MET 202 ENGINEERING

THERMODYNAMICS
MODULE 1
 Introduction
• Thermodynamics- Science of Energy transfer
and its effect on physical properties of
substances
• Energy in the form of heat and work
• Thermodynamics is made up from two Greek
words:-
1)Thermo:- Hot or Heat
2)Dynamics:- study of matter in motion
Role of thermodynamics and its application in
Engineering and science
• The applications of thermodynamic laws and
principles are found in all fields of energy
technology
– Steam and nuclear power plants
– Internal combustion engines
– Gas turbines
– Refrigeration and Air conditioning
– Jet propulsion
– Chemical process plants etc……
Macroscopic and Microscopic view points

• Two approaches for the study of behaviour of matter.

• Macroscopic - A certain quantity of matter is
considered, without the events occurring at molecular
level being taken into account.
- Concerned with the effect of action of
many molecules and these effects can be perceived by
human senses.(Classical Thermodynamics)
• Microscopic- matter is considered as composed of
myriads of molecules and the behaviour of each
molecule is considered for describing the behaviour of
matter. ( Statistical Thermodynamics)
 Concept of continuum
• In macroscopic point of view, the volumes of the system
considered are very large compared to molecular
dimensions
• The system is regarded as a continuum. The system is
assumed to contain continuous distribution of matter.
There are no voids and cavities.
• The pressure, temperature, density and other properties
are the average values of action of many molecules and
atoms.
• According to this concept there is minimum limit of volume
up to which continuum properties are maintained and is
called continuum limit. Below this volume, there is sudden
change in the value of the property. Such a region is called
region of discrete particles and the region for which the
properties are maintained is called region of continuum.
Concept of continuum
If we measure the density of a
substance for a large volume (δv),
the value of density is (ρ). If we go
on reducing the volume to δv’,
below which the ratio δm/δv
deviates from its actual value and
the value of δm/δv is either large
or small. Thus according to this
concept the density could be
defined as
 System, surroundings and boundary
• System: A quantity of matter or
a region in space chosen for
study.
• Surroundings: The mass or
region outside the system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary
surface that separates the
system from its surroundings.
• Universe: A system and its
surroundings together comprise
a universe.
 Types of system
1. CLOSED SYSTEM
• System of fixed mass
• No mass transfer across
the system boundary.
• Energy transfer into or
out of the system
• Eg. A certain quantity of
fluid taken in a cylinder
closed by a piston
 Types of system
2. OPEN SYSTEM
• Both mass and energy
crosses the boundary of
the system
• It is also called control
volume and the boundary
is called control surface.
• eg. Air Compressor,
Hydraulic pumps etc
 Types of system
3. ISOLATED SYSTEM
• No interaction between
the system and the
surroundings.
• Fixed mass and energy
• Eg. A perfectly insulated
thermo flask
 Control volume and control surface

