, and
effect can deter youth from taking up there prevails a repeated pattern of floods and
agriculture as their livelihood. Thus, many of droughts in various parts of the country,
them may then prefer to migrate to urban effective measures for water harvesting and
areas in search of employment. Can you water management, are necessary. It will
imagine the long-term impact on the economy help to channelise and use water resources
if farming becomes an unattractive career with great discretion. The responsibility of
option? water harvesting cannot rest only with the
government but with various organisations
(5) Impact on social environment : The
and the efforts of all people.
psychological effect of death of farmers due
to suicide, or even an attempt to end one’s (5) Role of Banks : Banks and
life, creates an atmosphere of helplessness, Cooperative Credit Societies need to set up
fear and doom in the minds of fellow their systems in farmer-friendly ways when
villagers. It can dampen the spirit of the it comes to the disbursement of loans to
farming and/or village community. It can farmers and also to encourage a ‘saving’
create a sense of guilt, shame or inferiority habit among farmers. Farmers have to resort
among fellow farmers of the village. This is to private money lenders due to procedural
especially true when the statistics of farmers’ difficulties in obtaining loans from banks, and
suicide are on the rise - in certain regions of other established financial organisations.
a State or within the State as a whole. Under such circumstances, debt-waiver
schemes declared by the government have
Measures to tackle the problem of
little or no value. They remain in a
farmer suicides
perpetual state of indebtedness and at the
(1) Support to farmers in distress : It mercy of private money-lenders.
is necessary for farmers to have support
(6) Multi-cropping : This would be an
systems in place, to help them tide over
alternative to monoculture. There needs to be
various crises caused by failed monsoons,
a strong support system from the government
crop failure, indebtedness etc.

90 Sociology Std 12
to provide training to farmers as well as especially of men can lead to feelings of
supply good quality seeds, fertilisers and suspicion, threat to one’s ego, one’s authority,
pesticides at subsidised and affordable rates. notions of infidelity etc. These are reasons
enough to cause violence and abuse within
You should know!
the domestic sphere.
Multicropping is the practice of growing (3) Dysfunctional relationships : There
two or more crops on the same piece of land
are various factors responsible for strains in
in the same growing season. It is a form of
polyculture.
a spousal relationship or relationships between
different members within the family. These
could include personal insecurities, suspicion,
Check your progress age differences, cultural differences and
1. Discuss how multicropping will help incompatibility. These can trigger snide
farmers? remarks, bickering, labelling, verbal spats and
2. Why do you think there is a problem physical assault.
of irrigation? Give two reasons.
(4) Traditional and religious outlook :
3. Discuss the role of counselling in
Conventional and traditional mind-sets,
tackling the problem of farmers’
especially in institutions like marriage, family,
suicide.
religion, stipulate the supremacy of men over
6.5 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE women in almost every sphere of life. Within
such a scenario, gender socialisation trains
Domestic violence refers to abuse within the younger generation to conform to the
the family. Violence implies psychological, social expectations based on sex, age,
emotional, verbal and physical torture. There experience, authority etc. Such an outlook
are at least two types of persons involved has the danger of ‘normalising’ violence
in cases of domestic violence the one who within the home.
perpetrates violence and those who are at the (5) Heteronormativity :
receiving end, the victims. More often than
not, violence within the family goes unreported You should know!
as it is treated as a personal matter, and is Heteronormativity refers to social
perceived to be ‘normal’ in the patriarchal expectation (norm) that human behaviour
system. It is important to note that victims must necessarily fit into a gender binary
of domestic violence could be anyone within (that is, there are only two ways to
the family or extended family; domestic identify and behave - female and male,
violence cuts across all age categories, sexes feminine and masculine). Heteronormativity
and genders. is a social construct that is often linked
Causes of domestic violence to heterosexism (i.e. the assumption that
(1) Patriarchy : Indian society is largely heterosexuality is the norm).
patriarchal. This means that there is a huge
imbalance of power between men and others Non-conformity to heterosexist
in our society. The status of women is expectations and stereotypical gender roles is
gradually improving but the status of usually discouraged in patriarchal families.
transgender persons and children is even The control exerted by adults in the family
lower. In a patriarchal context, there is the on the young people during their puberty to
unwritten acceptance of male authority. adulthood years, becomes increasingly rigid.
(2) Insecurity : Insecurity of one partner, There are numerous instances of gender

