Chameli Devi Group of Institutions

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Subject Notes
CS702(C) Wireless & Mobile Computing
B. Tech, CSE-7th Semester
Unit -1

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Syllabus: Wireless LAN: Transmission Medium For WLANs, MAC problems, Hidden and Exposed terminals,
Near and Far terminals, Infrastructure and Ad hoc Networks, IEEE 802.11- System arch, Protocol arch,
Physical layer, Concept of spread spectrum, MAC and its management, Power management, Security.
Mobile IP: unsuitability of Traditional IP; Goals, Terminology, Agent advertisement and discovery,
Registration, Tunneling techniques. Ad hoc network routing: Ad hoc Network routing v/s Traditional IP
routing, types of routing protocols, Examples: OADV, DSDV, DSR, ZRP etc.

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WANs are Wide Area Networks which cover a wider area such a city, or a limited area greater than
LAN. Wireless Personal Area Networks (PANs) are the next step down from WLANs, covering smaller areas
with low power transmission, for networking of portable and mobile computing devices such as PCs,
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs).

Fundamentals of WLANs

The technical issues in WLANs must be understood in order to appreciate the difference between wired
networks and wireless networks. The use of WLANs and their design goals are then studied. The types of
WLANS, their components and their basic functionalities are also detailed.

IEEE 802.11 Standards

This section introduces a prominent standard ion WLANs, the IEEE 802.11 standard. The medium access
control (MAC) layer and the physical layer mechanisms are explained. This section also covers some of the
optional functionalities such as security and quality of service (QoS).

HIPERLAN Standard

This section describes another WLAN standard, HIPERLAN standard, which is a European standard based on
radio access.

Bluetooth

This section deals with the Bluetooth standard, which enables personal devices to communicate with each
other in the absence of infrastructure.

WLAN Fundamentals

While both portable terminals and mobile terminals can move from one place to another, portable
terminals are accessed only when they are stationary.

Mobile Terminals (MTs), on the other hand, are more powerful, and can be accessed when they are in
motion. WLANs aim to support truly mobile work stations.

WLAN Uses
Wireless computer networks are capable of offering versatile functionalities. WLANs are very flexible and
can be configured in a variety of topologies based on the application. Some possible uses of WLANs are
described below.

 Users would be able to surf the Internet, check e-mail, and receive Instant Messages on the move.

 In areas affected by earthquakes or other disasters, no suitable infrastructure may be available on

the site. WLANs are handy in such locations to set up networks on the fly.

 There are many historic buildings where there has been a need to set up computer networks. In
such places, wiring may not be permitted or the building design may not be conductive to efficient
wiring. WLANs are very good solutions in such places.

Design Goals

The following are some of the goals which have to be achieved while designing WLANs −

 Operational simplicity − Design of wireless LANS must incorporate features to enable a mobile user
to quickly set up and access network services in a simple and efficient manner.

 Power efficient operation − The power-constrained nature of mobile computing devices such as
laptops and PDAs necessitates the important requirement of WLANs operating with minimal power
consumption. Therefore, the design of WLAN must incorporate power-saving features and use
appropriate technologies and protocols to achieve this.

 License-free operation − One of the major factors that affects the cost of wireless access is the
license fee for the spectrum in which a particular wireless access technology operates. Low cost of
access is an important aspect for popularizing a WLAN technology. Hence the design of WLAN
should consider the parts of the frequency spectrum. For its operation which does not require an
explicit<blicensing.< p=""></blicensing.<>

 Tolerance to interference − The proliferation of different wireless networking technologies both for
civilian and military applications have led to a significant increase in the interference level across
the radio spectrum.

The WLAN design should account for this and take appropriate measures by way of selecting technologies
and protocols to operate in the presence of interference.

 Global Usability − The design of the WLAN, the choice of technology, and the selection of the
operating frequency spectrum should take into account the prevailing spectrum restriction in
countries across the world. This ensures the acceptability of the technology across the world.

 Security − The inherent broadcast nature of wireless medium adds to the requirement of security
features to be included in the design of WLAN technology.

 Safety requirements − The design of WLAN technology should follow the safety requirements that
can be classified into the following.

o Interference to medical and other instrumentation devices.

o Increased power level of transmitters that can lead to health hazards.

A well-designed WLAN should follow the power emission restrictions that are applicable in the given
frequency spectrum.
  Quality of service requirements − Quality of Service (QoS) refers to the provisioning of designated
levels of performance for multimedia traffic. The design of WLAN should take into consideration the
possibility of supporting a wide variety of traffic, including multimedia traffic.

 Compatibility with other technologies and applications − The interoperability among different
LANS is important for efficient communication between hosts operating with different LAN
technologies.

Advantages of wireless local area network (WLAN)

 It is a reliable type of communication

 As WLAN reduces physical wires so it is a flexible way of communication

 WLAN also reduces the cost of ownership

 It is easier to add or remove workstation

 It provides high data rate due to small area coverage

 You can also move workstation while maintaining the connectivity

 For propagation, the light of sight is not required

 The direction of connectivity can be anywhere i.e. you can connect devices in any direction unless it
is in the range of access point

 Easy installation and you need don’t need extra cables for installation

 WLAN can be useful in disasters situation e.g. earthquake and fire. People can still communicate
through the wireless network during a disaster

 It is economical because of the small area access

 If there are any building or trees then still wireless connection works

Disadvantages of wireless local area network (WLAN)

 WLAN requires license

 It has a limited area to cover

 Government agencies can limit the signals of WLAN if required. This can affect data transfer from
connected devices to the internet

 If the number of connected devices increases then data transfer rate decreases

 WLAN uses radio frequency which can interfere with other devices which use radio frequency

 If there is rain or thunder then communication may interfere

 Attackers can get access to the transmitted data because wireless LAN has low data security

 Signals may be affected by the environment as compared to using fiber optics

 The radiation of WLAN can be harmful to the environment

 As WLAN uses access points and access points are expensive than wires and hubs

 Access points can get signals of nearest access points

  It is required to change the network card and access point when standard changes

 LAN cable is still required which acts as the backbone of the WLAN

 Low data transfer rate than wired connection because WLAN uses radio frequency

 Chances of errors are high

 Communication is not secure and can be accessed by unauthorized users

Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no physical link
established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless signals are spread over in
the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts the digital
data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The receptor on the other end
receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Radio Transmission
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate through walls
and structures alike.Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000 km and have frequency
ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency). Radio frequencies
are sub-divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in straight line
and bounce back.The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover long distance. High
frequency radio waves have more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers, over the
earth’s surface.

Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use
Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are spread
upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.
Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them can be sent
by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves travels in straight lines, both
sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging from 300 MHz to
300 GHz.

Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above, multiple
antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do not penetrate wall
like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is using.

Infrared Transmission
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of 700-nm to 1-
mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and it’s remote.
Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high frequency range,
Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.
Light Transmission
Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is light or optical
signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line.Hence the sender and receiver
must be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends of communication
the laser and the photo-detector needs to be installed. Laser beam is generally 1mm wide hence it is a
work of precision to align two far receptors each pointing to lasers source.
Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).
Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser beam is distorted
by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the path.
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without interrupting the
communication channel.
The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication protocol sub-layer, also known as the Medium
Access Control, is a sublayer of the Data Link Layer specified in the seven-layer OSI model (layer 2). The
hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a Medium Access Controller. The MAC sub-layer acts
as an interface between the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer and the network's physical layer. The MAC
layer emulates a full-duplex logical communication channel in a multi-point network. This channel may
provide unicast, multicast or broadcast communication service.

Motivation for a specialized MAC

One of the most commonly used MAC schemes for wired networks is carrier sense multiple access with
collision detection (CSMA/CD). In this scheme, a sender senses the medium (a wire or coaxial cable) to see
if it is free. If the medium is busy, the sender waits until it is free. If the medium is free, the sender starts
transmitting data and continues to listen into the medium. If the sender detects a collision while sending, it
stops at once and sends a jamming signal. But this scheme doest work well with wireless networks. The
problems are:

 Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance

  The sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver

It might be a case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not work Furthermore, C“ might
not work, if for e.g., a terminal is “hidden

Hidden Terminal Problem:

A wireless network with lack of centralized control entity, sharing of wireless bandwidth among network
access nodes i.e. medium access control (MAC) nodes must be organized in decentralized manner. The
hidden terminal problem occurs when a terminal is visible from a wireless access point (APs), but not from
other nodes communicating with that AP. This situation leads the difficulties in medium access control
sublayer over wireless networking.

Consider a wireless networking, each node at the far edge of the access point’s range, which is known as A,
can see the access point, but it is unlikely that the same node can see a node on the opposite end of the
access point’s range, C. These nodes are known as hidden. The problem is when nodes A and C start to
send packets simultaneously to the access point B. Because the nodes A and C are out of range of each
other and so cannot detect a collision while transmitting, Carrier sense multiple access with collision
detection (CSMA/CD) does not work, and collisions occur, which then corrupt the data received by the
access point. To overcome the hidden node problem, RTS/CTS handshaking (IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS) is
implemented in conjunction with the Carrier sense multiple accesses with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA)
scheme. The same problem exists in a MANET.

Consider the scenario of wireless networking with three wireless devices (e.g. mobile phones) as shown
below.

The transmission range of access point A reaches at B, but not at access point C, similarly transmission
range of access point C reaches B, but not at A. These nodes are known as hidden terminals. The problem
occurs when nodes A and C start to send data packets simultaneously to the access point B. Because the
access points A and C are out of range of each other and resultant they cannot detect a collision while
transmitting, Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) does not work, and collisions
occur, which then corrupt the data received by the access point B due to the hidden terminal problem.

The hidden terminal analogy is described as follows:

 Terminal A sends data to B, terminal C cannot hear A

 Terminal C wants to send data to B, terminal C senses a “free” medium (CS fails) and starts
transmitting

 Collision at B occurs, A cannot detect this collision (CD fails) and continues with its transmission to B

 Terminal A is “hidden” from C and vice versa.

Some other technology that can be employed to solve hidden node problem are :
Increase Transmitting Power from the Nodes: With the enhancement of the transmission power of access
point can solve the hidden terminal problem by allowing the cell around each node to increase in size,
encompassing all of the other nodes.

Use Omni directional antennas: Since nodes using directional antennas are nearly invisible to nodes that
are not positioned in the direction the antenna is aimed at, directional antennas should be used only for
very small networks.

Remove obstacles: Keep away the obstacles that affect the performance of access point accessibility.

Move the node: Provide the mobility features to the nodes.

Use protocol enhancement software: Pooling and token passing strategy should be used before start data
transformation.

Exposed Terminal Problem:

In wireless networks, when a node is prevented from sending packets to other nodes because of a
neighboring transmitter is known as the exposed node problem.

Consider the below wireless network having four nodes labeled A, B, C, and D, where the two receivers are
out of range of each other, yet the two transmitters (B, C) in the middle are in range of each other. Here, if
a transmission between A and B is taking place, node C is prevented from transmitting to D as it concludes
after carrier sense that it will interfere with the transmission by its neighbor node B. However note that
node D could still receive the transmission of C without interference because it is out of range from B.
Therefore, implementing directional antenna at a physical layer in each node could reduce the probability
of signal interference, because the signal is propagated in a narrow band.

The exposed terminal analogy is described as follows:

 B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal D not A or B

 C senses the carrier and detects that the carrier is busy.

 C postpones its transmission until it detects the medium as being idle again

 But A is outside radio range of C, waiting is not necessary

 C is “exposed” to B

Note: Hidden terminals cause collisions, where as Exposed terminals causes’ unnecessary delay.

Hidden vs. Exposed Terminal Problem:

Let us consider the following arguments:

 In the case of hidden terminal problem, unsuccessful transmissions result from collisions between
transmissions originated by a node such as node A which cannot hear the ongoing transmissions to
its corresponding node B. The probability of such a collision is proportional to the total number of
terminals hidden from node A.

 In the case of exposed terminal, unsuccessful transmissions result from nodes such as node A being
prevented from transmitting, because their corresponding node is unable to send a CTS. Again such
unsuccessful transmissions are proportional to the number of exposed terminals. Both these events
lead to degradation of a node’s throughput.

Near and far terminals

Consider the situation shown below. A and B are both sending with the same transmission power.

 Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance

 “o, B’s signal drowns out A’s signal making C unable to receive A’s transmission
 If C is an arbiter for sending rights, B drown out A’s signal on the physical layer making C unable
to hear out A.
 The near/far effect is a severe problem of wireless networks using CDM. All signals should arrive
at the receiver with more or less the same strength for which Precise power control is to be
implemented.
The near/far effect is a severe problem of wireless networks using CDM. All signals should arrive at the
receiver with more or less the same strength for which Precise power control is to be implemented

IEEE 802.11

The IEEE standard 802.11 (IEEE, 1999) specifies the most famous family of WLANs in which many products
are available. As the standard’s number indicates, this standard belongs to the group of 802.x LAN
standards, e.g., 802.3 Ethernet or 802.5 Token Ring. This means that the standard specifies the physical and
medium access layer adapted to the special requirements of wireless LANs, but offers the same interface as
the others to higher layers to maintain interoperability.

The primary goal of the standard was the specification of a simple and robust WLAN which offers time-
bounded and asynchronous services. The MAC layer should be able to operate with multiple physical
layers, each of which exhibits a different medium sense and transmission
characteristic. Candidates for physical layers were infra red and spread spectrum radio transmission
techniques.

Additional features of the WLAN should include the support of power management to save battery power, the
handling of hidden nodes, and the ability to operate worldwide. The 2.4 GHz ISM band, which is available in
most countries around the world, was chosen for the original standard. Data rates envisaged forth standard
were 1 Mbit/s mandatory and 2 Mbit/s optional.

The following sections will introduce the system and protocol architecture of the initial IEEE 802.11 and then
discuss each layer, i.e., physical layer and medium access. After that, the complex and very important
management functions of the standard are presented. Finally, this subsection presents the enhancements of
the original standard for higher data rates, 802.11a (up to 54 Mbit/s at 5 GHz) and 802.11b (today the most
successful with 11 Mbit/s) together with further developments for security support, harmonization, or other
modulation schemes.

System architecture:

Wireless networks can exhibit two different basic system architectures as shown in infrastructure-based or ad-
hoc. Figure shows the components of an infrastructure and a wireless part as specified for IEEE 802.11. Several
nodes, called stations (STAi), are connected to access points (AP). Stations are terminals with access
mechanisms to the wireless medium and radio contact to the AP. The stations and the AP which are within the
same radio coverage form a basic service set (BSSi). The example shows two BSSs – BSS1 and BSS2 – which are
connected via a distribution system.

A distribution system connects several BSSs via the AP to form a single network and thereby extends the
wireless coverage area. This network is now called an extended service set (ESS) and has its own identifier,
the ESSID. The ESSID is the ‘name’ of a network and is used to separate different networks. Without knowing
the ESSID (and assuming no hacking) it should not be possible to participate in the WLAN. The distribution
system connects the wireless networks via the APs with a portal, which forms the interworking unit to other
LANs. The architecture of the distribution system is not specified further in IEEE 802.11. It could consist of
bridged IEEE LANs, wireless links, or any other networks. However, distribution system services are defined in
the standard (although, many products today cannot interoperate and needs the additional standard IEEE
802.11f to specify an inter access point protocol. Stations can select an AP and associate with it. The APs
support roaming (i.e., changing access points), the distribution system handles data transfer between the
different APs. APs provide synchronization within a BSS, support power management, and can control medium
access to support time-bounded service. These and further functions are explained in the following sections.
In addition to infrastructure-based networks, IEEE 802.11 allows the building of ad-hoc networks between
stations, thus forming one or more independent BSSs (IBSS) as shown in below Figure.In this case, an IBSS
comprises a group of stations using the same radio frequency. Stations STA1, STA2, and STA3 are in IBSS1,
STA4 and STA5 in IBSS2. This means for example that STA3 can communicate directly with STA2 but not with
STA5. Several IBSSs can either be formed via the distance between the IBSSs or by using different carrier
frequencies (then the IBSSs could overlap physically). IEEE 802.11 does not specify any special nodes that
support routing, forwarding of data or exchange of topology information as, e.g., HIPERLAN 1 or Bluetooth.

