DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHY LECTURE NOTES

February 2012

Introduction
Traditional maps often plot a geographical environment on a scale, while digital cartography took the job forward by
creating maps using computers that boasted of many additional interactive functions. Though the use of compass and
other advanced magnetic storage devices allowed people to create more accurate maps, store and manipulate them
digitally in the early days of map making, it was only in the 20th century that advanced electronic technology brought
a revolution in digital cartography and computer mapping tools. The ready availability of computer peripherals like
monitors, printers, scanners, analytic stereo plotters, accessibility of computer programs for database management,
correct image visualization and processing, as well as proper spatial analysis had made the entire process of map
making much easier. Maps to address the needs of new industries were possible with such technology by placing
spatially located variables on the existing maps to create newer ones with enhanced features and potentials. With
time, digital cartography has taken strides to become better, thereby offering modern businesses a lot of benefits as
follows:

* Help visitors find your branch office locations: You can easily embed interactive online maps in your website that
would help your customers to know about store locations all over the world, and help them reach any particular store
with ease.

* Easy marketing in trade shows: If you are participating in a trade show, you can use digital mapping tools to help
your potential clients locate your booth in the trade show or to guide them to the venue via an interactive street
image.

* Using interactive image maps for offline use: You can easily make your offline multimedia presentations on the
intranet or CDROM more engaging and interesting by using interactive image maps with clickable points and
information box showing on mouse rollover. Some map software even allow you to export interactive maps to JPG
that you may use for your document or PowerPoint presentations.

* Make the maps more informative and interactive: With digital cartography at hand, you can add labels, logos and
icons to specific points, show routes with curves or lines, and add text descriptions in tool tip or info boxes. All these
elements make the maps more easy to follow and interactive in nature.

* Other user-friendly elements of digital cartography: Elements like map legends, map chart and zoom function in
digital maps make them a preferred choice over traditional paper maps.

* Floor plans for real estate dealers: For those in the real estate business, interactive maps for floor plans of a building
or mouse over boxes showing information related to homes for sale and their prices can serve a lot.

* Benefits for tourism industry: People looking to book their vacations often search for information like the best deals,
the easiest route to reach a destination, any specials and discounts on offer, cheap air fares etc. Using digital
cartography, you can show all these information via various interactive features, thereby making it easier for
travellers to get the required data at a glance.

* Advantages for colleges and universities: Showing campus details and sharing information about various courses
and their venues becomes easy with digital maps. That’s how educational institutions can benefit a lot from the use of
digital cartography.

No wonder that digital maps serve as useful guides for conveying multi-faceted information through various
interactive features, which in turn make them a preferred choice over their traditional counterparts.

1. Data Acquisition
Data sources for GIS are broadly classified as primary or secondary. Primary data are those collected
through first-hand surveys and can be termed raw data if they are unprocessed observations. Secondary
data are those collected by others, perhaps even for a different purpose, or have been derived from

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published/marketed sources. All data used in connection with GIS that have dimensionality can be
categorized by measurement type and have characteristics of scale and resolution. Furthermore, the
data may be an exhaustive compilation (e.g., census) or it may be a sample.

Modes of Data Acquisition/Input

• Keyboard entry for non spatial attributes
• Manual locating devices

User directly manipulates a device whose location is recognised by the
computer e.g. digitizing
• Automated Devices

Automatically extract spatial data from maps and photography e.g. scanning
• Conversion from other digital sources

(a) Digitizers
Digitizers are the most common device for extracting spatial information from maps and
photographs
Hardware:
The position of an indicator as it is moved over the surface of the digitizing tablet is detected
by the computer and interpreted as pairs of (x,y) coordinates. The indicator may be a pen-like
stylus or a cursor (a small flat plate with a cross hair). Frequently, there are control buttons on
the cursor which permit control of the system without having to turn attention from the
digitizing tablet to a computer terminal.

Digitizing tablets can be purchased in sizes from 25 X 25cm to 200 X 150cm, at approximate
costs from $500 to $5000.

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Early digitizers were backlit glass tables. These operated on the basis of a magnetic field
generated by the cursor and tracked mechanically by an arm located behind the table. The
arms motion was encoded, coordinates computed and sent to the host processor. Some early
low cost systems had mechanically linked cursors with the free cursor digitizer initially more
expensive. The first solid-state systems used a spark generated by the cursor and detected by
linear microphones. This had of course, problems generated by ambient noise.