91 Sociology Std 12
discrimination not merely against women, but (5) Decline in individual productivity :
also transgender persons, and gender variant Large number of people in their adulthood
family members. suffer from poor physical-mental health.
(6) Vulnerability : Persons who are Physical and emotional state of illness blocks
vulnerable are often the youth, women, individuals to realise their full potential and
disabled persons, the elderly and dependents. capabilities. This, in turn leads to low levels
Their vulnerability caused by economic of productivity.
reasons or lack of power and control, can Measures to deal with domestic violence
lead them to be trapped in the loop of There is no quick-fix solution to the
constant exploitation. Instances of child abuse problem of domestic violence, however, there
and the abuse of the elderly are not are certain measures that may be undertaken,
uncommon. such as:
Consequences of domestic violence (1) Creating awareness : As long as
(1) Psychological trauma : The domestic violence is perceived to be a
psychological and emotional consequences of problem that must remain within family
domestic violence continue long after the circles, it will continue to be ‘normalised’. It
violence may have stopped. Victims of is therefore necessary to create awareness of
domestic violence may need intensive the fact that domestic violence is not
counselling or psychiatric treatment. This acceptable in a civilised 21st century society.
means that domestic violence has an adverse There is a need to alter ways of thinking
effect on mental health. and to break cultural stereotypes that are
(2) Unfulfilled lives : The impact of detrimental to others, by promoting a rational
domestic violence hinders the achievement of outlook based on equality and social justice
one’s life goals and aspirations; there may for all.
be loss of hope; development of cynicism (2) Personal empowerment : It is
and negativity; distrust of others. This can necessary for all persons, and especially
lead to individuals leading highly unfulfilled those who are the most vulnerable in society
lives. to empower themselves, through Self-Help
(3) Effect on health : Psycho-somatic Groups (SHGs), NGOs, age-mates, social
disorder is the term used to describe the workers and so on.
physical and physiological consequences of (3) Role of media : Various types of
psychological stress or trauma. For example, media can help create awareness and sensitise
bed-wetting among children; depression the public about the problem of domestic
among the elderly: irregular menstrual cycle violence. Media can help to dispel ignorance
in women and so on. about domestic violence too. It can present
(4) Perpetration of abuse : It is possible real life stories of hope, courage and success.
that young children exposed to environments (4) Role of NGOs : Non-Governmental
filled with violence may believe such Organisations play a significant role in
behaviours to be the norm. For example, dealing with cases of domestic violence.
young boys who then believe that it is their There are NGOs that specifically work to
right to physically abuse their girlfriend or support women, children, disabled persons,
wife, later in life; or girls who think it is transgender persons, men, children and the
necessary for them to be submissive to their elderly in distress. Often such NGOs are
husband. backed with services of legal professionals
and the police department. Together they

92 Sociology Std 12
help to get justice for the victims of domestic refer to a situation of psychological and/or
violence. physical dependence on alcohol, drugs,
(5) Role of Law : Laws by themselves internet or mobiles. Typically, addicts crave
cannot transform society but legal and for access to such things; there builds up a
constitutional provisions make an important physical and/or psychological dependence.
and necessary plank for empowering An addict will try to access the substance or
individuals. For example, ‘reading down’ object at any cost to which he/she is addicted.
Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code Unavailability of the same can lead to a
was a significant step in empowering LGBT range of uncontrolled emotions ranging from
persons. Gender variant individuals in anger, violence to depression. This
families are empowered by a law that psychological and/or physical dependence has
does not criminalise them. a damaging effect on the individual and
society at large.
(6) Role of Police : It is very important
that law enforcering staff becomes sensitive
to matters pertaining to domestic violence.
All too often, the police staff may not be
sensitive to handling issues of domestic
violence. It is treated as a personal matter
that must be sorted within the confines of
one’s home. Such mindsets also need to
change. Today there are women police staff
specially assigned to handle issues regarding
violence towards women.

Activity 4
Find out information about the 'Bel
Bajao Andolan'. Then, enact a small
skit in your class.
Addiction
Check your progress
With reference to the ‘Bell Bajao Types of Addiction
Andolan’, Addiction can be of various types. For
1. Show the usefulness of such a this course the focus is on the following
campaign. types of addiction:
2. What do you think is required for (a) Substance Addiction : refers to a
such a campaign to take off? physical and biological dependence on
3. Do you think such a campaign will chemical substances which leads to unpleasant
succeed in metropolitan cities? Justify symptoms (called withdrawal) when the
your response. person stops using the substance.
Abuse of substances such as alcohol,
6.6 ADDICTION
marijuana, cocaine, tobacco, gutka, etc. can
(Substance, Internet, Mobile)
cause health issues and serious problems with
Meaning of Addiction family, friends, the workplace and the law.
Despite this, substance abuse continues.
The term ‘addiction’ is usually used to