Figure: Protocol architecture

As indicated by the standard number, IEEE 802.11 fits seamlessly into the other 802.x standards for wired
LANs Figure shows the most common scenario: an IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN connected to a switched IEEE
802.3 Ethernet via a bridge. Applications should not notice any difference apart from the lower bandwidth and
perhaps higher access time from the wireless LAN. The WLAN behaves like a slow wired LAN. Consequently,
the higher layers (application, TCP, IP) look the same for wireless nodes as for wired nodes. The upper part of
the data link control layer, the logical link control (LLC), covers the differences of the medium access control
layers needed for the different media. In many of today’s networks, no explicit LLC layer is visible. Further
details like Ether type or sub-network access protocol (SNAP) and bridging technology are explained in, e.g.,
Perlman (1992).

The IEEE 802.11 standard only covers the physical layer PHY and medium access layer MAC like the other
802.x LANs do. The physical layer is subdivided into the physical layer convergence protocol (PLCP) and the
physical medium dependent sublayer PMD. The basic tasks of the MAC layer comprise medium access,
fragmentation of user data, and encryption. The PLCP sublayer provides a carrier sense signal, called clear
channel assessment (CCA), and provides a common PHY service access point (SAP) independent of the
transmission technology. Finally, the PMD sublayer handles modulation and encoding/decoding of signals. The
PHY layer (comprising PMD and PLCP) and the MAC layer will be explained in more detail in the following
sections.

Apart from the protocol sublayers, the standard specifies management layers and the station management.
The MAC anagement supports the association and re-association of a station to an access point and roaming
between different access points. It also controls authentication mechanisms,

encryption, synchronization of a station with regard to an access point, and power management to save
battery power. MAC management also maintains the MAC management information base (MIB).

The main tasks of the PHY management include channel tuning and PHY MIB maintenance. Finally, station
management interacts with both management layers and is responsible for additional higher layer functions
(e.g., control of bridging

and interaction with the distribution system in the case of an access point).

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that allows the users to
move from one network to another with the same IP address. It ensures that the communication will continue
without user’s sessions or connections being dropped.
Mobile IP is an internet protocol designed to support host mobility. Its goal is to provide the ability of a host
to stay connected to the internet regardless of their location. Mobile IP is able to track a mobile host without
needing to change the mobile host's long-term IP address.

Terminologies:

 Mobile Node (MN):

It is the hand-held communication device that the user caries e.g. Cell phone.

 Home Network:
It is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs to as per its assigned IP address (home
address).

 Home Agent (HA):

It is a router in home network to which the mobile node was originally connected

 Home Address:
It is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its home network).

 Foreign Network:
It is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting (away from its home network).

 Foreign Agent (FA):

It is a router in foreign network to which mobile node is currently connected. The packets from the
home agent are sent to the foreign agent which delivers it to the mobile node.

 Correspondent Node (CN):

It is a device on the internet communicating to the mobile node.

 Care of Address (COA):

It is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is moving away from its home network.

Working:
Correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contain correspondent node’s address
(Source) and home address (Destination). Packets reach to the home agent. But now mobile node is not in the
home network, it has moved into the foreign network. Foreign agent sends the care-of-address to the home
agent to which all the packets should be sent. Now, a tunnel will be established between the home agent and
the foreign agent by the process of tunneling.
Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an endpoint. It is
the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation.

Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP:

1. Agent-Discovery:
Agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting their agent advertisement messages. The
mobile node receiving the agent advertisement messages observes whether the message is from its
own home agent and determines whether it is in the home network or foreign network.

2. Agent-Registration:
Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent, sends registration request (RREQ) to the foreign
agent. Foreign agent in turn, sends the registration request to the home agent with the care-of-
address. Home agent sends registration reply (RREP) to the foreign agent. Then it forwards the
registration reply to the mobile node and completes the process of registration.

3. Tunneling:
It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an endpoint. It is the
process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation. It
takes place to forward an IP datagram from the home agent to the care-of-address. Whenever home
agent receives a packet from correspondent node, it encapsulates the packet with source address as
home address and destination as care-of-address.
 Chameli Devi Group of Institutions
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Subject Notes
CS702(C) Wireless Mobile Computing
B. Tech, CSE-7th Semester
Unit -2

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Syllabus: Study of traditional routing and transport: Routing Protocols: BGP- Concept of hidden network and
autonomous system, An Exterior gateway protocol, Different messages of BGP. Interior Gateway protocol: RIP,
OSPF. Multiplexing and ports, TCP: Segment format, Sockets, Synchronization, Three Way Hand Shaking,
Variable window size and Flow control, Timeout and Retransmission algorithms, Connection Control, Silly
window Syndrome. Example of TCP: Taho, Reno, Sack etc. UDP: Message Encapsulation, Format and Pseudo
header.
Unit Objective: To study the basic concept of routing and transport protocols and understand the different
issues in MAC and routing issues in multi hop wireless and ad-hoc networks and existing solutions for the
same.
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Routing Protocols: The purpose of routing protocols is to learn of available routes that exist on the enterprise
network, build routing tables and make routing decisions. Some of the most common routing protocols
include RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS and BGP.
There are two primary routing protocol types although many different routing protocols defined with those
two types. Link state and distance vector protocols comprise the primary types.
Distance vector protocols advertise their routing table to all directly connected neighbors at regular frequent
intervals using a lot of bandwidth and are slow to converge. When a route becomes unavailable, all router
tables must be updated with that new information. The problem is with each router having to advertise that
new information to its neighbors, it takes a long time for all routers to have a current accurate view of the
network. Distance vector protocols use fixed length subnet masks which aren’t scalable.
Link state protocols advertise routing updates only when they occur which uses bandwidth more effectively.
Routers don’t advertise the routing table which makes convergence faster. The routing protocol will flood the
network with link state advertisements to all neighbor routers per area in an attempt to converge the network
with new route information. The incremental change is all that is advertised to all routers as a multicast LSA
update. They use variable length subnet masks, which are scalable and use addressing more efficiently.

BGP: Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is a standardized exterior gateway protocol designed to exchange
routing and reachability information between autonomous systems (AS) on the Internet. The protocol is often
classified as a path vector protocol but is sometimes also classed as a distance-vector routing protocol.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the postal service of the Internet. When someone drops a letter into a
mailbox, the postal service processes that piece of mail and chooses a fast, efficient route to deliver that letter
to its recipient. Similarly, when someone submits data across the Internet, BGP is responsible for looking at all
of the available paths that data could travel and picking the best route, which usually means hopping between
autonomous systems.
Autonomous System: The Internet is a network of networks; it’s broken up into hundreds of thousands of
smaller networks known as autonomous systems (AS). Each of these networks is essentially a large pool of
routers run by a single organization.

Fig. 2.1: Border Gateway Protocol

Internal vs. external Border Gateway Protocol: Up to this point we’ve primarily focused on external peers,
meaning that the communicating autonomous systems have different autonomous system numbers (ASNs).
Internal peering, however, is when a BGP session runs between two devices with the same ASN.
The methods that external BGP (eBGP) and internal BGP (iBGP) use to send and interpret messages differ
slightly so many people consider them to be two separate protocols.
The purpose of iBGP is to allow eBGP route advertisements to be forwarded throughout an entire network—
not just to a single piece of equipment. For example, you may have an external peering relationship set up at
an IXP in New York. When traffic is passed to your network with eBGP, iBGP picks up and determines where
the traffic needs to go next within your network.
Generally, the loopback interface is used to establish a connection between iBGP peers. This method of
connection provides fault tolerance because if the device is up, the loopback interface will always be available.
Internal neighbors do not need to be directly connected like external ones; however, they do need to be fully
meshed to avoid routing loops, meaning that each device must be logically connected to every other device
through peering relationships.

Exterior Gateway Protocol: EGP is used to exchange net-reachability information between Internet gateways
belonging to the same or different autonomous systems. EGP was developed by Bolt, Beranek and Newman in
the early 1980s. It was first described in RFC 827 and formally specified in RFC 904 (1984).
EGP was originally designed to communicate reachability to and from the Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET) core routers. Information was passed from individual source nodes in distinct Internet
administrative domains called autonomous systems (ASs) up to the core routers, which passed the
information through the backbone until it could be passed down to the destination network within another
AS.
Unlike most other protocols, EGP is focused on network reachability and does not consider any metrics to
calculate the best path.
EGP has three major functions:
 Establish a set of neighbours
 Check status of neighbours(if they are alive/reachable)
 Inform neighbours the networks that reachable within their AS’s
Message formats:
 Neighbor Acquisition: To establish/de-establish neighbourship
 Neighbor Reachability: To check if neighbors are alive
 Poll: To ensure reachability of a particular network
 Routing Update: To share network reachability information
 Error: To inform the error occurred
Advantages and Disadvantages:
EGP was the first exterior gateway protocol that gained widespread acceptance in the Internet. The routing
table is stable with minimal changes as the protocol does not react to issues within the Autonomous system.
EGP is a simple reachability protocol, and, unlike modern distance-vector and path-vector protocols, it is
limited to tree-like topologies and does not support multipath networking environments, making it less
efficient.
Since this routing protocol is designed to be centrally controlled, it reduces the scalability which is a major
drawback in today’s fast growing Internet.
Another reason is that no central authority controls the commercialized Internet. The Internet is composed of
many equal networks. In a distributed architecture, the autonomous systems require routing protocols, both
interior and exterior, that can make intelligent routing choices. Because of this, EGP is no longer popular.

Interior Gateway Protocol: An interior protocol is a routing protocol used inside - interior to - an independent
network system. In TCP/IP terminology, these independent network systems are called autonomous systems.
[9] Within an autonomous system (AS), routing information is exchanged using an interior protocol chosen by
the autonomous system's administration. All interior routing protocols perform the same basic functions. They
determine the "best" route to each destination, and they distribute routing information among the systems on
a network. How they perform these functions, in particular, how they decide which routes are best, is what
makes routing protocols different from each other. There are several interior protocols:
 The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is the interior protocol most commonly used on UNIX systems.
RIP is included as part of the UNIX software delivered with most systems. It is adequate for local area
networks and is simple to configure. RIP selects the route with the lowest "hop count" (metric) as the
best route. The RIP hop count represents the number of gateways through which data must pass to
reach its destination. RIP assumes that the best route is the one that uses the fewest gateways. This
approach to route choice is called a distance-vector algorithm.
 Hello is a protocol that uses delay as the deciding factor when choosing the best route. Delay is the
length of time it takes a datagram to make the round trip between its source and destination. A Hello
 packet contains a time stamp indicating when it was sent. When the packet arrives at its destination,
the receiving system subtracts the time stamp from the current time, to estimate how long it took the
packet to arrive. Hello is not widely used. It was the interior protocol of the original 56 kbps NSFNET
backbone and has had very little use otherwise.
 Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS) is an interior routing protocol from the OSI
protocol suite. It is a Shortest Path First (SPF) link-state protocol. It was the interior routing protocol
used on the T1 NSFNET backbone, and it is still used by some large service providers.
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is another link-state protocol developed for TCP/IP. It is suitable for
very large networks and provides several advantages over RIP.

Routing Information Protocol: As delivered with most UNIX systems, Routing Information Protocol (RIP) are
run by the routing daemon routed (pronounced "route" "d"). When routed starts, it issues a request for
routing updates and then listens for responses to its request. When a system configured to supply RIP
information hears the request, it responds with an update packet based on the information in its routing
table. The update packet contains the destination addresses from the routing table and the routing metric
associated with each destination. Update packets are issued in response to requests, as well as periodically to
keep routing information accurate.
To build the routing table, routed uses the information in the update packets. If the routing update contains a
route to a destination that does not exist in the local routing table, the new route is added. If the update
describes a route whose destination is already in the local table, the new route is used only if it has a lower
cost. The cost of a route is determined by adding the cost of reaching the gateway that sent the update to the
metric contained in the RIP update packet. If the total metric is less than the metric of the current route, the
new route is used.
RIP also deletes routes from the routing table. It accomplishes this in two ways. First, if the gateway to a
destination says the cost of the route is greater than 15, the route is deleted. Second, RIP assumes that a
gateway that doesn't send updates is dead. All routes through a gateway are deleted if no updates are
received from that gateway for a specified time period. In general, RIP issues routing updates every 30
seconds. In many implementations, if a gateway does not issue routing updates for 180 seconds, all routes
through that gateway are deleted from the routing table.

Open Shortest Path First: Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), defined by RFC 2178, is a link-state protocol. As
such, it is very different from RIP. A router running RIP shares information about the entire network with its
neighbors. Conversely, a router running OSPF shares information about its neighbors with the entire network.
The "entire network" means, at most, a single autonomous system. RIP doesn't try to learn about the entire
Internet, and OSPF doesn't try to advertise to the entire Internet. That's not their job. These are interior
routing protocols; and so their job is to construct the routing inside of an autonomous system. OSPF further
refines this task by defining a hierarchy of routing areas within an autonomous system:
 Areas: An area is an arbitrary collection of interconnected networks, hosts and routers. Areas exchange
routing information with other areas within the autonomous system through area border routers.
 Backbone: A backbone is a special area that interconnects all of the other areas within an autonomous
system. Every area must connect to the backbone, because the backbone is responsible for distributing
routing information between the areas.
  Stub area: A stub area has only one area border router, which means that there is only one route out
of the area. In this case, the area border router does not need to advertise external routes to the other
routers within the stub area. It can simply advertise itself as the default route.

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing in Transport Layer: Multiplexing and Demultiplexing services are provided in
almost every protocol architecture ever designed. UDP and TCP perform the demultiplexing and multiplexing
jobs by including two special fields in the segment headers: the source port number field and the destination
port number field.
 Multiplexing: Gathering data from multiple application processes of sender, enveloping that data with
header and sending them as a whole to the intended receiver is called as multiplexing.
 Demultiplexing: Delivering received segments at receiver side to the correct app layer processes is
called as demultiplexing.