Contemporary tablets use a grid of wires embedded in the tablet to generate a magnetic field
which is detected by the cursor. Accuracies derived from such are better than 0.1mm which is
better than the accuracy with which the average operator can position the cursor. The
functions for transporting coordinates are sometimes built into the tablet and used to process
data before it is sent to the host.
The Digitizing Operation
The map is affixed to a digitizing table and three or more control points ("reference points",
"tics", etc.) are digitized for each map sheet. These are easily identifiable points such as
intersections of major streets, major peaks or points on a coastline. The coordinates of these
points will be known in the coordinate system to be used in the final database, e.g. lat/long,
State Plane Coordinates or military grid. These control points are used by the system to
calculate the necessary mathematical transformation parameters to convert all coordinates to
the final system. The more control points, the better the accuracy in computing the parameters
and the better the quality of the final coordinates.
Digitizing the map contents can be done in two different modes:
• Point mode: The operator identifies the points to be captured explicitly by pressing a
button on the cursor
• Stream mode: Points are captured at set time intervals (typically 10 per second) or on
movement of the cursor by a fixed amount
Advantages and disadvantages:
• In point mode the operator selects points subjectively. As a result, two point
mode operators will not code a line in the same way.
• Stream mode generates large numbers of points, many of which may be
redundant.
• Stream mode is more demanding on the user while point mode requires some
judgement about how to represent the line.
Most digitizing is currently done in point mode.
Problems with digitizing maps
These arise since most maps were not drafted for the purpose of digitizing. Paper maps are
unstable: each time the map is removed from the digitizing table, the reference points must be
re-entered when the map is affixed to the table again. If the map has stretched or shrunk in the
interim, the newly digitized points will be slightly off in their location when compared to
previously digitized points. As a result errors occur on these maps, and are entered into the
GIS database as well. The level of error in the GIS database is directly related to the error
level of the source maps. In other words, the GIS database cannot be more accurate than the
map it was created from.
Maps are meant to display information but they do not always accurately record locational
information, for example, when a railroad, stream and road all go through a narrow mountain
pass, the pass may actually be depicted wider than its actual size to allow for the three
symbols to be drafted in the pass. Discrepancies across map sheet boundaries can cause
discrepancies in the total GIS database e.g. roads or streams that do not meet exactly when
two map sheets are placed next to each other. User error causes overshoots, undershoots
(gaps) and spikes at intersection of lines. User fatigue and boredom also contribute to poor
quality results from the digitizing process.

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Editing errors from digitizing
Some errors can be corrected automatically such as small gaps at line junctions and
overshoots and sudden spikes in lines. Error rates depend on the complexity of the map and
are high for small scale, complex maps.
(b) Scanners
An image scanner—often abbreviated to just scanner—is a device that optically scans
images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image.
Common examples found in offices are variations of the desktop (or flatbed) scanner where
the document is placed on a glass window for scanning. Mechanically driven scanners that
move the document are typically used for large-format documents, where a flatbed design
would be impractical.
Modern scanners typically use a charge-coupled device (CCD) or a Contact Image
Sensor (CIS) as the image sensor, whereas older drum scanners use a photomultiplier
tube as the image sensor. A rotary scanner, used for high-speed document scanning, is
another type of drum scanner, using a CCD array instead of a photomultiplier. Other types of
scanners are planetary scanners, which take photographs of books and documents, and 3D
scanners, for producing three-dimensional models of objects.
Another category of scanner is digital camera scanners, which are based on the concept of
reprographic cameras. Due to increasing resolution and new features such as anti-shake,
digital cameras have become an attractive alternative to regular scanners. While still having
disadvantages compared to traditional scanners (such as distortion, reflections, shadows, low
contrast), digital cameras offer advantages such as speed, portability and gentle digitizing of
thick documents without damaging the book spine. New scanning technologies are combining
3D scanners with digital cameras to create full-color, photo-realistic 3D models of objects
Video scanner
These are essentially television cameras, with appropriate interface electronics to create a
computer-readable dataset. They are available in either black and white (monochrome) or
color (16bit, 32 bit, 64bit etc) and are extremely fast (scan times of under 1 second). Video
scanners are relatively inexpensive with prices ranging from $500 - $10,000. Video scanners
produce a raster array of brightness (or color) values, which are then processed much like any
other raster array. Typical data arrays from video scanners are of the order of 250 to 1000
pixels on a side. They typically have poor geometrical and radiometrical characteristics,
including various kinds of spatial distortions and uneven sensitivity to brightness across the
scanned field. Video scanners are difficult to use for map input because of problems with
distortion and interpretation of features.
Electromechanical scanner
Unlike the video scanning systems, electromechanical systems are typically more expensive
($10,000 to 100,000) and slower, but can create better quality products. One common class of
scanners involves attaching the graphic or map to a drum and is called a drum scanner. As the
drum rotates about its axis, a scanner head containing a light source and photodetector reads
the reflectivity of the target graphic, and digitizing this signal, creates a single column of
pixels from the graphic. The scanner head moves along the axis of the drum to create the next
column of pixels, and so on through the entire scan. This controls distortion by bringing the
single light source and detector to position on a regular grid of locations on the graphic.
Scanning systems may have a scan spot size of as little as 25 micrometers, and be able to scan
graphics of the order of 1 meter on a side