93 Sociology Std 12
to one substance also have a tendency to be
highly addictive.
addicted to others.
• Narcotics are types of drugs that
Most common addictions involve the use
have the potential to be addictive.
of alcohol, tobacco, other legal and illegal
Medicinal drugs should be used only
drugs and other mood-altering substances.
as per a doctor’s prescription.
The use of these may be physically,
biologically and psychologically harmful to The epidemic of substance abuse in the
the user and others. It can also lead to anti- younger generations has assumed alarming
social behaviour and depression. dimensions in India. Causes for this are
changing values, increasing economic stress
Tobacco Addiction refers to habituated
and dwindling supportive bonds. According to
tobacco chewing or smoking. The addictive
World Health Organisation (WHO), substance
element in tobacco is nicotine which impacts
abuse or sporadic drug use is persistent and
the brain. Tobacco addiction is bio-
inconsistent with or unrelated to acceptable
psychological and difficult to give up once it
medical practice.
sets in. The deadly effects of tobacco addiction
are mouth, throat and lung cancer. This type As per a United Nations report, one
of addiction is found in all segments of million heroin addicts are registered in India
society viz. tribal, rural and urban. and unofficially there are as many as five
million.
Tobacco is smoked in the form of beedis,
cigarettes, or by using devices like hookah, Cannabis, heroin and Indian-produced
chillum, hookli, chhutta or dhumti. pharmaceutical drugs are the most frequently
abused drugs in India. Cannabis products
According to the National Sample Survey
(charas, ganja, bhang) are abused throughout
conducted by the Government of India, about
the country. Codeine-based cough syrups
20 million children, in the age group 10-14
continue to be diverted from the domestic
years are estimated to are addicted tobacco.
market for drug abuse.
Also, the study says that 5500 new users are
added everyday; making it two million users Drug abuse thus is a complex
every year. phenomenon, which has various social,
cultural, biological, geographical, historical
and economic aspects.
• Alcohol is a drink that contains
ethanol, which is produced by You should know!
fermentation of grains, fruits or other
sources of sugar. It is a depressant - According to the present anti-smoking
drug which slows down various law (2008), smoking in public places
sections of the brain and central is banned.
nervous system. - The minimum age for buying tobacco
• Whitener Addiction is on the rise products is 18.
among teenagers in India. Whitener - Any person below 18 years cannot be
contains trichloroethane which is a employed in a tobacco related industry.
colourless, sweet smelling volatile
solvent. It is highly addictive.
• Gutka is a chewing tobacco (b) Internet addiction : We live in an
preparation made of crushed areca age of knowledge explosion. Access to data
nut. It is a known carcinogen and is is far higher than it ever was. Many of you
have access to internet information – either

94 Sociology Std 12
at a computer in school, or at home, or on
mobile phones. Access to data is good for
many reasons – you can get all kinds of data
in relation to any subject. Data can be textual,
visual, graphic, mathematical etc. The internet
also is a means to an entire virtual world and
the world of social media. You might wonder
how this becomes problematic.
Let us look at some pointers that make
access to internet a matter of concern.
Ordinarily, accessing the internet is not
a problem; it would not even qualify as an
addiction. It becomes an addiction when there Internet Addiction
is a compelling need on the part of an
(c) Mobile addiction : It is a fact that
individual to have to continuously access
sale of mobile phones are ever-increasing. In
specific internet sites – not for work or
fact, it is also true that the market is flooded
professional purposes – but for very vested
with all kinds of newer and advanced mobile
and personal needs or obsessions. For
phones. Advertisements have played a huge
example, if one constantly needs to access
role in encouraging us to purchase more
sites for gaming, adult sites, pornography,
sophisticated models, with larger memories,
social media, entertainment and stimulation.
battery life, camera and what not. Here itself,
Internet addiction is not limited to one can speak of addiction to want to
children. It cuts across several age categories. constantly upgrade one’s mobile phone. It can
The motivation to access internet obsessively become obsessive for various reasons – all of
may or may not necessarily be different. A which are not necessarily professional. A
teenager or young adult may spend hours on mobile phone in itself has become a status
gaming; an older adult could be obsessed symbol.
with sex sites.
If one goes beyond the phone - as a
gadget, to what the phone does for us, it
Why is internet addiction a problem? opens a Pandora’s Box of possibilities.
It becomes a problem when it… Connectivity, social media networking,
 increases stress or anxiety in the gaming, access to the web world, filming,
individual editing, creative enterprises and numerous
 causes stress to other persons (e.g. apps serving a variety of needs.
friends, family, colleagues) Mobile (phone) addiction is a problem
 affects one’s physical health when again, like in the case of internet
addiction, it leads us to behave in ways such
 diminishes the value of interpersonal
as the following:
relationships.
 The need to almost constantly be on
 leads to personal neglect
call
 leads individuals to data that is
 The need to almost continuously take
inaccurate, prejudiced, titillating,
selfies or photos of any and everything
unreliable and exploitative
 The need to post all images of oneself
immediately on social media