Fig. 2.2: Abstract view of multiplexing and demultiplexing

Multiplexing and demultiplexing are the services facilitated by the transport layer of OSI model.
 Fig 2.3: Transport layer- junction for multiplexing and demultiplexing

There are two types of multiplexing and Demultiplexing:

 Connectionless Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

 Connection-Oriented Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

Port Numbers of Different Protocols:

Popular Applications and Their Well-Known

Port Numbers
Protocol Application
Port Number

20 TCP FTP data

21 TCP FTP control

23 TCP Telnet
 25 TCP SMTP

UDP,
53 DNS
TCP

67, 68 UDP DHCP

69 UDP TFTP

HTTP
80 TCP
(WWW)

110 TCP POP3

161 UDP SNMP

TCP: The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the main protocols of the Internet protocol suite. It
originated in the initial network implementation in which it complemented the Internet Protocol (IP).
Therefore, the entire suite is commonly referred to as TCP/IP. TCP provides reliable, ordered, and error-
checked delivery of a stream of octets (bytes) between applications running on hosts communicating via an IP
network. Major internet applications such as the World Wide Web, email, remote administration, and file
transfer rely on TCP, which is part of the Transport Layer of the TCP/IP suite. SSL/TLS often runs on top of TCP.
TCP is connection-oriented, and a connection between client and server is established before data can be
sent. The server must be listening (passive open) for connection requests from clients before a connection is
established. Three-way handshake (active open), retransmission, and error-detection add to reliability but
lengthen latency. Applications that do not require reliable data stream service may use the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP), which provides a connectionless datagram service that prioritizes time over reliability. TCP
employs network congestion avoidance. However, there are vulnerabilities to TCP including denial of service,
connection hijacking, TCP veto, and reset attack. For network security, monitoring, and debugging, TCP traffic
can be intercepted and logged with a packet sniffer.
TCP Segment Format:
O
Offse
ct 0 1 2 3
ts
et
Bi
Octet 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
t 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0 0 Source port Destination port
4 32 Sequence number
8 64 Acknowledgment number (if ACK set)

Reser C E U A P R S F
Data N
12 96 ved W C R C S S Y I Window Size
offset S
000
R E G K H T N N
16 12 Checksum Urgent pointer (if URG set)
 8
16
20 Options (if data offset > 5. Padded at the end with "0" bytes if necessary.)
0
... ...
...

Fig 2.4: TCP Segment Format

TCP Socket:

Fig 2.5: TCP Socket

TCP 3-Way Handshake Process: TCP 3-way handshake is a process which is used in a TCP/IP network to make
a connection between the server and client. It is a three-step process that requires both the client and server
to exchange synchronization and acknowledgment packets before the real data communication process starts.
TCP message types

Message Description

Syn Used to initiate and establish a connection. It

also helps you to synchronize sequence
numbers between devices.

ACK Helps to confirm to the other side that it has

received the SYN.

SYN-ACK SYN message from local device and ACK of

 the earlier packet.

FIN Used to terminate a connection.

Fig 2.6: 3 way Handshake Diagram

 Step 1: In the first step, the client establishes a connection with a server. It sends a segment with SYN
and informs the server about the client should start communication, and with what should be its
sequence number.
 Step 2: In this step server responds to the client request with SYN-ACK signal set. ACK helps you to
signify the response of segment that is received and SYN signifies what sequence number it should able
to start with the segments.
 Step 3: In this final step, the client acknowledges the response of the Server, and they both create a
stable connection will begin the actual data transfer process.

Flow Control: TCP uses an end-to-end flow control protocol to avoid having the sender send data too fast for
the TCP receiver to receive and process it reliably. Having a mechanism for flow control is essential in an
environment where machines of diverse network speeds communicate. For example, if a PC sends data to a
Smartphone that is slowly processing received data, the Smartphone must regulate the data flow so as not to
be overwhelmed.
TCP uses a sliding window flow control protocol. In each TCP segment, the receiver specifies in the receive
window field the amount of additionally received data (in bytes) that it is willing to buffer for the connection.
The sending host can send only up to that amount of data before it must wait for an acknowledgement and
window update from the receiving host.
When a receiver advertises a window size of 0, the sender stops sending data and starts the persist timer. The
persist timer is used to protect TCP from a deadlock situation that could arise if a subsequent window size
update from the receiver is lost, and the sender cannot send more data until receiving a new window size
update from the receiver. When the persist timer expires, the TCP sender attempts recovery by sending a
small packet so that the receiver responds by sending another acknowledgement containing the new window
size. If a receiver is processing incoming data in small increments, it may repeatedly advertise a small receive
window. This is referred to as the silly window syndrome, since it is inefficient to send only a few bytes of data
in a TCP segment, given the relatively large overhead of the TCP header.

Congestion Control: The final main aspect of TCP is congestion control. TCP uses a number of mechanisms to
achieve high performance and avoid congestion collapse, where network performance can fall by several
orders of magnitude. These mechanisms control the rate of data entering the network, keeping the data flow
below a rate that would trigger collapse. They also yield an approximately max-min fair allocation between
flows.
Acknowledgments for data sent, or lack of acknowledgments, are used by senders to infer network conditions
between the TCP sender and receiver. Coupled with timers, TCP senders and receivers can alter the behavior
of the flow of data. This is more generally referred to as congestion control and/or network congestion
avoidance.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) uses a network congestion-avoidance algorithm that includes various
aspects of an additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD) scheme, along with other schemes including
slow start and congestion window, to achieve congestion avoidance. The TCP congestion-avoidance algorithm
is the primary basis for congestion control in the Internet. Per the end-to-end principle, congestion control is
largely a function of internet hosts, not the network itself. There are several variations and versions of the
algorithm implemented in protocol stacks of operating systems of computers that connect to the Internet.
TCP Tahoe: When a loss occurs, fast retransmit is sent, half of the current CWND is saved as ssthresh and slow
start begins again from its initial CWND. Once the CWND reaches ssthresh, TCP changes to congestion
avoidance algorithm where each new ACK increases the CWND by MSS / CWND. This results in a linear
increase of the CWND.
TCP Reno: A fast retransmit is sent, half of the current CWND is saved as ssthresh and as new CWND, thus
skipping slow start and going directly to the congestion avoidance algorithm. The overall algorithm here is
called fast recovery.
TCP SACK: TCP SACK or selective acknowledgement requires that packets should acknowledge selectively. It is
an option enabling a receiver to tell the sender the range of noncontiguous packets received. Without SACK,
the receiver can only tell the sender about sequentially received packets. The sender uses this information to
retransmit selectively only the lost packets. It uses a variable pipe to store outstanding data in the network,
which is absent in TCP Reno and New Reno. When pipe < cwnd, then it sends data and Set pipe = pipe + 1.
However, when the sender receives an acknowledgement from receiver then set pipe = pipe – 1. In this
manner, the sender transmits all of the outstanding data in the network. When all the outstanding packets are
acknowledged, then SACK exits fast recovery and enters next phase that is congestion avoidance.

Silly Window Syndrome: Silly Window Syndrome is a problem that arises due to poor implementation of TCP.
It degrades the TCP performance and makes the data transmission extremely inefficient. The problem is called
so because:
 It causes the sender window size to shrink to a silly value.
 The window size shrinks to such an extent where the data being transmitted is smaller than TCP
Header.

What are the causes?

The two major causes of this syndrome are as follows:
 Sender window transmitting one byte of data repeatedly.
 Receiver window accepting one byte of data repeatedly.

Cause-1: Sender window transmitting one byte of data repeatedly –

Suppose only one byte of data is generated by an application. The poor implementation of TCP leads to
transmit this small segment of data. Every time the application generates a byte of data, the window transmits
it. This makes the transmission process slow and inefficient. The problem is solved by Nagle’s algorithm.
Nagle’s algorithm suggests:
 Sender should send only the first byte on receiving one byte data from the application.
 Sender should buffer all the rest bytes until the outstanding byte gets acknowledged.
 In other words, sender should wait for 1 RTT (Round Trip Time).
After receiving the acknowledgement, sender should send the buffered data in one TCP segment. Then,
sender should buffer the data again until the previously sent data gets acknowledged.

Cause-2: Receiver window accepting one byte of data repeatedly –

Suppose consider the case when the receiver is unable to process all the incoming data. In such a case, the
receiver will advertise a small window size. The process continues and the window size becomes smaller and
smaller. A stage arrives when it repeatedly advertises window size of 1 byte. This makes receiving process slow
and inefficient. The solution to this problem is Clark’s Solution.
Clark’s solution suggests:
 Receiver should not send a window update for 1 byte.
 Receiver should wait until it has a decent amount of space available.
 Receiver should then advertise that window size to the sender.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP): User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of
Internet Protocol suite, referred as UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is unreliable and connectionless protocol. So,
there is no need to establish connection prior to data transfer.
Though Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the dominant transport layer protocol used with most of
Internet services; provides assured delivery, reliability and much more but all these services cost us with
additional overhead and latency. Here, UDP comes into picture. For the real time services like computer
gaming, voice or video communication, live conferences; we need UDP. Since high performance is needed,
UDP permits packets to be dropped instead of processing delayed packets. There is no error checking in UDP,
so it also saves bandwidth. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is more efficient in terms of both latency and
bandwidth.
UDP Header: UDP header is 8-bytes fixed and simple header, while for TCP it may vary from 20 bytes to 60
bytes. First 8 Bytes contains all necessary header information and remaining part consists of data. UDP port
number fields are each 16 bits long, therefore range for port numbers defined from 0 to 65535; port number 0
is reserved. Port numbers help to distinguish different user requests or process.

Fig. 2.7: UDP Header

 Source Port: Source Port is 2 Byte long fields used to identify port number of source.
 Destination Port: It is 2 Byte long fields, used to identify the port of destined packet.
 Length: Length is the length of UDP including header and the data. It is 16-bits field.
 Checksum: Checksum is 2 Bytes long field. It is the 16-bit one’s complement of the one’s complement
sum of the UDP header, pseudo header of information from the IP header and the data, padded with
zero octets at the end (if necessary) to make a multiple of two octets

Fig. 2.8: UDP Message Format

The Checksum Field and the UDP Pseudo Header: The UDP Checksum field is the one area where the protocol
actually is a bit confusing. The concept of a checksum itself is nothing new; they are used widely in networking
protocols to provide protection against errors. What's a bit odd is this notion of computing the checksum over
the regular datagram and also a pseudo header. What this means is that instead of calculating the checksum
over just the fields in the UDP datagram itself, the UDP software first constructs a “fake” additional header
that contains the following fields:
  The IP Source Address field.
 The IP Destination Address field.
 The IP Protocol field.
 The UDP Length field.

Fig. 2.9: UDP Pseudo Header Format

The total length of this “pseudo header” is 11 bytes. It is padded to 12 bytes with a byte of zeroes and then
prepended to the real UDP message. The checksum is then computed over the combination of the pseudo
header and the real UDP message, and the value is placed into the Checksum field. The pseudo header is used
only for this calculation and is then discarded; it is not actually transmitted. The UDP software in the
destination device creates the same pseudo header when calculating its checksum to compare to the one
transmitted in the UDP header.
Computing the checksum over the regular UDP fields protects against bit errors in the UDP message itself.
Adding the pseudo header allows the checksum to also protect against other types of problems as well, most
notably the accidental delivery of a message to the wrong destination. The checksum calculation in UDP,
including the use of the pseudo header is exactly the same as the method used in TCP (except the Length field
is different in TCP).
 Chameli Devi Group of Institutions
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Subject Notes
CS702(C) Wireless & Mobile Computing
B. Tech, CSE-7th Semester
Unit -3

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Syllabus: Wireless LAN: Transmission Medium For WLANs, MAC problems, Hidden and Exposed terminals,
Near and Far terminals, Infrastructure and Ad hoc Networks, IEEE 802.11- System arch, Protocol arch, Physical
layer, Concept of spread spectrum, MAC and its management, Power management, Security. Mobile IP:
unsuitability of Traditional IP; Goals, Terminology, Agent advertisement and discovery, Registration, Tunneling
techniques. Ad hoc network routing: Ad hoc Network routing v/s Traditional IP routing, types of routing
protocols, Examples: OADV, DSDV, DSR, ZRP etc.
Course Outcome: Evaluate the transport layer issues in wireless networks due to error’s and mobility of nodes
and understand existing solutions for the same
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

WANs are Wide Area Networks which cover a wider area such a city, or a limited area greater than
LAN. Wireless Personal Area Networks (PANs) are the next step down from WLANs, covering smaller areas
with low power transmission, for networking of portable and mobile computing devices such as PCs, Personal
Digital Assistants (PDAs).

Fundamentals of WLANs

The technical issues in WLANs must be understood in order to appreciate the difference between wired
networks and wireless networks. The use of WLANs and their design goals are then studied. The types of
WLANS, their components and their basic functionalities are also detailed.

IEEE 802.11 Standards

This section introduces a prominent standard ion WLANs, the IEEE 802.11 standard. The medium access
control (MAC) layer and the physical layer mechanisms are explained.

HIPERLAN Standard: This section describes another WLAN standard, HIPERLAN standard, which is a European
standard based on radio access.

Bluetooth: This section deals with the Bluetooth standard, which enables personal devices to communicate
with each other in the absence of infrastructure.

WLAN Fundamentals: While both portable terminals and mobile terminals can move from one place to
another, portable terminals are accessed only when they are stationary.

Mobile Terminals (MTs), on the other hand, are more powerful, and can be accessed when they are in motion.
WLANs aim to support truly mobile work stations.

WLAN Uses
Wireless computer networks are capable of offering versatile functionalities. WLANs are very flexible and can
be configured in a variety of topologies based on the application. Some possible uses of WLANs are described
below.

 Users would be able to surf the Internet, check e-mail, and receive Instant Messages on the move.

 In areas affected by earthquakes or other disasters, no suitable infrastructure may be available on the
site. WLANs are handy in such locations to set up networks on the fly.

 There are many historic buildings where there has been a need to set up computer networks. In such
places, wiring may not be permitted or the building design may not be conductive to efficient wiring.
WLANs are very good solutions in such places.

Design Goals

The following are some of the goals which have to be achieved while designing WLANs −

 Operational simplicity − Design of wireless LANS must incorporate features to enable a mobile user to
quickly set up and access network services in a simple and efficient manner.

 Power efficient operation − The power-constrained nature of mobile computing devices such as
laptops and PDAs necessitates the important requirement of WLANs operating with minimal power
consumption. Therefore, the design of WLAN must incorporate power-saving features and use
appropriate technologies and protocols to achieve this.

 License-free operation − One of the major factors that affects the cost of wireless access is the license
fee for the spectrum in which a particular wireless access technology operates. Low cost of access is an
important aspect for popularizing a WLAN technology.

 Tolerance to interference − The proliferation of different wireless networking technologies both for
civilian and military applications have led to a significant increase in the interference level across the
radio spectrum.

The WLAN design should account for this and take appropriate measures by way of selecting technologies and
protocols to operate in the presence of interference.

 Global Usability − The design of the WLAN, the choice of technology, and the selection of the
operating frequency spectrum should take into account the prevailing spectrum restriction in
countries across the world. This ensures the acceptability of the technology across the world.

 Security − The inherent broadcast nature of wireless medium adds to the requirement of security
features to be included in the design of WLAN technology.

 Safety requirements − The design of WLAN technology should follow the safety requirements that can
be classified into the following.

o Interference to medical and other instrumentation devices.

o Increased power level of transmitters that can lead to health hazards.

A well-designed WLAN should follow the power emission restrictions that are applicable in the given
frequency spectrum.
  Quality of service requirements − Quality of Service (QoS) refers to the provisioning of designated
levels of performance for multimedia traffic. The design of WLAN should take into consideration the
possibility of supporting a wide variety of traffic, including multimedia traffic.

 Compatibility with other technologies and applications − The interoperability among different LANS is
important for efficient communication between hosts operating with different LAN technologies.