• For the analysis of an open system ,attention is focused on

a certain volume in space surrounding it called control
volume, bounded by a surface called control surface.
• Matter as well as energy can cross the control surface.
• A closed system is a system with fixed mass ( volume can
change) – an open system is considered to be a volume of
fixed identity.
 Thermodynamic properties
• Characteristics (thermodynamic coordinates) by which
the physical condition of system can be described.
eg. Volume , pressure, temperature etc.
• Properties may be intensive or extensive.
• Intensive – Are independent of the amount of mass:
e.g: Temperature, Pressure, and Density,
• Extensive – varies directly with the mass
e.g: mass, volume, energy, enthalpy
• Specific extensive properties( extensive properties per
unit mass) are intensive properties :
eg. Specific volume, Specific energy
State, change of state, process , cycle
• State: - When all the properties of a system
have definite values, the system is said to exist
at a definite state.
• Change of state:- Any operation in which one
or more of the properties of a system changes
is called a change of state.
• Path:- The succession of states passed through
during a change of state.
 State, change of state, process , cycle
• Process:- When the path of the change of state is completely
defined, it is a process.
- Any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another is called a process
eg: isothermal process, adiabatic process, isentropic process etc.
• Thermodynamic cycle :- when a system in a given initial state
goes through various processes and finally return to its initial
state, the system has undergone a cyclic process or cycle.
 Thermodynamic equilibrium
• A system is said to exist in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium
– when no change in any macroscopic property is registered,
if the system is isolated from its surroundings.
– If the condition for the following three types of equilibrium
are satisfied
• Mechanical equilibrium- Unbalanced forces should be
absent, eg: change in pressure
• Chemical equilibrium – No chemical reaction and mass
transfer
• Thermal equilibrium- Temperature should be same
throughout the system.
 Quasi static process
• Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium
state to another is called a process, and the series of states
through which a system passes during a process is called
the path of the process.
• To describe a process completely, one should specify the
initial and final states of the process, as well as the path it
follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
• When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system
remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all
times, it is called a quasi static, or quasi-equilibrium,
process.
• A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently
slow process that allows the system to adjust itself
internally so that properties in one part of the system do
not change any faster than those at other parts.
 Path function and point function
• There are two types of functions defined in thermodynamics, path
function and point function.
• Path function depends on the path by which system arrived at a
given state. Examples for path functions are work and heat.
• Point function does not depend on the path of the system. It only
depends on the end states of the system. Examples of point
functions are: temperature, pressure, density, mass, volume,
enthalpy, entropy, internal energy etc.
• Path functions are not properties of the system, while point
functions are properties of the system.
• Change in point function can be obtained from the initial and final
values of the function, whereas path has to defined in order to
evaluate path functions.
• It should also be noted that the cyclic integrals of all point functions
is zero, while the cyclic integrals of path functions may be or may
not be zero.
 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
• Statement: When a body A is in thermal
equilibrium with a body B, and also separately
with a body C, then B and C will be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
• Base for all temperature measurement.
 Measurement of Temperature
• A reference body is used, and a certain physical
characteristic of this body which changes with
temperature is selected.
• The changes in the selected characteristic may be
taken as an indication of change in temperature. The
selected characteristic is called the thermometric
property.
- expansion of the mercury in the tube is used as
the thermometric property
• The reference body which is used in the determination
of temperature is called the thermometer
Measurement of Temperature
 Measurement of Temperature
If X is the thermometric property , then temperature θ will be
a linear function of X
Measurement of Temperature
 Reference point (Fixed point)
• An easily reproducible state of an arbitrarily
chosen standard system is called a fixed point.
• Before 1954 two fixed points were used.
(a) The ice point- the temperature at which pure
ice coexisted in equilibrium with air saturated
water at one atmosphere pressure.
(b) The steam point- the temperature of
equilibrium between pure water and pure steam
at one atmosphere pressure.
• The temperature interval θ (X1) - θ (X2) was
chosen to be 100 degrees.
• Celsius (C) and Fahrenheit (F) scales are two commonly
used scales for the measurement of temperature.
 Reference point (Fixed point)
• The use of two fixed points was found
unsatisfactory and later abandoned because
(a) the difficulty of achieving equilibrium
between pure ice and air- saturated water
(since when ice melts, it surrounds itself only
with pure water and prevents intimate contact
with air-saturated water).
(b) extreme sensitiveness of the steam point
to the change in pressure
Reference point (Fixed point)
 Kelvin Scale
• The Kelvin scale was established with triple point
of water as 273.16 K or 0.01oC.
• Correspondingly ice point of 0oC on Celsius scale
becomes equal to 273.15K on the Kelvin scale.
• Celsius and Kelvin scale are using different
symbols t and T,
the relation between the two scales is given by
T (K) = t(OC) +273.15
Types of thermometer
 Ideal Gas
• At very low pressure, all gases and vapour approach ideal
gas behaviour and follow the ideal gas equation of state .
Where
P is the pressure N/m 2
pV = n RT V is the total volume m 3
T is the temperature in K
m is the mass of gas kg
pV = mRT n is the number of moles

R is the universal gas constant 8.314 J/mol K

pV1 1
=
pV
2 2
R is the characteristic gas constant J/kgK
T 1 T 2
R
R=
M
M is the molecular mass
 Gas Thermometers
Constant volume gas thermometer
• A small amount of gas is enclosed in bulb
B.
• The gas is communicating to one limb of
mercury manometer M through capillary
tube C
• The other limb of manometer is open to
atmosphere and can be moved vertically
to adjust the mercury level just touches
the lip L of the capillary.
• The pressure in the bulb is used as the
thermometric property,
P = P0 + gZ
ρ is the density of mercury
P0 is the atmospheric pressure
 Gas Thermometers
• The bulb is brought in contact with the system whose
temperature is to be measured.
• The gas in the bulb expands, on being heated, pushing the
mercury downward.
• Volume of the gas is kept constant by adjusting the flexible
limb and the mercury level at L.
• The difference in mercury level Z is recorded and pressure p is
calculated.
• From ideal gas equation, the temperature increase is
proportional to pressure increase.
V
T = P
R
Ideal gas temperature
Ideal gas temperature
Ideal gas temperature
Ideal gas temperature
Electrical Resistance thermometer
•The change in resistance of a metal
wire due to its change in temperature is
the thermometric property.
•A platinum wire is incorporated in a
Wheatstone’s circuit

(
R = R0 1 + At + Bt 2 )
R0 is the resistance of platinum wire
when it is surrounded by melting ice.
A &B are constants
•Platinum resistance thermometer
measure temperature to a high degree
of accuracy and sensitivity
 Thermocouple

Emf generated due to the difference in temperature

between the hot and cold junctions made up by joining
two dissimilar metals is the thermometric property.
(Seebeck effect)
 International practical temperature scale
• To provide a scale that could be easily and rapidly used to
calibrate scientific and industrial instruments
• The temperature interval from the oxygen point to gold point
is divided into 3 main parts
International practical temperature scale
International practical temperature scale
 Problems
1. The reading of centigrade thermometer
coincides with that of Fahrenheit thermometer
in a liquid. Find the temperature of the liquid.
2. The resistance of a resistance thermometer
has values 2.70 Ω and 3.70 Ω at 0oC and
100oC respectively. Find the temperature at
which the resistance is 3.1 Ω.
3. Express the temperature of 91oC in (i)
Fahrenheit (ii)Kevin (iii) Rankine