95 Sociology Std 12
  The need to continuously be monitoring in’. This is especially common among students
other persons but it can also cut across other age categories.
 The need to keep forwarding messages For example, the habit of smoking or “doing
(and rumours) mindlessly to numerous weed” (drugs) among friends.
people (3) Social status : Certain addictions
 The need to constantly check one’s seem to make people feel that they have
likes and its effects on one’s mood/ attained a certain degree of social
behaviour respectability or position, which they might
then flaunt. For example, consuming narcotic
 Misuse of mobile phones for drugs or imported brands of alcohol may be
destructive, negative and vested considered as a fad in certain groups; non-
purposes conformity could lead to isolation or labelling.
The impact of mobile addiction is similar (4) Validation of the ‘Self’ : This is
to the consequences stated as regards internet especially true in the case of social media
addiction. Haven’t we all read of accounts of networks like Snapchat, Facebook, Twitter
injuries and deaths due to careless behaviours and so on. It makes people feel important.
like speaking on the phone while driving, Today, “selfitis” (that is, the obsessive taking
dangerously posing for selfies, being of selfies, called ‘selfie syndrome’) is regarded
overemotional in a public space; checking as a mental disorder.
one’s messages during sleep, anxiety caused
by loss of one’s phone and contacts. The (5) Psychological factor : Individuals
consequences take a toll on mental and can become addicts due to various
physical well-being. psychological conditions in the individual
such as inferiority/superiority complex,
Activity 5 psychological insecurities, fear or anxiety,
frustration or failure, loneliness and so on.
Class Discussion:
(6) Inadequate role models : In an
The impact of Internet Addiction
environment where there are few or no role-
and Mobile Addiction on human life.
models to emulate, one may be left with
imitating disruptive traits of people in their
Causes of Addiction neighbourhood or immediate social circle.
Each type of addiction has a set of Consequences of Addiction
possible reasons. Here we shall examine
(1) Psychological effect on the
some common causes that are applicable to
individual : Any kind of addiction has a
some or all addictions.
psychological impact on the addict. They
(1) Personal factor : An individual will develop a dependency on alcohol, narcotic
have several reasons why one becomes an drugs, medicinal drugs, the internet, social
addict. Generally individuals do not opt media and even mobile phone. There could
consciously to become an ‘addict’. It is what emerge a need for validation for every single
they become over a period of time. For post or image that is uploaded, and the
example, the occasional drinker may end up obsession with increasing numbers of ‘like
becoming a habitual drinker. hits’.
(2) Peer pressure : Friends in a group (2) Impact on family : Addiction is not
may knowingly or unknowingly pressurise merely the problem of youth; it cuts across
others to adopt certain habits in order to ‘fit all age categories. Parents who have an

96 Sociology Std 12
alcohol addiction problem pose a threat to Measures to tackle addiction problems
stable family life. Sometimes this results in (1) Creating awareness : The very first
domestic violence. Addiction to mobiles can measure is to create awareness about various
lead to situations where individuals feel kinds of addiction. This is necessary because
insecure, lonely within family because of lack many people do not even know what addiction
of communication. Non-communication within means, or how to do self-assessment to
the family may leave people feeling unloved, examine one’s own addiction. This is possible
unimportant and unacknowledged. through educational programmes and camps.
(3) Impact on health : The physical, (2) Counselling : There are limitations
mental and emotional well-being of individuals to what lay persons and untrained professionals
take a back seat when there is a problem of can do. It becomes imperative to recommend
addiction. The levels of stress, anxiety, people with addiction problems to
aggression or irritability can take its toll on professionals such as counsellors or
addicts as well as others in the family or the psychologists, for professional intervention.
group.
(3) De-addiction Clinics : There are
(4) Impact on work : Depending on the professional clinics which work as centres to
type of addiction, it can adversely affect help addicts through de-addiction programmes.
levels of commitment, efficiency, an increase It is important for addicts to have support
in instances of sexual harassment or sexual groups during the process of de-addiction.
abuse, exploitation of vulnerable people,
(4) Laws : Legislative provisions are
inability to focus on any activity, increased
important and necessary, especially to tackle
absenteeism and declining work performance.
the problems posed by drug peddlers for
(5) Economic Impact : Addictions of example, or persons who upload messages or
any kind are a drain on financial resources data, which are anti-social, dangerous, life-
as one has to pay heavily for consumption threatening and so forth. Implementation of
of alcohol, substances, internet connectivity, law can potentially act as a deterrent, though
and phone bills. Drug peddling is big business it may not be able to eradicate the problem
that transacts across borders of multiple completely.
nations and the underworld. Treatment of the
(5) Mass Media : Mass communication
same also is a drain on one’s pocket.
through mass media is an effective tool to
(6) Isolation : Addicts often turn out to raise societal awareness about addiction. The
be loners or individuals who avoid social World Wide Web has numerous platforms
interaction. For example, excessive gaming, such as FAQs answered, help-lines, help-groups,
watching YouTube clips, forwarding WhatsApp etc. through which awareness can be created.
humour etc, leads to detachment from people
(6) Voluntary organisations : Besides
and experiences in the real social world.
government, private organizations (NGOs)
Activity 6 also work for social causes. For example,
One India One People, Alcoholics Anonymous
Prepare a 7-10 minute street
(AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA) etc.
play on: The problem of internet
addiction. End with a message of (7) Group activity : Getting involved in
hope. Perform the street play on participative activities such as hobby classes,
your campus and then in your sports and games, can help in building
neighbourhood (after taking necessary positive experiences for individuals who
permissions). otherwise would be isolated.