Advantages of wireless local area network (WLAN)

 It is a reliable type of communication

 As WLAN reduces physical wires so it is a flexible way of communication

 WLAN also reduces the cost of ownership

 It is easier to add or remove workstation

 It provides high data rate due to small area coverage

 You can also move workstation while maintaining the connectivity

 For propagation, the light of sight is not required

 The direction of connectivity can be anywhere i.e. you can connect devices in any direction unless it is
in the range of access point

 Easy installation and you need don’t need extra cables for installation

 WLAN can be useful in disasters situation e.g. earthquake and fire. People can still communicate
through the wireless network during a disaster

 It is economical because of the small area access

 If there are any building or trees then still wireless connection works

Disadvantages of wireless local area network (WLAN)

 WLAN requires license

 It has a limited area to cover

 Government agencies can limit the signals of WLAN if required. This can affect data transfer from
connected devices to the internet

 If the number of connected devices increases then data transfer rate decreases

 WLAN uses radio frequency which can interfere with other devices which use radio frequency

 If there is rain or thunder then communication may interfere

 Attackers can get access to the transmitted data because wireless LAN has low data security

 Signals may be affected by the environment as compared to using fiber optics

 The radiation of WLAN can be harmful to the environment

  As WLAN uses access points and access points are expensive than wires and hubs

 Access points can get signals of nearest access points

 It is required to change the network card and access point when standard changes

 LAN cable is still required which acts as the backbone of the WLAN

 Low data transfer rate than wired connection because WLAN uses radio frequency

 Chances of errors are high

 Communication is not secure and can be accessed by unauthorized users

Transmission Medium for WLANs: Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless
communication involves no physical link established between two or more devices, communicating
wirelessly. Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate
antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts the digital data
into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The receptor on the other end receives
these signals and converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Figure No. 3.1 Electromagnetic spectrum

Radio Transmission
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate through walls and
structures alike. Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000 km and have frequency ranging
from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-
divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in straight line and
bounce back. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover long distance. High
frequency radio waves have more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers, over the earth’s
surface.

Figure No. 3.2 Radio Transmission

Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use Ionosphere
of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are spread upwards. When they
reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.

Figure No. 3.3 Radio Transmission

Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them can be sent by
beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves travels in straight lines, both
sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging from 300 MHz to 300
GHz.

Figure No. 3.4 Microwave Transmission

Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above, multiple
antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do not penetrate wall like
obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is using.
Infrared Transmission
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of 700-nm to 1-mm
and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and it’s remote.
Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high frequency range, Infrared
cannot cross wall-like obstacles.
Light Transmission
Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is light or optical signaling.
This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line.Hence the sender and receiver must
be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends of communication the laser
and the photo-detector needs to be installed. Laser beam is generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of
precision to align two far receptors each pointing to lasers source.

Figure No. 3.5 Light Transmission

Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).
Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser beam is distorted by
wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the path.
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without interrupting the
communication channel.
MAC problems
The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication protocol sub-layer, also known as the Medium Access
Control, is a sub layer of the Data Link Layer specified in the seven-layer OSI model (layer 2). The hardware
that implements the MAC is referred to as a Medium Access Controller. The MAC sub-layer acts as an
interface between the Logical Link Control (LLC) sub layer and the network’s physical layer. The MAC layer
emulates a full-duplex logical communication channel in a multi-point network. This channel may provide
unicast, multicast or broadcast communication service.

Figure No. 3.6 Media Access Control (MAC)

Motivation for a specialized MAC

One of the most commonly used MAC schemes for wired networks is carrier sense multiple access with
collision detection (CSMA/CD). In this scheme, a sender senses the medium (a wire or coaxial cable) to see if it
is free. If the medium is busy, the sender waits until it is free. If the medium is free, the sender starts
transmitting data and continues to listen into the medium. If the sender detects a collision while sending, it
stops at once and sends a jamming signal. But this scheme doest work well with wireless networks. The
problems are:

 Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance

 The sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver

It might be a case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not work Furthermore, C“ might not
work, if for e.g., a terminal is “hidden

Hidden Terminal Problem:

A wireless network with lack of centralized control entity, sharing of wireless bandwidth among network
access nodes i.e. medium access control (MAC) nodes must be organized in decentralized manner. The hidden
terminal problem occurs when a terminal is visible from a wireless access point (APs), but not from other
nodes communicating with that AP. This situation leads the difficulties in medium access control sub layer
over wireless networking.

Consider a wireless networking, each node at the far edge of the access point’s range, which is known as A,
can see the access point, but it is unlikely that the same node can see a node on the opposite end of the
access point’s range, C. These nodes are known as hidden. The problem is when nodes A and C start to send
packets simultaneously to the access point B. Because the nodes A and C are out of range of each other and so
cannot detect a collision while transmitting, Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD)
does not work, and collisions occur, which then corrupt the data received by the access point. To overcome
the hidden node problem, RTS/CTS handshaking (IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS) is implemented in conjunction with the
Carrier sense multiple accesses with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) scheme. The same problem exists in a
MANET.

Consider the scenario of wireless networking with three wireless devices (e.g. mobile phones) as shown
below.

Figure No. 3.7 Hidden Terminal Problem

The transmission range of access point A reaches at B, but not at access point C, similarly transmission range
of access point C reaches B, but not at A. These nodes are known as hidden terminals. The problem occurs
when nodes A and C start to send data packets simultaneously to the access point B. Because the access
points A and C are out of range of each other and resultant they cannot detect a collision while transmitting,
Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) does not work, and collisions occur, which
then corrupt the data received by the access point B due to the hidden terminal problem.

The hidden terminal analogy is described as follows:

 Terminal A sends data to B, terminal C cannot hear A

  Terminal C wants to send data to B, terminal C senses a “free” medium (CS fails) and starts transmitting

 Collision at B occurs, A cannot detect this collision (CD fails) and continues with its transmission to B

 Terminal A is “hidden” from C and vice versa.

Exposed Terminal Problem:

In wireless networks, when a node is prevented from sending packets to other nodes because of a neighboring
transmitter is known as the exposed node problem.

Figure No. 3.8 Exposed Terminal Problem

Consider the below wireless network having four nodes labeled A, B, C, and D, where the two receivers are out
of range of each other, yet the two transmitters (B, C) in the middle are in range of each other. Here, if a
transmission between A and B is taking place, node C is prevented from transmitting to D as it concludes after
carrier sense that it will interfere with the transmission by its neighbor node B. However note that node D
could still receive the transmission of C without interference because it is out of range from B. Therefore,
implementing directional antenna at a physical layer in each node could reduce the probability of signal
interference, because the signal is propagated in a narrow band.

The exposed terminal analogy is described as follows:

 B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal D not A or B

 C senses the carrier and detects that the carrier is busy.

 C postpones its transmission until it detects the medium as being idle again

 But A is outside radio range of C, waiting is not necessary

 C is “exposed” to B

Note: Hidden terminals cause collisions, where as Exposed terminals causes’ unnecessary delay.

Hidden vs. Exposed Terminal Problem:

Let us consider the following arguments:

 In the case of hidden terminal problem, unsuccessful transmissions result from collisions between
transmissions originated by a node such as node A which cannot hear the ongoing transmissions to its
corresponding node B. The probability of such a collision is proportional to the total number of
terminals hidden from node A.
  In the case of exposed terminal, unsuccessful transmissions result from nodes such as node A being
prevented from transmitting, because their corresponding node is unable to send a CTS. Again such
unsuccessful transmissions are proportional to the number of exposed terminals. Both these events
lead to degradation of a node’s throughput.

Near and far terminals

Consider the situation shown below. A and B are both sending with the same transmission power.

Figure No. 3.8 Near and far terminals

 Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
 “o, B’s signal drowns out A’s signal making C unable to receive A’s transmission
 If C is an arbiter for sending rights, B drown out A’s signal on the physical layer making C unable to
hear out A.
The near/far effect is a severe problem of wireless networks using CDM. All signals should arrive at the
receiver with more or less the same strength for which Precise power control is to be implemented
Comparison between Infrastructure and Ad hoc Networks

IEEE 802.11

The IEEE standard 802.11 (IEEE, 1999) specifies the most famous family of WLANs in which many products are
available. As the standard’s number indicates, this standard belongs to the group of 802.x LAN standards, e.g.,
802.3 Ethernet or 802.5 Token Ring. This means that the standard specifies the physical and medium access
layer adapted to the special requirements of wireless LANs, but offers the same interface as the others to
higher layers to maintain interoperability.

The primary goal of the standard was the specification of a simple and robust WLAN which offers time-
bounded and asynchronous services. The MAC layer should be able to operate with multiple physical layers,
each of which exhibits a different medium sense and transmission characteristic. Candidates for physical
layers were infra red and spread spectrum radio transmission techniques.

System architecture:

Wireless networks can exhibit two different basic system architectures as shown in infrastructure-based or ad-
hoc. Figure shows the components of an infrastructure and a wireless part as specified for IEEE 802.11. Several
nodes, called stations (STAi), are connected to access points (AP). Stations are terminals with access
mechanisms to the wireless medium and radio contact to the AP. The stations and the AP which are within the
same radio coverage form a basic service set (BSSi). The example shows two BSSs – BSS1 and BSS2 – which are
connected via a distribution system.

Figure No. 3.9 System architecture

A distribution system connects several BSSs via the AP to form a single network and thereby extends the
wireless coverage area. This network is now called an extended service set (ESS) and has its own identifier,
the ESSID. The ESSID is the ‘name’ of a network and is used to separate different networks. Without knowing
the ESSID (and assuming no hacking) it should not be possible to participate in the WLAN. The distribution
system connects the wireless networks via the APs with a portal, which forms the interworking unit to other
LANs. The architecture of the distribution system is not specified further in IEEE 802.11. It could consist of
bridged IEEE LANs, wireless links, or any other networks. However, distribution system services are defined in
the standard (although, many products today cannot interoperate and needs the additional standard IEEE
802.11f to specify an inter access point protocol. Stations can select an AP and associate with it. The APs
support roaming (i.e., changing access points), the distribution system handles data transfer between the
different APs. APs provide synchronization within a BSS, support power management, and can control medium
access to support time-bounded service. In this case, an IBSS comprises a group of stations using the same
radio frequency. Stations STA1, STA2, and STA3 are in IBSS1, STA4 and STA5 in IBSS2. This means for example
that STA3 can communicate directly with STA2 but not with STA5. Several IBSSs can either be formed via the
distance between the IBSSs or by using different carrier frequencies (then the IBSSs could overlap physically).
IEEE 802.11 does not specify any special nodes that support routing, forwarding of data or exchange of
topology information as, e.g., HIPERLAN 1 or Bluetooth.
 Figure No. 3.10 Wireless System architecture

Protocol architecture

Figure No. 3.11 Protocolarchitecture

As indicated by the standard number, IEEE 802.11 fits seamlessly into the other 802.x standards for wired
LANs Figure shows the most common scenario: an IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN connected to a switched IEEE
802.3 Ethernet via a bridge. Applications should not notice any difference apart from the lower bandwidth and
perhaps higher access time from the wireless LAN. The WLAN behaves like a slow wired LAN. Consequently,
the higher layers (application, TCP, IP) look the same for wireless nodes as for wired nodes. The upper part of
the data link control layer, the logical link control (LLC), covers the differences of the medium access control
layers needed for the different media. In many of today’s networks, no explicit LLC layer is visible. Further
details like Ether type or sub-network access protocol (SNAP) and bridging technology are explained in, e.g.,
Perlman (1992).

The IEEE 802.11 standard only covers the physical layer PHY and medium access layer MAC like the other
802.x LANs do. The physical layer is subdivided into the physical layer convergence protocol (PLCP) and the
physical medium dependent sublayer PMD. The basic tasks of the MAC layer comprise medium access,
fragmentation of user data, and encryption. The PLCP sublayer provides a carrier sense signal, called clear
channel assessment (CCA), and provides a common PHY service access point (SAP) independent of the
transmission technology. Finally, the PMD sublayer handles modulation and encoding/decoding of signals. The
PHY layer (comprising PMD and PLCP) and the MAC layer will be explained in more detail in the following
sections.

Apart from the protocol sublayers, the standard specifies management layers and the station management.
The MAC anagement supports the association and re-association of a station to an access point and roaming
between different access points. It also controls authentication mechanisms, encryption, synchronization of a
station with regard to an access point, and power management to save battery power. MAC management also
maintains the MAC management information base (MIB).

The main tasks of the PHY management include channel tuning and PHY MIB maintenance. Finally, station
management interacts with both management layers and is responsible for additional higher layer functions
(e.g., control of bridging and interaction with the distribution system in the case of an access point).

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that allows the users to
move from one network to another with the same IP address. It ensures that the communication will continue
without user’s sessions or connections being dropped.

Its goal is to provide the ability of a host to stay connected to the internet regardless of their location. Mobile
IP is able to track a mobile host without needing to change the mobile host's long-term IP address.

Terminologies:

 Mobile Node (MN):

It is the hand-held communication device that the user caries e.g. Cell phone.

 Home Network:
It is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs to as per its assigned IP address (home
address).

 Home Agent (HA):

It is a router in home network to which the mobile node was originally connected

 Home Address:
It is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its home network).

 Foreign Network:
It is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting (away from its home network).

 Foreign Agent (FA):

It is a router in foreign network to which mobile node is currently connected. The packets from the
home agent are sent to the foreign agent which delivers it to the mobile node.

 Correspondent Node (CN):

It is a device on the internet communicating to the mobile node.

 Care of Address (COA):

It is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is moving away from its home network.
 Figure No. 3.12 Mobile IP
Working:
Correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contain correspondent node’s address
(Source) and home address (Destination). Packets reach to the home agent. But now mobile node is not in the
home network, it has moved into the foreign network. Foreign agent sends the care-of-address to the home
agent to which all the packets should be sent. Now, a tunnel will be established between the home agent and
the foreign agent by the process of tunneling. Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available
between a tunnel entry and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by
a mechanism called encapsulation.

Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP:

4. Agent Discovery:
Agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting their agent advertisement messages. The
mobile node receiving the agent advertisement messages observes whether the message is from its
own home agent and determines whether it is in the home network or foreign network.

5. Agent Registration:
Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent, sends registration request (RREQ) to the foreign
agent. Foreign agent in turn, sends the registration request to the home agent with the care-of-
address. Home agent sends registration reply (RREP) to the foreign agent. Then it forwards the
registration reply to the mobile node and completes the process of registration.

6. Tunneling:
It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an endpoint. It is the
process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation. It
takes place to forward an IP datagram from the home agent to the care-of-address. Whenever home
agent receives a packet from correspondent node, it encapsulates the packet with source address as
home address and destination as care-of-address.

ADHOC Network
An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when devices connect and communicate with each
other. Ad hoc networks are mostly wireless local area networks (LANs). The devices communicate with each
other directly instead of relying on a base station or access points as in wireless LANs for data transfer co-
ordination. Each device participates in routing activity, by determining the route using the routing algorithm
and forwarding data to other devices via this route.
 Figure No. 3.13 ADHOC Network
Classifications of Ad Hoc Networks

Ad hoc networks can be classified into several types depending upon the nature of their applications

Figure No. 3.14 Classifications of Ad Hoc Networks

Traditional IP routing

Routing is the primary function of IP. IP datagram’s are processed and forwarded by routers which relay
traffic through paths set up by various routing protocols. Routing in todays fixed networks is based on
network aggregation combined with best matching. TCP/IP hosts use a routing table to maintain
knowledge about other IP networks and IP hosts. Networks are identified by using an IP address and a
subnet mask, and routes to single hosts are rarely set up. When a packet is to be forwarded, the routing
table is consulted and the packet is transmitted on the interface registered with a route containing
the best match for the destination. If no network matches are found, a default route is used if one exists.
 When configuring a network interface with an IP address, a route to the network the address is a member
of is usually registered on the interface automatically. This route is not set up with a gateway(the next hop
along the path to the host) since hosts with addresses within this network are assumed to be reachable
directly from this interface. This shows that the traditional IP routing maintains an idea of all hosts within
the same subnet being on the same link. This means that all hosts in a subnet are available on a single one-
hop network segment, typically via routers or switches. When working on wireless multi-hop networks this
is not the case. One needs to redefine the idea of nodes being available ``on the link''. In MANETs nodes
routes traffic by retransmitting packets on the interface it arrived. This approach breaks with the wired
``on-link'' way of thinking.