97 Sociology Std 12
 Check your progress For Your Information
1. If you know a friend who has an
addiction problem, what role can you Some De-addiction Centres in
play to help the person? Maharashtra
2. Suggest two co-curricular activities that 1) Jeevan Jyot Vyasanmukti Kendra,
can be conducted in your school to
Nagpur
solve the problem of mobile addiction.
2) Moksh De-addiction and
3. Identify three negative consequences of
internet addiction.
Rehabilitation Centre, Nashik
3) Aasara Hospital: Psychiatric and De-
addiction Centre, Ahmednagar
Activity 7
4) Navchaitanya De-addiction Centre,
Make a list of 10 students’ Kolhapur
activities that can be carried out in 5) Seva Dhan Foundation, Mumbai
their leisure time. Find out from 10
6) Muktangan Rehabilitation Centre,
of your peers about the activities
Pune
they would take up, at least once
every week. Tabulate your findings
and share with your class.

SUMMARY
l
A social problem is different than an l Farmers’ suicide is a matter of concern.
individual problem. There are several causes: environmental
l Ageing is a universal problem. It is deterioration, impact of globalisation,
inevitable and degenerative. indebtedness, ignorance, disparity of
l Ageing problems are related to health, land holdings etc.
loneliness, abuse, economic insecurity, l The problem of farmer suicide
lack of empathy, exploitation etc. can be tackled through the elimination
l There has to be concerted efforts to of middlemen, crop insurance, water
provide for the ageing population, harvesting and water management,
develop sensitivity towards them, counselling, agro-tourism etc.
understand their needs, access to health l Domestic violence refers to violence
care and insurance, homes etc. within the home. Victims of violence
l Unemployment is a growing problem can include females, males, transgender
in Indian society. It is caused by persons, the young as well as the
inadequate skills, frequent shift in elderly etc.
jobs, changing economy, gap in l The causes of domestic violence
demand and supply and seasonal include patriarchy, heterosexism,
changes. inequalities, vulnerability, dysfunctional
l It is necessary to revamp the educational relationships, etc.
system to include vocational l Solutions to the problem of domestic
programmes, industry-academic violence include the creation of
linkages, skill-oriented programmes etc. awareness about the problem,

98 Sociology Std 12
 empowering weaker sections of society, addiction include: creating awareness,
education and training, role of media role of education, media, law and
etc. NGOs.
l Addiction can be of several types such l General Measures to tackle social
as alcohol, drugs, internet and mobile problems include: creating awareness
addiction. about the problem, implementation of
l There are several causes for addiction. the law, alertness of people, counselling,
These include: personal factors, de-addiction clinics, professional help,
patriarchy, lack of satisfaction, non- support groups, NGOs, formal
conformity to social expectations, peer education, role of social workers etc.
pressure etc.
l Measures to tackle the problem of

EXERCISES

Q.1 (A) Complete the following statements by (1) A problem faced by transgender
choosing the correct alternative given persons.
in the bracket and rewrite it. (2) It can lead to physical health problems.
(1) The Domestic Violence Act was passed (D) Correct the underlined words and
in the year _____. complete the statement.
(1995, 2005, 2011) (1) Alcoholic Anonymous helps drug
(2) One of the causes of farmer suicide is addicts.
_____. (2) Ageing is an artificial process.
(multi-cropping, indebtedness, climate Q.2 Write short notes.
change) (1) Effects of addiction
(B) Correct the incorrect pair and (2) Measures to tackle the problem of
rewrite it. ageing.
(1) (i) Marijuana - Drug addiction Q.3 Write differences.
(ii) Violent films - Internet addiction (1) Social problem and Individual problem
(iii) Selfitis syndrome - Substance (2) Mobile addiction and Drug addiction
addiction
Q.4 Explain the following concepts with
(iv) Country liquor - Alcohol addiction examples.
(C) Identify the appropriate term from (1) Domestic violence
the given options in the box and
(2) Skill development
rewrite it against the given statement.
Narcotic drugs, Patriarchy,
Gender discrimination