Figure No. 3.15 Routing Protocols of Ad Hoc Networks

Reactive (on-demand) routing protocol

In reactive routing protocols, a node initiates a route discovery, only when it wants to send packet to its
destination. They do not maintain or constantly update their route tables with the latest route topology.

Therefore, the communication overhead is reduced but the delay is increased due the on-demand route
establishment process.

Dynamic source routing (DSR): DSR is a most widely known protocol that relays on source routing
mechanism. The network bandwidth overhead is reduced by transmitting the routing message on-demand
and battery power is harvested on the nodes since each of the nodes has to transmit the control packets
whenever needed.
Adhocon-demand distance vector (AODV): AODV to provide loop- free routes even under the condition of
repairing the failure routes. The Time to Live (TTL), prevents the unnecessary forwarding of packets by a node
hence reduces control overhead. Since, the performance depends on the bandwidth and end-end delay, so
the route cache mechanism is not implemented in this protocol.

Temporally ordered routing algorithm (TORA): an adaptive and scalable routing algorithm. TORA is based on
“link reversal” algorithm. This protocol is proposed to operate in a highly dynamic mobile wireless network
environment. A directed acyclic graph (DAG) rooted at a destination is constructed by using a height as a
metric.

Associatively based routing (ABR): ABR a simple and width efficient distributed routing algorithm. ABR
exploits route stability as the criteria in selecting a best route. ABR algorithm uses a mechanism called
associatively ticks to determine and maintain a “degree of associatively”. The protocol is loop-free, no
deadlock condition, no duplicate of packets.

Signal stability-based adaptive routing (SSBR): a distributed adaptive routing protocol designed for ad hoc
network by considering the signal strength and location stability as the routing criteria. Thus, the final path
from source to destination consists of only strong link. If multiple paths are available, then the destination
selects one route among them.

The ant colony based routing algorithm (ARA): an innovative mechanism for on-demand, multi hop ad hoc
routing, based on swarm intelligence and the ant colony meta heuristic. ARA is designed with a primary
objective to reduce the overhead without any direct link among the participants the complex optimization and
collaboration problem are solved by this type of algorithm.

Labeled distance routing (LDR): an on-demand, loop free routing protocol. LDR utilizes distance labels to
ensure loop free path in the network rather than using sequence number as other routing algorithms. LDR
exploits a Route Request, Route Reply and Route Error packet as.

Dynamic backup routes routing protocol (DBR2PThe special unique feature about DBR2P is, it does not require
any routing table as other routing protocols.

Adhoc QoS on-demand routing (AQOR): AQOR mechanism estimates the bandwidth and end-end delay
requirements and exploits these metrics to determine accurate admission control and resource reservation
decision. TTL, prevents the unnecessary forwarding of packets by a node hence reduces control overhead.

Distributed ant routing (DAR): The goal of DAR is to reduce the computation complexity. Each node maintains
a routing table. Forward ants are used to find new route. A node selects the next hop node based on weighted
probabilities.

Routing on-demand a cyclic multipath (ROAM based upon the directed acyclic graphs (DAG).

Gathering based routing protocol (GRP): The source node uses the network information collected during
route discovery process to forward the packets even if the current route is failed. The source node computes
the optimal path based on the collected network information. Then, through the optimal path data packets
are forwarded.

Hint based probabilistic protocol: In this protocol, the nodes of the network uses a set of meta-information
defined as hints to discover a route to the destination. This protocol has lower control overheads.
Preemptive routing in ad hoc networks: The algorithm initiate the route discovery process to discovery an
alternative route before the probable current route failure.

Labeled successor routing (LSR): On-demand protocols are built on top of AODV, by exploiting sequence
number.

Proactive (table driven) routing protocol

In proactive routing, each node has one or more tables that contain the latest information of the routes to any
node in the network.

Destination sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV): DSDV, based on Bellman Ford routing mechanism is a
table-driven routing protocol

Optimized link state routing (OLSR): a proactive routing protocol based on the link state routing.

OLSR with quality of service (QOLSR): based on the traditional OLSR.

Hierarchical proactive routing mechanism for mobile ad hoc networks (HOLSR which was developed based
on OLSR by organizing node in a hierarchical structure to overcome the inefficiency faced by the flat routing
protocol in exploiting the nodes with higher source like bandwidth, transmission range etc.

Wireless routing protocol (WRP): uses the properties of the distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm. Route is
chosen by selecting a neighbor node that would minimize the path cost.

Source tree adaptive routing protocol (STAR): ORA and LORA are two distinct approaches proposed under
STAR protocol. ORA approach is preferred to obtain the optimal path with respect to metric (i.e.) number of
hops. With ORA it is possible to obtain feasible paths with fewer packets overhead, but with LORA route do
not guarantees to be optimal.

Cluster head gateway switch routing protocols (CGSR): CGSR is based on a distributed algorithm namely least
cluster change (LCC). Cluster head is elected by using LCC. LCC algorithm is considered to be stable algorithm
for cluster head election. Clustering enables an effective way for channel allocation.

Hybrid routing protocols

Hybrid routing protocols are designed with the route discovery mechanism and the table maintenance
mechanism features of reactive and proactive respectively. Hybrid protocol is suitable for ad hoc network
where large numbers of nodes are present. The protocols discussed in this section overcome the drawbacks of
both proactive and reactive routing protocols such as latency and overhead problems in the network.

Zone routing protocol (ZRP): This protocol has features of both proactive and reactive mechanism. In ZRP two
different routing approaches are exploited: intrazone routing protocol (IARP) and interzone routing protocol
(IERP).

Zone based hierarchical link state routing protocol (ZHLS): network which is divided into non-overlapping
zones based on geographical information.

Landmark ad hoc routing (LANMAR): LANMAR have combined features of both FSR and Landmark routing. A
subnet, set of nodes are grouped together as a single unit are likely to move as a group.
Relative distance micro-discovery ad hoc routing (RDMAR): is loop-free highly adaptive, efficient and
scalable protocol. RDMAR consists of two main algorithms: the route discovery algorithm and route
maintenance algorithm.

Distributed spanning tree (DST) routing: A routing algorithm based on the distributed spanning trees. DST
proposes two different routing strategies to determine a route between a source and a destination pair
namely: (1) Hybrid tree flooding (HFT) and (2) Distributed spanning tree (DST) shuttling.

Distributed dynamic routing (DDR) algorithm: A tree based routing protocol. In DDR the trees do not require
a root node. In this algorithm the tree are constructed by exchanging the periodic beacon messages among
neighbors’ nodes.

Fisheye state routing (FSR): FSR maintains the accurate distance and path quality information about the
immediate neighboring nodes. FSR are more scalable to large networks.

Hybrid ant colony optimization (HOPNET): Wang a hybrid ant colony optimization (HOPNET) based on
nature–inspired algorithm such as ant colony based optimization (ACO) and zone routing.

Fisheye zone routing protocol (FZRP): inherits the idea of fisheye state routing in ZRP.

Link reliability based hybrid routing (LRHR): a novel hybrid routing protocol namely, LRHR. LRHR achieves the
dynamic switching between table driven and on demand routing strategies due to the frequent topology
changes in the network.

Hierarchical routing protocols

Hierarchical routing protocols apply clustering techniques to build a hierarchy of nodes. Nodes are organized
into groups called zones (or) clusters. Each cluster consists of one or more clusters and gateways. Hierarchical
routing protocols are developed with an ability to address scalability issues in ad hoc network environment
and to minimize excessive overhead. This on the other side increases the tediousness of the routing
techniques used by these protocols.

Core-extraction distributed ad hoc routing (CEDAR): An QoS routing algorithm. In CEDAR a subset of nodes
are grouped as the core of the network.

Hierarchical state routing (HSR): In HSR clustering schema play a vital role. The primary objective of clustering
is to have the efficient utilization of radio channel resource and the reduction of routing overhead, Thus the
network performance can be enhanced.

Dynamic address approach. Under this scheme a geographical location based dynamic address is added to the
nodes permanent identifier.

Hierarchical landmark routing (H-LANMAR :Improve the scalability of the network. In H-LANMAR, nodes in
the network are grouped into dynamic multihop clusters. Cluster head is referred as backbone node (BN). In
case of backbone failure LANMAR schema is used for packet transmission

Multipath routing protocols

The multipath routing protocols are designed with primary objectives to provide reliable communication and
to ensure load balancing as well as to improve quality of service (QoS) of ad hoc environment. Multipath
routing protocols address issues such as multiple paths discovery and maintaining these paths.
Caching and multipath routing protocol (CHAMP): exploits data caching and shortest multipath routing. The
main design goal is to minimize the packet drops that occur due to the frequent route breakages.

Secure multipath routing (secMR Many security enhancement techniques are imposed in this protocol to
present security attacks of collaborating malicious nodes. A centralized Certifying Authority (CA) issues a
certificate to the secret keys.

Energy and mobility aware geographical multipath routing protocols (EM-GMR): According to EM-GMR,
while choosing the next hop, a mobile node should consider the following constraints namely: the remaining
battery capacity, mobility and distance between that next hop to the destination. A fuzzy logic system is
developed and applied to the next hop selection mechanism. Thus the authors developed 27 rules for the
fuzzy logic set to select the next hop node.

Braided multipath routing (BMR): In BMR protocol each node discovers alternate best paths from a source to
a destination during the route discovery process.

Truth multipath routing protocol (TMRP): TMRP that can be suitable for network with non-cooperative nodes
referred as selfish nodes depending upon the resource availability at each node, the cost of forwarding a
packet is measured.

Ad hoc on-demand multipath distance vector routing (AOMDV): . The main objective of this protocol is to
establish a multiple loop free and link-disjoint paths. The proposed metric namely “advertise hop count “is
used in this protocol. The advertised hop count for a node is defined as the maximum acceptable hop count
for any path recorded at the node.

Disjoint multipath routing using colored trees: developed a loopfree multipath routing protocol using a pair
of trees that are red and blue in colors. Thus, a pair of colored trees is constructed by this process.

Scalable multipath on-demand routing (SMORT): The major objective of this protocol is to minimize the
routing overhead occurred during route break recovery and to increase the scalability.

Split multipath routing (SMR): SMR protocol that forms and uses multiple routes of maximally disjoint paths.
The overhead caused by route recovery process is minimized by establishing a multiple path from source to
destination.

Location-aware routing protocols

The geographical information about a node is collected by another node by using GPS mechanism. Location-
aware routing protocols are efficiently supports to improve the scalability of the ad hoc network.

Location aided routing (LAR the LAR protocol, is based on directed flooding strategies. Two different LAR
schemes are proposed to determine whether a node is within the request zone.

Distance routing effect algorithm (DREAM): utilizes location information measured using GPS system and
speed information of data packet for routing. The working principal of this protocol is a part proactive and
reactive in nature.

Greedy perimeter stateless routing (GPSR): scalability and mobility. The protocol exploits greedy forwarding
strategies, a node forward the packet to neighbors that is closer to the destination than itself until the
destination is reached.
Dynamic route maintenance (DRM) for geographical forwarding: defined a scheme using the count
threshold value that keeps track of number of duplicate broadcast packet received by a node. The main
objective is to minimize the control packets overhead by decreasing duplicate route discovery packets.

Adaptive location aided mobile ad hoc network routing (ALARM): exploits link duration as mobility feedback
for adaptation and for evaluating the performance improvement, location informed are used.

A region based routing protocol for wireless mobile ad hoc networks (REGR): proposed dynamically
established a pre-routing region between source-destination pair. The two main features about this protocol
are: REGR route creation and REGR route update.

Maximum expectation within transmission range (MER): a location- aware protocol. Each node in the
location aware routing use location monitoring tool namely GPS.

SOLAR: a framework called ORBIT to achieve the macro-level mobility. ORBIT is defined as an orbital
movement pattern of mobile users along specific places called hubs.

Geographical landmark routing (GLR): , GLR gives solutions to two major routing issues namely blind
detouring problem and the triangular routing problem.

Secure position based routing protocol: described a highly secure geographical forwarding (SGF) algorithm.
SGF provides source authentication message authentication and message integrity.

On-demand geographical path routing (OGRP): OGRP is an efficient, stateless and scalable routing protocols
OGRP exploits the features of greedy forwarding, reactive route discovery and source routing.

Location aided knowledge extraction routing for mobile ad hoc networks (LAKER): This protocol combines
the features of caching strategy and limited flooding area to decrease the network overheadGeographical
multicast (Geocast) routing protocols. Geocast routing protocols have the combined features of both
geographical and multicast routing protocols. The major advantage of Geocast routing protocols are
performance improvement and minimizing the control overhead.

Geocasting in mobile ad hoc networks (GeoTORA): the GeoTORA protocol is based upon the unicast TORA
routing protocol.

Geocast protocol for mobile ad hoc network based on GRID (GEOGRID): GeoGrid extends on the unicasting
routing protocol GRID. GeoGRID exploit location information in route discovery to define the forwarding zone
or geographical area.

Direction guided routing (DGR): DGR algorithm based on clustering mechanism. In DGR, the nodes in the
network are grouped into clusters and the cluster head is elected using the techniques such a mobile
clustering algorithm (MCA).

Geocast adaptive mesh environment for routing (GAMER): is based on the mobility nature of nodes. This
protocol exploits the mesh creation approach

Power-aware routing protocols

In ad hoc network, performance and lifetime of the nodes depends upon the power consumed by them. Thus
energy efficiency is an important and challenging issue in designing power-aware routing protocols.
Device and energy aware routing (DEAR): The protocol is designed for heterogeneous network that consist of
two different categories of nodes namely: battery powered nodes and externally powered nodes.

Routing and channel assignment for low power transmission in PCS: reducing the transmission power in PCS
network. The author’s goal is to increase the network lifetime of the individual nodes.

Energy conserving routing in wireless ad hoc networks: that shortest route is the routes with the least
energy cost. This leads to a conclusion, more energy will be consumed by the nodes along the shortest paths,
whereas the battery power of the other nodes in the network remains unused.

CLUSTERPOW and MINPOW: three different power-aware algorithms namely: CLUSTERPOW, tunneled
CLUSTERPOW and MINPOW. A route chosen by this protocol guarantees that each hop in the route has a
maximum transmit power capacity.

Interference aware cooperative routing: two algorithms, with a goal to maximize the throughput and
minimize energy consumption. The algorithms are designed specifically to CDMA based ad hoc sensor
network.

Minimum energy hierarchical dynamic source routing (MEHDSR): two energy-aware protocols namely
MEDSR and HMEDSR based on DSR, the traditional source initiated routing protocols.

Power conserving routing with entropy-constrained algorithm: a routing algorithm with an objective to
reduce the overhead involved with route discovery. The authors applied the concept of entropy to develop
the power-aware routing algorithm. Thus, two specific implementations are discussed.
 Chameli Devi Group of Institutions
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Subject Notes
CS702(C) Wireless & Mobile Computing
B. Tech, CSE-7th Semester
Unit -4

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
. Syllabus: Mobile transport layer: unsuitability of Traditional TCP; I-TCP, S-TCP, M-TCP. Wireless Cellular
networks: Cellular system, Cellular networks v/s WLAN, GSM – Services, system architecture, Localization
and calling, handover and Roaming.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Traditional TCP:

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport layer protocol that serves as an interface between
client and server. The TCP/IP protocol is used to transfer the data packets between transport layer and
network layer. Transport protocol is mainly designed for fixed end systems and fixed, wired networks. In
simple terms, the traditional TCP is defined as a wired network while classical TCP uses wireless approach.
Mainly TCP is designed for fixed networks and fixed, wired networks.