99 Sociology Std 12
Q.5 (A) Complete the concept map. Q.7 Answer the following question in
detail. (About 150-200 words)
Discuss why farmers’ suicide is a social
problem today. Suggest suitable socio-
economic measures to support the
farmers.
Solutions to
Substance Activity
Addiction View 10-15 Television
advertisements and analyse the extent
to which advertisements promote or
reinforce: gender stereotypes. Also try
to find out advertisements which do
not present gender stereotypes.
(B) State whether the following
Have a class discussion after
statements are True or False with
reasons.
viewing select advertisements.
(1) Technology is always useful for social
progress. Activity
(2) There is a strong causal relationship
An important legislation is taking
between addiction and socialisation.
shape in the Maharashtra legislation
Q.6 Give your personal response.
Assembly regarding the situation of women
(1) Why do you think women are usually sugarcane cutters of Beed district. Many of
the victims in most reported cases of them have undergone 'hysterectomy' or
domestic violence? removal of uterus. Collect information and
(2) Discuss how keeping aged parents in discuss in class.
a ‘Home for the Aged’ can have
positive and negative consequences. www

100 Sociology Std 12

Section - II

Passages

101
* Note : Questions will be asked in relation to any one of the following passages. Teachers
may frame questions based on the passages given below. However, they should not encourage
students to borrow word-for-word from the given passages. The questions will be of an
applied or analytical nature. Students are expected to understand the context of the question
and respond in their own words. Their response must be relevant, systematic, backed by
logical explanation and have a sense of continuity. The text will only serve as a stimulus
for further thinking. (Sample questions have been provided for the first passage.)
(1)

This is a real life story of Rukmini Devi who lives in a small hut in Gaigotha Village
in Wada Taluka of Palghar District in Maharashtra State. She belongs to the Warli tribe.
Her husband is a marginal farmer who cultivates on two acres of land. They have two
children, one daughter aged 10 years and a son aged 6 years. Both the children walk to
school and back daily (located about 3 miles away).
When the cultivation season is over, (or if the rice crop is damaged due to heavy
rains or pests) they face many hardships. A section of the crop is kept for their personal
use, for the year. Tur Dal (lentil) is also grown, in one small area, again for personal
use. In a small backyard, they grow vegetables like chillies, cucumber and bitter gourd
(karela).
During the off-season, both husband and wife go to the brick kilns (about 7 miles
away) to do piece-rate work (That is, they get paid for each brick that they make.) While
the men earn Rs. 300 per day, the women earn Rs. 150-200. Rukmini Devi stated that
they prefer to walk the 7 miles both ways because the bus fare is Rs. 35/- per head one
way. They cannot afford it.
(1) Identify any three problems that the family of Rukmini Devi has to face.
(2) Point out and discuss briefly, gender discrimination in this setting.

(2)

Education, since the coming of the British to India has been secular in content. By this
we mean, the content of education did not include the study of sacred texts. Schools were
open for all - to learn and climb the ladder of vertical mobility. The study of English
language as well as the opportunity to study in the English medium was available.
It is true that several Indians from certain social and economic strata were the first to
access an English education. Many of them later constituted the intelligentsia of our society.
We refer to many of them as social reformers, such as, Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwarchandra
Vidyasagar, Pandita Ramabai, Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve. They worked for religious,
social and educational reform in Indian society.
Such visionaries of society continue even in the post-Independence era, to the present
time.
Educational opportunities have grown by leaps and bounds in the last 73 years since
Independence. One questions if the educated have merely acquired education or if the
education has helped citizens become gainfully employed and more importantly, enlightened
enough to transform society at the micro level.
It is necessary for the government to consider the interests of all sections of society.
Each citizen can play a dynamic role in the development of all people in our society.

102 Sociology Std 12

 (3)

Indian society is a melting pot of cultures. The history of Indian society gives enough
evidence of the process of accommodation. From early times migrants integrated into Indian
society and influenced its culture. Our historical past is testimony to this fact of cultural
diffusion.
Today, we describe our society as a composite whole that includes tribal, rural and
urban communities. The way of life in these segments have their unique characteristics.
However, is it also an observation that no one segment or community can be seen in its
“pure” state. On the one hand there is interdependence between communities and on the
other this would imply a certain extent of loss of cultural elements such as language,
beliefs, customary practices etc. Have we not seen how, for example, Warli or Madhubani
Art has made it to T-shirts and wall hangings in many urban households? Also, how
technology has reached the remotest corners of our country?
A question that may cross your mind may be, ‘Is there anything such as ‘pure’ culture?
What constitutes “Indian culture”? ‘Can cultural extremism be valuable in the present
world? These questions are valid as they set us thinking. Perhaps there is no single
“answer”?