1. Control: During data transmission from sender to receiver, sometimes the data packet may be lost. It is
not because of hardware or software problem. Whenever the packet loss is confirmed, the probable
reason might be the temporary overload at some point in the transmission path. This temporary overload
is otherwise called as Congestion.

Congestion is caused often even when the network is designed perfectly. The transmission speed of
receiver may not be equal to the transmission speed of the sender. if the capacity of the sender is more
than the capacity of output link, then the packet buffer of a router is filled and the router cannot forward
the packets fast enough. The only thing the router can do in this situation is to drop some packets.

The receiver senses the packet loss but does not send message regarding packet loss to the sender.
Instead, the receiver starts to send acknowledgement for all the received packets and the sender soon
identifies the missing acknowledgement. The sender now notices that a packet is lost and slows down the
transmission process. By this, the congestion is reduced. This feature of TCP is one of the reason for its
demand even today.

2. Slow start:The behavior TCP shows after the detection of congestion is called as slow start. The sender
always calculates a congestion window for a receiver. At first the sender sends a packet and waits for the
acknowledgement. Once the acknowledgement is back it doubles the packet size and sends two packets.
After receiving two acknowledgements, one for each packet, the sender again doubles the packet size
and this process continues. This is called Exponential growth.

It is dangerous to double the congestion window each time because the steps might become too large.
The exponential growth stops at congestion threshold. As it reaches congestion threshold, the increase in
transmission rate becomes linear (i.e., the increase is only by 1). Linear increase continues until the
sender notices gap between the acknowledgments. In this case, the sender sets the size of congestion
window to half of its congestion threshold and the process continues.
3. Fast re-transmission: In TCP, two things lead to a reduction of the congestion threshold. One of those
is sender receiving continuous acknowledgements for the single packet. By this it can convey either of
two things. One such thing is that the receiver received all the packets up to the acknowledged one and
the other thing is the gap is due to packet loss. Now the sender immediately re-transmits the missing
packet before the given time expires. This is called as Fast re-transmission.

Figure No. 4.1 Fast re-transmission

Implications on mobility

 TCP concludes a congestion situation from a missing acknowledgement

o Typically wrong in wireless networks, here we often have packet loss due to transmission errors

o Mobility itself can cause packet loss, if e.g. A mobile node roams from one access point (e.g. Foreign
agent in Mobile IP) to another while there are still packets in transit to the wrong access point and
forwarding is not possible

 The performance of an unchanged TCP degrades severely

o TCP cannot be changed fundamentally due to the large base of installation in the fixed network,

 TCP for mobility has to remain compatible

o The basic TCP mechanisms keep the whole Internet together

Classical TCP improvements

 Indirect TCP (I-TCP)

 Snooping TCP

 Mobile TCP

 Fast retransmit/fast recovery

 Transmission/time-out freezing

 Selective retransmission

 Transaction-oriented TCP

Indirect TCP (I-TCP)

 Figure No. 4.2 Indirect TCP (I-TCP)

Figure No. 4.3 Socket and state migration after handover of a mobile host

 I-TCP segments a TCP connection into a

o Fixed part - Standard TCP is used

o Wireless part - optimized TCP protocol

 Splitting of the TCP connection at, e.g., the foreign agent into 2 TCP connections, no real end-to-end
connection any longer

 Hosts in the fixed part of the net do not notice the characteristics of the wireless part

Advantages

 No changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes for the hosts (TCP protocol) necessary, all
current optimizations to TCP still work

 Transmission errors on the wireless link do not propagate into the fixed network

 Simple to control, mobile TCP is used only for one hop between, e.g., a foreign agent and mobile host
 Therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible, the short delay on the mobile hop is known

Disadvantages

 Loss of end-to-end semantics, an acknowledgement to a sender does now not any longer mean that a
receiver really got a packet, foreign agents might crash

 Higher latency possible due to buffering of data within the foreign agent and forwarding to a new FA

Snooping TCP

 The foreign agent buffers all packets with destination mobile host and additionally ‘snoops’ the packet
flow in both directions to recognize acknowledgements

 Buffering enable the FA to perform a local retransmission in case of packet loss on the wireless link

Transparent extension of TCP within the foreign agent

 Buffering of packets sent to the mobile host

 Lost packets on the wireless link (both directions!) Will be retransmitted immediately by the mobile
host or foreign agent, respectively (so called “local” retransmission)

 The foreign agent therefore “snoops” the packet flow and recognizes acknowledgements in both
directions, it also filters asks

 Changes of TCP only within the foreign agent

Figure No. 4.5 Snooping TCP

 Data transfer to the mobile host

o FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet loss via duplicated ACKs or time-out

o fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network

 Data transfer from the mobile host

o FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers,

 FA answers directly with a NACK to the MH

o MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay

 Integration of the MAC layer

o MAC layer often has similar mechanisms to those of TCP

o thus, the MAC layer can already detect duplicated packets due to retransmissions and discard them

 Problems

o snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as I-TCP

o snooping might be useless depending on encryption schemes

Advantages

 The end-to-end TCP semantic is preserved

 The correspondent host does not need to be changed; most of the enhancements are in the foreign
agent

 It does not need a handover of state as soon as the mobile host moves to another foreign agent.

 It does not matter if the next foreign agent uses the enhancement or not

Disadvantages

 Snooping TCP does not isolate the behavior of the wireless link as well as ITCP

 Using negative acknowledgements between the foreign agent and the mobile host assumes
additional mechanisms on the mobile host.

 All efforts for snooping and buffering data may be useless if certain encryption schemes are applied
end-to- end between the correspondent host and mobile host

Mobile TCP

 Special handling of lengthy and/or frequent disconnections

 M-TCP splits as I-TCP does

o Unmodified TCP fixed network to supervisory host (SH)

o Optimized TCP SH to MH

 Supervisory host
o No caching, no retransmission

o Monitors all packets, if disconnection detected

 Set sender window size to 0

 Sender automatically goes into persistent mode

o Old or new SH reopen the window

 Advantages

o Maintains semantics, supports disconnection, no buffer forwarding

 Disadvantages

o Loss on wireless link propagated into fixed network

o Adapted TCP on wireless link

Fast retransmit / fast recovery

 Change of foreign agent often results in packet loss

o TCP reacts with slow-start although there is no congestion

 Forced fast retransmit

o As soon as the mobile host has registered with a new foreign agent, the MH sends duplicated
acknowledgements on purpose

o This forces the fast retransmit mode at the communication partners

o Additionally, the TCP on the MH is forced to continue sending with the actual window size and not to
go into slow-start after registration

Advantage

o Simple changes result in significant higher performance

Disadvantage

o Further mix of IP and TCP, no transparent approach

Transmission / time-out freezing

 Mobile hosts can be disconnected for a longer time

o No packet exchange possible, e.g., in a tunnel, disconnection due to overloaded cells or mux. With
higher priority traffic
o TCP disconnects after time-out completely

 TCP freezing

o MAC layer is often able to detect interruption in advance

o MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection

o TCP stops sending, but does now not assume a congested link

o MAC layer signals again if reconnected

Advantage

o Scheme is independent of data

Disadvantage

o TCP on mobile host has to be changed, mechanism depends on MAC layer

Selective retransmission

 TCP acknowledgements are often cumulative

o ACK n acknowledges correct and in-sequence receipt of packets up to n

o If single packets are missing quite often a whole packet sequence beginning at the gap has to be
retransmitted (go-back-n), thus wasting bandwidth

 Selective retransmission as one solution

o RFC2018 allows for acknowledgements of single packets, not only acknowledgements of in-sequence
packet streams without gaps

o Sender can now retransmit only the missing packets

Advantage

o Much higher efficiency

Disadvantage

o More complex software in a receiver, more buffer needed at the receiver

Transaction-oriented TCP

 TCP phases

o Setup, data transmission, connection release

o Using 3-way-handshake needs 3 packets for setup and release, respectively

o Thus, even short messages need a minimum of 7 packets!

 Transaction oriented TCP

o RFC1644, T-TCP, describes a TCP version to avoid this overhead

o Connection setup, data transfer and connection release can be combined

o Thus, only 2 or 3 packets are needed

Advantage : efficiency

Disadvantage

o Requires changed TCP

o Mobility not longer transparent

Figure No 4.6: Transaction-oriented TCP

Approach Mechanism Advantages Disadvantages

Splits TCP connection Isolation of wireless Loss of TCP semantics, higher

into two connections link, simple latency at handover, security
Indirect TCP
problems

Snoops data and Transparent for end- Insufficient isolation of wireless

acknowledgements, to- end connection, link, security problems
Snooping TCP
local retransmission MAC integration
possible
 Splits TCP Maintains end-to- Bad isolation of wireless link,
connection, chokes end semantics, processing overhead due to
M-TCP
sender via window andles long term bandwidth management,
size and frequent security problems
disconnections

Fast retransmit Avoids slow-start Simple and efficient Mixed layers, not transparent
/ fast recovery after roaming

Transmission / Freezes TCP state at Independent of Changes in TCP required, MAC

time-out disconnection, content, works for dependent
freezing resumes after longer interruptions
reconnection

Selective Retransmits only lost Slightly more complex receiver

retransmission data software, more buffer space
Very efficient
needed

Transaction- Combines connection Efficient for certain Changes in TCP required, not
oriented TCP setup/release and applications transparent, security problems
data transmission

Table No. 4.1 Comparison Table

Cellular Network

Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal communication systems, wireless
networking etc. The technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to replace high power
transmitter/receiver systems. Cellular networks use lower power, shorter range and more transmitters for
data transmission.

Features of Cellular Systems

Wireless Cellular Systems solves the problem of spectral congestion and increases user capacity. The
features of cellular systems are as follows −

 Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.

 Reuse of radio channel in different cells.

 Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of users by reusing the channel
throughout the coverage region.

 Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directly between mobiles).
 Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small geographic area called a
cell.

 Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.

 By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the channel groups may be reused to
cover different cells.

 Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.

 Frequency reuse or frequency planning.

 Organization of Wireless Cellular Network.

Cellular network is organized into multiple low power transmitters each 100w or less.

Shape of Cells

The coverage area of cellular networks is divided into cells, each cell having its own antenna for transmitting
the signals. Each cell has its own frequencies. Data communication in cellular networks is served by its base
station transmitter, receiver and its control unit.

The shape of cells can be either square or hexagon −

Square

A square cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at distance Root 2 d

 Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant

 Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna

Hexagon

A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy coverage and calculations. It offers the following
advantages −

 Provides equidistant antennas

 Distance from center to vertex equals length of side

Figure No. 4.7: Hexagonal Shape

Frequency Reuse

Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same radio frequencies within a given area, that are
separated by considerable distance, with minimal interference, to establish communication.

Frequency reuse offers the following benefits −

 Allows communications within cell on a given frequency

 Limits escaping power to adjacent cells

 Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells

 Uses same frequency for multiple conversations

 10 to 50 frequencies per cell

For example, when N cells are using the same number of frequencies and K be the total number of
frequencies used in systems. Then each cell frequency is calculated by using the formulae K/N.

In Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS) when K = 395 and N = 7, then frequencies per cell on an average
will be 395/7 = 56. Here, cell frequency is 56.

Cellular Networks

Cellular Network is formed of some cells, cell covers a geographical region, has a base station analogous to
802.11 AP which helps mobile users attach to network and there is an air-interface of physical and link layer
protocol between mobile and base station. All these base stations are connected to Mobile Switching
Center which connects cells to wide area net, manages call setup and handles mobility.

There is certain radio spectrum that is allocated to base station and to a particular region and that now
needs to be shared. There are 2 techniques for sharing mobile-to-base station radio spectrum are:

1. Combined FDMA/TDMA:It divide spectrum in frequency channel and divide each channel into time
slots.

2. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):It allows reuse of same spectrum over all cells. Net capacity
improvement. Two frequency bands are used one of which is for forward channel (cell-site to subscriber)
and one for reverse channel (sub to cell-site).

Cell Fundamentals:cells are of arbitrary shape(close to a circle) because it has the same power on all sides
and has same sensitivity on all sides, but putting up two three circles together may result in interleaving gaps
or may intersect each other so in order to solve this problem we can use equilateral triangle, square or a
regular hexagon in which hexagonal cell is close to a circle used for a system design.
Cell Splitting: When number of subscribers in a given area increases allocation of more channels covered by
that channel is necessary, which is done by cell splitting. A single small cell midway between two co-channel
cells is introduced.

Need for Cellular Hierarchy: Extending the coverage to the areas that are difficult to cover by a large cell.
Increasing the capacity of the network for those areas that have a higher density of users. Increasing number
of wireless devices and the communication between them.

Cellular Hierarchy –

1. Femtocells:
Smallest unit of the hierarchy, these cells need to cover only a few meters where all devices are in the
physical range of the uses.

2. Pico cells: Size of these networks is in the range of few tens of meters, e.g., WLANs.

3. Microcells: Cover a range of hundreds of meters e.g. in urban areas to support PCS which is another
kind of mobile technology.

4. Macro cells: Cover areas in the order of several kilometers, e.g., cover metropolitan areas.

5. Mega cells: Cover nationwide areas with ranges of hundreds of kilometers, e.g., used with satellites.

Global System for Mobile (GSM) Communications: GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which uses
an 8-slot Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) system. There is a frequency band which is also fixed.
Transmitting and receiving does not happen in the same time slot because the GSM radios cannot transmit
and receive at the same time and it takes time to switch from one to the other. A data frame is transmitted
in 547 micro seconds, but a transmitter is only allowed to send one data frame every 4.615 micro seconds,
since it is sharing the channel with seven other stations. The gross rate of each channel is 270, 833 bps
divided among eight users, which gives 33.854 kbps gross.

Control Channel (CC): Apart from user channels there are some control channels which is used to manage
the system.

1. The broadcast control channel (BCC):It is a continuous stream of output from the base station’s
identity and the channel status. All mobile stations monitor their signal strength to see when they moved
into a new cell.

2. The dedicated control channel (DCC):It is used for location updating, registration, and call setup. In
particular, each base station maintains a database of mobile stations. Information needed to maintain this
database and is sent on the dedicated control channel.

Common Control Channel –

Three logical sub-channels:
 1. Is the paging channel, which the base station uses to announce incoming calls. Each mobile station
monitors it continuously to watch for call it should answer.

2. Is the random access channel that allows the users to request a slot on the dedicated control channel
If two requests collide, they are garbled and have to be retried later.

3. Is the access grant channel which is the announced assigned slot.

Parameters Cellular network Ad Hoc network

Distributed, No centralized
Centralized, all the traffic goes through the Base system such as Base station
Network routing Station needed

Switching Type Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Number of Hops single hop type Multiple hops

Topology Star Mesh

Designed to meet best effort data

Application Designed and developed for voice traffic traffic requirements

Cost and time for Lower cost and does not take
installation Higher cost and takes more time for deployment more time for deployment

Low call drops during mobility due to seamless Higher breaks in the path during
Call drops connectivity across region mobility

Network nodes are self organising and

maintenance requires periodic maintenance and hence it is costly. hence it is less costly.

It utilizes same frequency channels in the nearby Dynamic frequency re-use is

cells with proper RF planning and antenna employed using carrier sense
Frequency re-use placement. This is known as static frequency re-use. mechanism.

The allocation of BW is based on

Bandwidth (BW) shared channel using complex
mechanism The allocation of BW is guaranteed and easy. MAC algorithms.
Table No. 2 Comparison Table
GSM

 GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular technology used for
transmitting mobile voice and data services.

 The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell Laboratories in the early
1970s.

 GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European mobile
telephone standard.

 GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is implemented globally.

 GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25 kHz time-slots. GSM
operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and 1800 MHz in most parts of the world. In the US,
GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz and 1900 MHz

 GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular subscribers.

 GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique for transmitting signals.

 GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.

 Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210 countries throughout
the world.

 GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service. Roaming is the ability
to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network.

GSM - Architecture
A GSM network comprises of many functional units. These functions and interfaces are explained in this
chapter. The GSM network can be broadly divided into:

 The Mobile Station (MS)

 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

 The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

 The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

Figure No. 4.8: Hexagonal Shape

The additional components of the GSM architecture comprise of databases and messaging systems
functions:
 Home Location Register (HLR)

 Visitor Location Register (VLR)

 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

 Authentication Center (AuC)

 SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)

 Gateway MSC (GMSC)

 Chargeback Center (CBC)

 Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)

The following diagram shows the GSM

network along with the added elements:

Figure No. 4.9: Hexagonal Shape

The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface. It is also known as the air interface or the radio
link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching (NSS) center across the A interface.

GSM network areas

In a GSM network, the following areas are defined:

 Cell : Cell is the basic service area; one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell Global Identity (CGI), a
number that uniquely identifies the cell.

 Location Area : A group of cells form a Location Area (LA). This is the area that is paged when a subscriber
gets an incoming call. Each LA is assigned a Location Area Identity (LAI). Each LA is served by one or more
BSCs.

 MSC/VLR Service Area : The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR service area.

 PLMN : The area covered by one network operator is called the Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN). A
PLMN can contain one or more MSCs.

The fundamental feature of the GSM system is the automatic, worldwide localization of users for which, the
system performs periodic location updates. The HLR always contains information about the current location
and the VLR currently responsible for the MS informs the HLR about the location changes. Changing VLRs
with uninterrupted availability is called roaming. Roaming can take place within a network of one provider,
between two providers in a country and also between different providers in different countries.

To locate and address an MS, several numbers are needed:


Mobile station international ISDN number (MSISDN):- The only important number for a user of GSM is
the phone number. This number consists of the country code (CC), the national destination code (NDC) and
the subscriber number (SN).


International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI): GSM uses the IMSI for internal unique identification of a
subscriber. IMSI consists of a mobile country code (MCC), the mobile network code (MNC), and finally the
mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN).


Temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI): To hide the IMSI, which would give away the exact identity
of the user signalling over the air interface, GSM uses the 4 byte TMSI for local subscriber identification.


Mobile station roaming number (MSRN): Another temporary address that hides the identity and location
of a subscriber is MSRN. The VLR generates this address on request from the MSC, and the address is also
stored in the HLR. MSRN contains the current visitor country code (VCC), the visitor national destination
code (VNDC), the identification of the current MSC together with the subscriber number. The MSRN helps
the HLR to find a subscriber for an incoming call.
 Figure No. 4.10: Hexagonal Shape

step 1: User dials the phone number of a GSM subscriber.

step 2: The fixed network (PSTN) identifies the number belongs to a user in GSM network and forwards
the call setup to the Gateway MSC (GMSC).
step 3: The GMSC identifies the HLR for the subscriber and signals the call setup to HLR
step 4: The HLR checks for number existence and its subscribed services and requests an MSRN from the
current VLR.
step 5: VLR sends the MSRN to HLR

step 6: Upon receiving MSRN, the HLR determines the MSC responsible for MS and forwards the
information to the GMSC
step 7: The GMSC can now forward the call setup request to the MSC indicated
step 8: The MSC requests the VLR for the current status of the MS
step 9: VLR sends the requested information
step 10: If MS is available, the MSC initiates paging in all cells it is responsible for.
step 11: The BTSs of all BSSs transmit the paging signal to the MS
step 12: Step 13: If MS answers, VLR performs security checks

step 15: Till step 17: Then the VLR signals to the MSC to setup a connection to the MS

Figure No. 4.11: Hexagonal Shape

step 1: The MS transmits a request for a new connection

step 2: The BSS forwards this request to the MSC

 step 3: Step 4: The MSC then checks if this user is allowed to set up a call with the requested and checks
the availability of resources through the GSM network and into the PSTN. If all resources are available,
the MSC sets up a connection between the MS and the fixed network.

Handover

Cellular systems require handover procedures, as single cells do not cover the whole service area.
However, a handover should not cause a cut-off, also called call drop. GSM aims at maximum handover
duration of 60 ms. There are two basic reasons for a handover:

1. The mobile station moves out of the range of a BTS, decreasing the received signal level increasing the
error rate thereby diminishing the quality of the radio link.

2. Handover may be due to load balancing, when an MSC/BSC decides the traffic is too high in one cell
and shifts some MS to other cells with a lower load.

The four possible handover scenarios of GSM are shown below:

Figure No. 4.12: Hexagonal Shape

Intra-cell handover: Within a cell, narrow-band interference could make transmission at a certain
frequency impossible. The BSC could then decide to change the carrier frequency (scenario 1).
Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover: This is a typical handover scenario. The mobile station moves from one cell
to another, but stays within the control of the same BSC. The BSC then performs a handover, assigns a new radio
channel in the new cell and releases the old one (scenario 2).
Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover: As a BSC only controls a limited number of cells; GSM also has to perform
handovers between cells controlled by different BSCs. This handover then has to be controlled by the MSC
(scenario 3).

Inter MSC handover: A handover could be required between two cells belonging to different MSCs. Now
both MSCs perform the handover together

To provide all the necessary information for a handover due to a weak link, MS and BTS both perform
periodic measurements of the downlink and uplink quality respectively. Measurement reports are sent by
the MS about every half-second and contain the quality of the current link used for transmission as well as
the quality of certain channels in neighboring cells (the BCCHs).
 Figure No. 4.13: Handover decision depending on receive level

Figure No. 4.14: Intra-MSC handover

More sophisticated handover mechanisms are needed for seamless handovers between different systems.

Roaming

Roaming enables a mobile subscriber to automatically make and receive voice calls, send and receive data,
or access other services when travelling outside the geographical coverage area of their home network, by
means of using a visited network.

Roaming is technically supported by mobility management, authentication and billing procedures.

Establishing roaming between network operators is based on – and the commercial terms are contained in –
dedicated roaming agreements.

If the visited network is in the same country as the home network, this is known as national roaming. If the
visited network is outside the home country, this is known as international roaming.

If the visited network operates on a different technical standard than the home network, this is known as
inter-standard roaming.
GSM Roaming, which involves roaming between GSM networks, offers the mobile subscriber the
convenience of being able to use a single number, a single bill and a single phone in up to 219 countries. The
convenience of GSM Roaming has been a key driver behind the global success of the GSM Platform.
 Chameli Devi Group of Institutions
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Subject Notes
CS702(C) Wireless and Mobile Computing
B. Tech, CSE-7th Semester
Unit -5

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Syllabus: Mobile Device Operating Systems: Special Constraints & Requirements, Commercial Mobile
Operating Systems. Software Development Kit: iOS, Android etc. M-Commerce: Structure, Pros &Cons,
Mobile Payment System, Security Issues
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Device Operating Systems:

A mobile operating system (mobile OS) is an OS built exclusively for a mobile device, such as a Smartphone,
personal digital assistant (PDA), tablet or other embedded mobile OS. Popular mobile operating systems are
Android, Symbian, iOS, BlackBerry OS and Windows Mobile.

A mobile OS is responsible for identifying and defining mobile device features and functions, including
keypads, application synchronization, email, thumbwheel and text messaging. A mobile OS is similar to a
standard OS (like Windows, Linux, and Mac) but is relatively simple and light and primarily manages the
wireless variations of local and broadband connections, mobile multimedia and various input methods.

Features of mobile operating systems

Mobile operating systems deliver various features to users, and the distinguishing feature that mobile
operating systems offer is the ability to connect to the internet via the Smartphone’s built-in modem and a
wireless service provider such as Verizon or AT&T. This is a major difference between mobile operating
systems and most desktop operating systems, which rely on a Wi-Fi network or Ethernet connection to
access the internet.

Many mobile OSes offer a native web browser application, which allows users to search the internet and visit
WebPages. Mobile operating systems also offer application stores, which allow users to download and
interface with mobile applications. Several mobile operating systems also have native GPS (global
positioning system) applications that allow users to search for locations, follow step-by-step directions and,
in some cases, share location with different devices. The GPS feature, of course, relies on the mobile device's
hardware and can't run without that support.

Types of Mobile Operating Systems

1. Android OS (Google Inc.)

The Android mobile operating system is Google's open and free software stack that includes an operating
system, middleware and also key applications for use on mobile devices, including smartphones. Updates for
the open source Android mobile operating system have been developed under "dessert-inspired" version
names (Cupcake, Donut, Éclair, Gingerbread, Honeycomb, Ice Cream Sandwich) with each new version
arriving in alphabetical order with new enhancements and improvements.

2. Bada (Samsung Electronics)

Bada is a proprietary Samsung mobile OS that was first launched in 2010. The Samsung Wave was the first
Smartphone to use this mobile OS. Bada provides mobile features such as multipoint-touch, 3D graphics and
of course, application downloads and installation.

Did You Know…? In the computer industry, proprietary is the opposite of open. A proprietary design or
technique is one that is owned by a company. It also implies that the company has not divulged
specifications that would allow other companies to duplicate the product.

3. BlackBerry OS (Research in Motion)

The BlackBerry OS is a proprietary mobile operating system developed by Research in Motion for use on the
company’s popular BlackBerry handheld devices. The BlackBerry platform is popular with corporate users as
it offers synchronization with Microsoft Exchange, Lotus Domino, Novell GroupWise email and other
business software, when used with the BlackBerry Enterprise Server.

4. iPhone OS / iOS (Apple)

Apple's iPhone OS was originally developed for use on its iphone devices. Now, the mobile operating system
is referred to as iOS and is supported on a number of Apple devices including the iPhone, iPad, iPad 2 and
iPod Touch. The iOS mobile operating system is available only on Apple's own manufactured devices as the
company does not license the OS for third-party hardware. Apple iOS is derived from Apple's Mac OS X
operating system.

5. MeeGo OS (Nokia and Intel)

A joint open source mobile operating system which is the result of merging two products based on open
source technologies: Maemo (Nokia) and Moblin (Intel). MeeGo is a mobile OS designed to work on a
number of devices including smartphones, netbooks, tablets, in-vehicle information systems and various
devices using Intel Atom and ARMv7 architectures.

6. Palm OS (Garnet OS)

The Palm OS is a proprietary mobile operating system (PDA operating system) that was originally released in
1996 on the Pilot 1000 handheld. Newer versions of the Palm OS have added support for expansion ports,
new processors, external memory cards, improved security and support for ARM processors and
smartphones. Palm OS 5 was extended to provide support for a broad range of screen resolutions, wireless
connections and enhanced multimedia capabilities and is called Garnet OS.

7. Symbian OS (Nokia)

Symbian is a mobile operating system (OS) targeted at mobile phones that offers a high-level of integration
with communication and personal information management (PIM) functionality. Symbian OS
combines middleware with wireless communications through an integrated mailbox and the integration of
Java and PIM functionality (agenda and contacts). Nokia has made the Symbian platform available under an
alternative, open and direct model, to work with some OEMs and the small community of platform
development collaborators. Nokia does not maintain Symbian as an open source development project.

8. webOS (Palm/HP)

WebOS is a mobile operating system that runs on the Linux kernel. WebOS was initially developed by Palm
as the successor to its Palm OS mobile operating system. It is a proprietary Mobile OS which was eventually
acquired by HP and now referred to as webOS (lower-case w) in HP literature. HP uses webOS in a number of
devices including several smartphones and HP TouchPads. HP has pushed its webOS into the enterprise
mobile market by focusing on improving security features and management with the release of webOS 3.x.
HP has also announced plans for a version of webOS to run within the Microsoft Windows operating system
and to be installed on all HP desktop and notebook computers in 2012.

9. Windows Mobile (Windows Phone)

Windows Mobile is Microsoft's mobile operating system used in smart phones and mobile devices – with or
without touch screens. The Mobile OS is based on the Windows CE 5.2 kernel. In 2010 Microsoft announced
a new Smartphone platform called Windows Phone 7.

Applications

The diagram shows four basic apps (App 1, App 2, App 3 and App 4), just to give the idea that there can be
multiple apps sitting on top of Android. These apps are like any user interface you use on Android; for
example, when you use a music player, the GUI on which there are buttons to play, pause, seek, etc is an
application. Similarly, is an app for making calls, a camera app, and so on. All these apps are not necessarily
from Google. Anyone can develop an app and make it available to everyone through Google Play Store.
These apps are developed in Java, and are installed directly, without the need to integrate with Android OS.

Application Framework

Scratching further below the applications, we reach the application framework, which application
developers can leverage in developing Android applications. The framework offers a huge set of APIs used by
developers for various standard purposes, so that they don't have to code every basic task.The framework
consists of certain entities; major ones are:

Activity Manager

This manages the activities that govern the application life cycle and has several states. An application may
have multiple activities, which have their own life cycles. However, there is one main activity that starts
when the application is launched. Generally, each activity in an application is given a window that has its
own layout and user interface. An activity is stopped when another starts, and gets back to the window that
initiated it through an activity callback.

 Notification Manager :-This manager enables the applications to create customized alerts

 Views :-Views are used to create layouts, including components such as grids, lists, buttons, etc.

 Resource Managers :-Applications do require external resources, such as graphics, external strings, etc.
All these resources are managed by the resource manager, which makes them available in a
standardized way.

 Content Provider :-Applications also share data. From time to time, one application may need some
data from another application. For example, an international calling application will need to access the
user's address book. This access to another application's data is enabled by the content providers.

Libraries
 This layer holds the Android native libraries. These libraries are written in C/C++ and offer capabilities similar
to the above layer, while sitting on top of the kernel. A few of the major native libraries include

 Surface Manager: Manages the display and compositing windowing manager. - Media framework:
Supports various audio and video formats and codec’s including

 their playback and recording.

 System C Libraries: Standard C library like libc targeted for ARM or embedded devices.

 OpenGL ES Libraries: These are the graphics libraries for rendering 2D and 3D graphics.

 SQLite : A database engine for Android.

Mobile Operating system: Special Constraints

1 Smaller Screen Size Stay focused on the user's immediate task. Display only the
screen size information that users need at any given
moment. For example, a customer relationship
management system can provide a massive amount of
information, but users only require a small amount of that
information at one time. Design the UI so that users can
perform tasks easily and access information quickly.

2 One appear at a screen se a single screen if possible. If your application requires

appear multiple screens to be open at the same time, use a
split screen or time rethink the flow of your application.

3 Shorter Battery Life Try to handle data transmission efficiently. The less often the
battery life device needs to transmit data, the longer the
battery lasts.

4 Wireless Network Connection Try to simplify how your application creates network
connections. Network Compared with standard LANs, longer
latency periods that are connections inherent in some wireless
network connections can influence how quickly users receive
information that is sent over the network.

5 Slower processor Speeds Avoid processor-intensive tasks where possible. Slower

processor speeds can affect how users perceive the
responsiveness of an speeds application.

6 Less Memory Available Free up as much memory as possible. For example, while an
memory application is not being used, try to keep it from using
memory.

Table No. 5.1 Mobile Operating system: Special Constraints

Special Service Requirements

The mobile operating system must support both software-based and hardware-based asymmetric key
technology (e.g., CAC/PIV). Software-based certificates are required to authenticate many web sites.
Hardware-based tokens are embedded in the DoD Common Access Card (CAC).