(4)

The causes of disharmony and strife are several-fold. Resistance to social change is
one among many. Problems of contemporary Indian society include domestic violence,
sexual abuse, child rights, problems of senior citizens, migrants, ethnocentrism, religious
fundamentalism, linguistic fanaticism, environmental degradation, substance abuse and
addiction to devices, mob lynching and so on.
Given the varied types of social problems and their changing nature, there emerges a
need to examine them in a scientific manner. The applicability of Sociology in its widest
sense, includes the exploration of various themes that cut across fields such Masculinity
Studies, Minority Studies, Film and Media Studies, Sociology of Sports, Environmental
Sociology, Forensic Sociology, Gerontology, Sociology of Music, Medical Sociology,
Marketing Sociology and so on.
Various government departments and voluntary organisations include sociologists on
their panels to help steer policies and programmes. As Sociology is a people-centered
discipline, it tends to create awareness and dialogue regarding human relationships. This
is a valuable asset in governance and conflict resolution.

103 Sociology Std 12

 (5)

Given below is a make-believe scenario.

Yogini and Yogita are twins of the Patkar family who live in a small room measuring
225 sq. ft. in a small town. Yogini is brilliant in studies and Kabbadi. Yogita is an
outstanding cricketer who represents the Western India region; she also was a topper in
the State-level Marathi language Competition.
Their parents come from a small village in Marathwada; they are farmers. For the
sake of their daughters, they shifted to a small town to facilitate their children’s further
education and sports training.
Their relatives and others in their village have heard of the Patkar girls’ success and
are also encouraged to send their children to big cities with the hope that they too will
become successful and famous one day.
Today, if one visits the village you will notice that in many homes, there are only the
elderly folk. The youth seem to have migrated to better their prospects. Can you imagine
the effect of such migration on the local village community?

(6)

Social movements arise generally from needs felt by one or more members of any
given society. Through social interactions these needs and concerns are communicated to
many more persons. A network of people who share these concerns become the driving
force for change in that particular society. Movements are usually guided by some underlying
philosophies and goals. Indeed, several movements are associated with a founder or a core
group. It can take several years, or even decades for a social movement to become very
wide and expansive, across vast geographical territories.
Social movements such as the Social Reform Movement, Trade Union Movement, Tribal
Movement, Dalit Movement, Women’s Movement, Chipko Movement, LGBT Movement,
Civil Rights Movement, Rationalist Movement and so many more have emerged and grown.
As a social movement gains momentum, greater awareness is created in society. In
fact, the study of several movements have found their way into the academic curriculum
as well as research. For example, courses on Labour Studies, Gender Studies, Minority’
Studies and Environmental Studies.
Social movements can stimulate critical thinking about social issues in the wider society
of which we are a part. Some of these concerns lead to the passing of legislations. Every
era or generation has its share of concerns from which may emerge new social movements.

104 Sociology Std 12

 (7)

Can human societies be flawless? What is considered as acceptable, desirable, or

valuable varies from time to time, place to place, and in different contexts.
There is sometimes a tendency to encourage excessive ethnocentric attitudes about one’s
culture or group to which one belongs. Ethnocentrism in its extreme form is an obstacle
to social harmony. For the sake of social solidarity, respect of other cultures, self-criticism,
critical appraisal, reflection and introspection is necessary. This may help to develop a
pluralist way of appreciating the diversities within which we live. The life stories of people
are a useful means to understand underlying feelings, beliefs, threats and so on.
Civil society can play a part in this process to eliminate or minimise factors that
hinder progress, or those which divide us.

(8)

All of you have been studying Sociology for over a year. Sociology is the scientific
study of human social behaviour. However it is not the only discipline that studies human
behaviour. The study of human behaviour is of interest to historians, psychologists,
sociologists, economists, political scientists etc. Surely, this question may have crossed your
mind, or your family or friends might have asked you - ‘What is the use of studying
Sociology? What work will you do with a degree in Sociology? Perhaps you too have
wondered about the same.
As a start you could surely consider a career in teaching. However you must be
prepared to read extensively, be creative and develop a learner-centric personality. Indeed,
you would have to be passionate about teaching and interacting with learners. For some,
a career in research is another possibility, though that route is a long journey to attain the
status of ‘sociologist’. Many sociology students and others too, choose to offer Sociology
as their subject of special study for Civil Service Examinations like UPSC (Central Services)
and MPSC (in Maharashtra). To clear these highly competitive examinations, it is necessary
to read widely and be well aware about the totality of Indian society - it’s past, present;
goals and plans for the future.
Then of course, there are many allied occupations where a degree in Sociology can
provide insights that are useful to take on other people-oriented professions such as Policy
and Programme Development, Social Work with specialization in Family and Child Welfare,
Community Development, Medical and Psychiatric Social Work, School Social Work etc.
The fact remains: it is not merely obtaining a degree in sociology that matters today,
but the skill sets, sensitivity and personality that you develop; your ability to modify and
adapt to new needs and challenging situations of every day life. Also, your ability to
have a humanistic perspective whether dealing with research or creating empowerment
programmes, or programmes for social change.

105 Sociology Std 12

 (9)

Read the make-believe speech made by a representative of the Governing Body to its
Executive Committee meeting, in a well-known international firm located in Pune.
“Good morning. The Board of Directors has asked me to communicate with you all a
policy decision that has been taken by the higher management. Two policies have been
taken by our company. One, there shall be a confidential, two-way appraisal of all employees
from the coming financial year. Every employee will be assessed by one’s immediate senior,
one’s team members and by oneself through self–appraisal. Juniors will also assess the
seniors to whom they report. There are specific criteria on which assessment will take
place. A second policy decision is for the company to make every effort to ‘Go Green’
in keeping with the international commitment towards a cleaner and greener environment.
You may please share this decision to members of your respective departments today,
through our e-portal systems. Feedback from all employees are welcome but they must be
made within a week from today, to the Human Resource Department, via the e-portal.”

(10)

Indian films have a history of their emergence, growth and development. There were
the days of silent films where viewers interpreted visuals on screen and constructed their
own understanding of what the films may have tried to communicate. Then came the days
of audio-visual films, black and white films and later, colour films.
People who can afford to watch films at theatres and those who can do so on their
television screens at home are entertained by the stories that films tell us. There are all
kinds of ideas, ideologies, tragedies, themes and values that films communicate. Today
one can watch films on the internet, on one’s mobile phones. Sometimes the explicit and
implicit messages are received by viewers, but they can also be lost on them.
Besides actors’ abilities to ‘play varied roles or characters, there are a whole lot of
persons involved with the production process as well as its marketing. This may include
the film director, screenplay writers, designers, sound engineers, make-up artists and stylists,
casting experts, musicians and so on.
Fields like Visual Sociology, Sociology of Mass Communication, and Marketing
Sociology have a role to play in the study of these varied dimensions. Films as a source
of knowledge play multiple roles even today. The story lines and types of films are ever
increasing. Films are not limited to, nor bound by standard themes, love stories or gender
stereotyping. Films can cause much upheaval on the one hand and generate much interest
on the other. Regional films and international films have added to the list of viewing
possibilities and multiple interests.

106 Sociology Std 12

 (11)

How does one tackle social problems? How do societies deal with the social problems
that they have to confront? Why do social problems arise? These are some questions that
learners of Sociology need to address.
Societies have culture; both of these are created by people, cumulatively, through the
network of relationships over thousands of years. Every society has its normative system
– customs, folkways, fashions, mores, taboos, fads, laws. Social norms are guidelines for
human behaviour. They tell us what is expected of us and at the same time, what to expect
from others.
Are these expectations permanent and unchanging? When can they change? Who changes
them? Why must they change? Again, these are questions that one might ask. Social
problems can arise when the expectations are not communicated effectively, or when
individuals or groups choose to disagree with the expectation. This can lead to situations
of conflict – not just ideological but also conflict that leads to hurting others’ sentiments,
abuse, violence, injustice, upheavals, normlessness, and even war.

(12)

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a Government of India programme that makes education
for children between the ages 6-14 free and compulsory. This programme was pioneered
by the former Indian Prime Minister, Shri Atal Behari Vajpayee in 1993-94. It became
totally operational since 2000-2001. This programme made education a Fundamental Right.
Along with this, the Government of India also launched the National Programme of
Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE) on 15th August 1995. From here
emerged the concept of free ‘Midday Meal’ for children going to schools which were
managed by local bodies like Gram Panchayats and Municipal Corporations. The Midday
Meal is mandatory. It is taken for granted that the children should be given good, nutritious
food on a daily basis. A lot of organisation goes into the cooking and delivering of these
meals to the schools on time.
Universal Education goes hand in hand with Nutrition. Children of the village and
municipal schools look forward to this meal. For several of them it is perhaps the main
meal of the day.

107 Sociology Std 12

Notes

108 Sociology Std 12

76.00