Commercial Mobile OS:

Smartphones are now participating nearly in each and every sphere of life like business, education,
workplace and healthcare. The Worldwide Mobile Communications Device Open Operating System Sales
(WMCDOOS) provides total market of 104,898 to End Users by OS. There are over 1.3 million active
applications in Google Play App Store. Android is the first open source, Linux-based and modern mobile
handset platform. Google developed it for handset manufacturers like T-Mobile, Sprint Nextel, Google, Intel,
Samsung, etc.. It offers to consumers a richer, less expensive, better mobile experience and various features
like 3D, SQLite, Connectivity, WebKit, Dalvik and FreeType etc. Since android provides open source operating
system; users by Microsoft for smartphones and Pocket PCs.
Its origins dated back to Windows CE in 1996, though Windows Mobile itself first appeared in 2000 as
PocketPC 2000. It was renamed "Windows Mobile" in 2003, at which point it came in several versions (similar
to the desktop versions of Windows) and was aimed at business and enterprise consumers. By 2007, it was
the most popular smartphone software in the U.S., but this popularity faded in the following years. In
February 2010, facing competition from rival OSs including iOSand Android, Microsoft announced Windows
Phone to supersede Windows Mobile. As a result, Windows Mobile has been deprecated. Windows Phone is
incompatible with Windows Mobile devices and software. The last version of Windows Mobile, released
after the announcement of Windows Phone, was 6.5.5. After this, Microsoft ceased development on
Windows Mobile, in order to concentrate on Windows Phone.
Most versions of Windows Mobile have a standard set of features, such as multitasking and the ability to
navigate a file system similar to that of Windows 9x andWindows NT, including support for many of the same
file types. Similarly to its desktop counterpart, it comes bundled with a set of applications that perform basic
tasks. Internet Explorer Mobile is the default web browser, and Windows Media Player is the default media
player used for playing digital media. The mobile version of Microsoft Office, is the default office suite.
Internet Connection Sharing, supported on compatible devices, allows the phone to share its Internet
connection with computers via USB and Bluetooth. Windows Mobile supports virtual private networking
over PPTP protocol. Most devices with mobile connectivity also have a Radio Interface Layer. The Radio
Interface Layer provides the system interface between the Cell Core layer within the Windows Mobile OS and
the radio protocol stack used by the wireless modem hardware. This allows OEMs to integrate a variety of
modems into their equipment.
Android is a mobile operating system (OS) currently developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and
designed primarily for touch screen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. Android's user interface
is mainly based on direct manipulation, using touch gestures that loosely correspond to real-world actions,
such as swiping, tapping and pinching, to manipulate on-screen objects, along with a virtual keyboard for text
input. In addition to touch screen devices, Google has further developed Android TV for televisions, Android
Auto for cars, and Android Wear for wrist watches, each with a specialized user interface. Variants of Android
are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, and other electronics.
Android has the largest installed base of all operating systems of any kind. Android has been the best selling
OS on tablets since 2013, and on smartphones it is dominant by any metric.
Software Development Kit
A software development kit (SDK) is a set of tools used for developing applications provided by hardware and
software providers. SDKs are usually comprised of application programming interfaces (APIs), sample code,
documentation, etc.
Developers are able to set any price above a set minimum for their applications to be distributed through the
App Store, of which they will receive a 70% share. Alternately, they may opt to release
the application for free and need not pay any costs to release or distribute the application except for the
membership fee.
Since its release, there has been some controversy regarding the refund policy in the fine print of the
Developer Agreement with Apple. According to the agreement that developers must agree to, if someone
purchases an app from the app store, 30% of the price goes to Apple, and 70% to the developer. If a refund is
granted to the customer (at Apple's discretion), the 30% is returned to the customer from Apple, and 70%
from the developer; however, Apple can then take another 30% of the cost from the developer to make up
for Apple's loss
Android software development is the process by which new applications are created for the Android
operating system. Applications are usually developed in Java programming language using the Android
software development kit (SDK), but other development environments are also available.
The Android software development kit (SDK) includes a comprehensive set of development tools. These
include a debugger, libraries, a handset emulator based on EMU, documentation, sample code, and tutorials.
Currently supported development platforms include computers running Linux (any modern desktop Linux
distribution),Mac OS X 10.5.8 or later, and Windows XP or later. As of March 2015, the SDK is not available on
Android itself, but the software development is possible by using specialized Android applications.
Android development via a plugin. As of 2015,Android Studio, made by Google and powered by IntelliJ, is the
official IDE; however, developers are free to use others. Additionally, developers may use any text editor to
edit Java and XML files, then use command line tools (Java Development Kit and Apache Ant are required) to
create, build and debug Android applications as well as control attached Android devices (e.g., triggering a
reboot, installing software package(s) remotely).
Enhancements to Android's SDK go hand in hand with the overall Android platform development. The SDK
also supports older versions of the Android platform in case developers wish to target their applications at
older devices. Development tools are downloadable components, so after one has downloaded the latest
version and platform, older platforms and tools can also be downloaded for compatibility testing.
Android applications are packaged in .apk format and stored under /data/app folder on the Android OS (the
folder is accessible only to the root user for security reasons). APK package contains .dex files (compiled byte
code files called Dalvik executables), resource files, etc.
BlackBerry OS
The BlackBerry platform is perhaps best known for its native support for corporate email, through MIDP 1.0
and, more recently, a subset of MIDP 2.0, which allows complete wireless activation and synchronization with
Microsoft Exchange, Lotus Domino, or Novell GroupWise email, calendar, tasks, notes, and contacts, when
used with BlackBerry Enterprise Server. The operating system also supports WAP 1.2.Updates to the
operating system may be automatically available from wireless carriers that support the BlackBerry over the
air software loading (OTASL) service.
Third-party developers can write software using the available BlackBerry API classes, although applications
that make use of certain functionality must be digitally signed. Research from June 2011 indicated that
approximately 45% of mobile developers were using the platform at the time of publication. BlackBerry OS
was discontinued after the release of BlackBerry 10 but BlackBerry will continue support for the BlackBerry
OS.
The Windows Software Development Kit (SDK) for Windows 8 contains headers, libraries, and a selection of
tools that you can use when you create apps that run on Windows operating systems. You can use the
Windows SDK, along with your chosen development environment, to write Windows Store apps (only on
Windows 8) using web technologies (such as HTML5, CSS3, and JavaScript), native (C++), and managed (C#,
Visual Basic) code; desktop applications that use the native (Win32/COM) programming model; or desktop
applications that use the managed (.NET Framework) programming model.
MeeGo

MeeGo was called a mobile platform, but it was designed to run multiple electronic devices including
handhelds, in-car devices, television sets, and net books. All the devices on which MeeGo can have the same
core but the user interface is entirely different according to the device.

In 2010, Moorestown Tablet PC was introduced at COMPUTEX Taipei, which was also a MeeGo powered
device. Most of you will have heard the name Nokia N9, but you will not be aware of the fact that this large
selling device is operating on MeeGo.

Open WebOS

Open WebOS also known as Hp WebOS or just WebOS which was developed by Palm Inc but after some
years it became the property of Hewlett-Packard. WebOS was launched in 2009 and was used in a number of
smartphones and tablets.

Hp promoted WebOS at a very high level by using it in high-end smartphones and tablets. The latest device
working on WebOS was the Hp Touch Pad. With the introduction of Android in the market sales of Hp
WebOS, based tablets got very less. At last Hp announced to discontinue WebOS-based devices, but the
existing users were assured that they will get regular updates of the operating system

Mobile commerce /M-Commerce

Mobile commerce or simply M-Commerce means engaging users in a buy or sell process via a mobile device.
For instance, when someone buys an Android app or an iPhone app, that person is engaged in m-commerce.
There are a number of content assets that can be bought and sold via a mobile device such as games,
applications, ringtones, subscriptions etc.

Structure of m-commerce

The traditional Web interaction model evolved on desktop computers, making its user interface
assumptions uniquely suited to a desktop or laptop computer. Mobile Web services span a range of
capabilities. Mobile appliances can display many lines of text and graphics in a single screen. Accessing Web
information on these tiny appliances falls into three categories. This approach employs manually authored
page templates for each device type and populates these templates with content from a database.

Because of the labor required, only a small fraction of Web content in Europe and Japan is manually
authored for any particular device. In Japan, the i-mode service provides many Web phone users with access
to specifically authored compact HTML pages. Automated techniques for re-authoring Web content have
become popular because they are cost-effective and they allow access to content that providers have not
manually authored for very small devices.
 Transforming system Making Web content compatible with device formats, transforming systems modify
content to transform the structure of interacting with the content. The Digestor system, for example,
attempts to imitate an expert Web designer faced with the task of re-authoring Web pages for PDAs. This
study also modifies the Web page layout, splitting it into multiple sub-pages and adding navigation links so
that the user can navigate the sub-pages. z Multipurpose system M-Links is a representative of this category.
Figure shows the m-Links architecture proposed by Intel.

The three main processing components are the link engine, which creates the navigation interface; the
service manager, which creates the action interface, and the user interface generator, which converts the
interfaces into forms suitable for the requesting device and browser. Formats include HTML, Wireless
Markup Language (WML), Handheld Device Markup Language (HDML) and Compact HTML (CHTML).

Figure No. : 5.1 M-Commerce Frame Work

Web Client WS technologies describe the specific business functionality exposed by a company,
through an Internet connection, to provide a way for another company to use business services. WS consists
of many software building blocks that can be assembled to construct distributed applications. They are in
particular defined by their interfaces about how they describe their functionality, how they register their
presence, and how they communicate with other WS. Restated, individuals wanting to use WS could connect
to the UDDI center to search for the required services.
The information described by the WSDL can be acquired. The users could also use the SOAP to transfer the
required information and receive the real service. This study adopts the mobile agent technology into the
architecture to mobilize this information. WS procedures can be mastered with mobile agents. Users only
need to send simple commands of their requirements. The mobile agents perform the actions according to
these commands and interact with WS technologies
Applications of M-commerce

Other than the straightforward m-commerce transactions of buying and selling of goods and services, they have
so many applications. Let us take a look at a few examples, Mobile Banking: Using a mobile website or
application to perform all your banking functions. It is one step ahead of online banking and has become
commonplace these days. For example, in Nigeria, the majority of banking transactions happen on mobile
phones.

 Mobile Ticketing and Booking: Making bookings and receiving your tickets on the mobile. The digital ticket or
boarding pass is sent directly to your phone after you make the payment from it. Even in India now IRTC and
other services provide m-ticketing services.
 E-bills: This includes mobile vouchers, mobile coupons to be redeemed and even loyalty points or cards
system.

 Auctions: Online auctions having now been developed to be made available via mobile phones as well.

 Stock Market Reports and even stock market trading over mobile applications.
Advantages of M-commerce

 It provides a very convenient and easy to use the system to conduct business transactions.

 Mobile commerce has a very wide reach. A huge part of the world’s population has a mobile phone in their
pocket. So the sheer size of the market is tremendous.

 M-commerce also helps businesses target customers according to their location, service provider, the type
of device they use and various other criteria. This can be a good marketing tool.

 The costs of the company also reduced. This is due to the streamlined processes, now transaction cost, low
carrying cost and low order processing cost as well.
Disadvantages of M-commerce

 The existing technology to set up an m-commerce business is very expensive. It has great start-up costs and
many complications arise.

 In developing countries, the networks and service providers are not reliable. It is not most suitable for data
transfer.

 Then there is the issue of security. There are many concerns about the safety of the customer’s private
information. And the possibility of a data leak is very daunting.

Differences between e-commerce and m-commerce

 E-commerce came into existence in the 1970s. Whereas, M-commerce was invented later during the 1990s

 Electronic commerce has a narrower reach than M-commerce, due to a large number of mobile users
globally.

 E-commerce is generally a less costly method. The set up of the website and the use of the internet is both
relatively cheaper methods. M-commerce, on the other hand, is more expensive due to the creation of the
mobile app and the need to use cellular data (for the customers)

Mobile payment system and security issues

The development of smartphones has gone and replaced a few things we grew up with: the watch, the alarm
clock, the tape recorder, music players, and it seems that very soon, we can add cash and wallets to that list.
It‘s hardly a surprise. Payment methods have been morphing through various channels: from cash to cheques,
to credit cards and debit cards, and now to online banking and mobile commerce.
 Close to 10 million mobile subscribers in Japan are already paying for purchases with their smartphones by
the end of 2010, and reports are saying that the more than $200 billion dollar mobile payment industry will be
worth a trillion by 2015.

There are 6 billion mobile phone subscriptions in the world, and more than a billion smartphones already in
the market. Perhaps it‘s just a matter of time before we embrace the idea of losing that wallet and opting for a
digital one to buy flight tickets, lunch, coffee or even to pay the rent.

Digital Wallets

The verdict is still out on what to call these cashless wallets: digital wallet, electronic wallet, e-wallet, virtual
wallet etc but they all work the same way. By downloading an app onto your phone, you can link the service or
app account to your bank account or payment card. With that done, you can start paying for your wares with
your digital wallet.

Paying is a Breeze

If your digital wallet is an NFC enabled Android phone, you can tap your Smartphone at the card terminal at
the checkout counter, like you would your debit card. But let‘s face it, not all Android phones carry NFC
technology and it‘s hardly a strong reason for you to consider when it comes to picking your next Smartphone.
But fret not, other e-wallets, like Square Wallet, let you pay just by saying your name to the cashier.

Systems like ERPLY allow you to check in at a store, and let the cashier identify you by facial recognition; your
purchases are then auto-deducted from your PayPal account.

Restaurants and pubs would love platforms like Tabbed out, which lets their diners check in when they arrive,
and pay for their meal anytime without needing to wait for the bill or to bring their wallets along. All of this is
made possible with smartphones and the right apps.

Digital Wallets not only carry payment details to allow their owners to make purchases, they also help them
to better manage their loyalty cards. If you’re really want to go full digital (wallet) then it only makes sense
that you need not carry around your loyalty cards either.

Carrier or Mobile Billing

The idea is to charge all your online purchases to your phone bill and clear that at the end of the month. The
good thing with this method is that you need not even own a Smartphone to start making online purchases.
Having a mobile phone is enough as you can pay via sms. There are confirmation codes or authorization pins
or text to punch in they are intended for security purposes.

Secure Issues:

the security of these mobile payment systems is always at the back of our heads. It is a good idea to have a
pass code lock, at least to give your phone an extra layer of protection. Also, before you start linking your
sensitive data to any mobile payment platform, do take a look at customer reviews or coverage of the
platform from reliable sources first.

Resources for accepting mobile payment

To wrap up, here is a small list of resources developers can adapt to their online business to start accepting
mobile payments from their online customers.

Card io: Tired of having to punch in line after line of credit card details? You can skip through all that with
Card.io by taking a photo of your credit card, then punching in the CVV code manually. This help reduce fraud
and developers can easily join the program by grabbing the SDK for card.io at the site.

Jumio: Here is another app that lets you take photos of your credit card as a payment method via Net swipe.
It also has a similar online ID verification tool calledNetverify, which lets your customer‘s computer work in
your favor as an ID scanning tool.

BancBox: BancBox is an all-in, one-stop solution for businesses that cater to the online marketplace. With the
payment portal in place, the business owner can receive credit card payments, wire transfers and checks,
among others. It also has a relatively low fee of 0.5% + 30 cents per transaction for its services.

Stripe: Stripe helps developers take care of credit card payments online with a simple JS script. It lets you build
your own payment forms, and avoid PCI requirements. Embedding the codes in the site lets Stripe to handle
all your online payment needs at 2.9% + 30 cents per successful charge.

Zooz: ZooZ gives developers 3 lines of code, which they can integrate into their mobile applications. There is
also a sandbox environment to let developers test out transactions at no charge. Prices are locked in at 2.8% +
19 cents per transaction.