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An alternative mechanism involves an array of photodetectors which extract data from several
rows of the raster simultaneously. The detector moves across the document in a swath. When
all the columns have been scanned, the detector moves to a new swath of rows. This is
referred to as the flatbed scanner.
Requirements for scanning

Documents must be clean (no smudges or extra markings)

Lines should be at least 0.1 mm wide

Complex line work provides greater chance of error in scanning

Text may be accidently scanned as line features

Contour lines cannot be broken with text

Automatic feature recognition is not easy (two contour lines vs. road symbols)
Special symbols must be recognized and dealt with. If good source documents are available,
scanning can be an efficient time saving mode of data input.
CONVERSION FROM OTHER DIGITAL SOURCES
This involves transferring data from one system to another by means of a conversion program.
This is useful since more and more data is becoming available in magnetic media such as:

digital elevation models (DEMs)

TIGER and other census related data

data from CAD/CAM systems (AutoCAD, DXF)

data from other GIS
These data generally are supplied on digital media that must be read into the computer.

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Automated Surveying
This directly determines the actual horizontal and vertical positions of objects. There are
basically two kinds of measurements are made namely distances and directions which are used
in computing coordinates or locational information of features on the earth's surface.
Traditionally, distance measuring involved pacing, chains and tapes of various materials with
direction measurements were made with transits and theodolites. Modern surveyors have a
number of automated tools to make distance and direction measurements easier. Electronic
systems such as total stations measure distance using the time of travel of beams of light or
radio waves. The data is downloaded to a host computer at the end of each session for direct
input to GIS and other programs.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
This is a new tool for determining accurate positions on the surface of the earth. GPS is an all
weather system that measures position in three dimensions (X, Y, Z) and with a fourth
dimension of time. It operates on the concept of trilateration in which at a minimum of three
satellites are required to determine position. GPS depends on precise information about the
orbits of the satellites. A radio receiver with appropriate electronics is connected to a small
antenna, and depending on the method used, in one hour to less than 1 second, the system is
able to determine its location in 3-D space current GPS positional accuracies are order 2 to 10
m with standard equipment and as small as 1 cm with "survey grade" receivers. Accuracy will
continue to improve as more satellites are placed in orbit and experts fine tune the software
and hardware and the integration of GPS and GLONASS satellites by 3G GPS receivers.
CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING MODES OF INPUT
• The type of data source
- images favor scanning
- maps can be scanned or digitized
• The database model of the GIS
- scanning easier for raster, digitizing for vector
• The density of data
- dense linework makes it difficult but not impossible for digitizing
• Expected applications of the digital data e.g. GIS applications

RASTERIZATION AND VECTORIZATION

Rasterization of digitized data

for some data, entry in vector form is more efficient, followed by conversion to
raster

we might digitize the county boundary in vector form by

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mounting a map on a digitizing table

capturing the locations of points along the boundary

assuming that the points are connected by straight line segments
• this may produce an ASCII file of pairs of xy coordinates which must then be processed by
the GIS, or the output of the digitizer may go directly into the GIS
• the vector representation of the boundary as points is then converted to a raster by an
operation known as vector-raster conversion

the computer calculates which county each cell is in using the vector representation
of the boundary and outputs a raster
• digitizing the boundary is much less work than cell by cell entry
• most raster GIS have functions such as vector-raster conversion to support vector entry

many support digitizing and editing of vector data

Vectorization of scanned images

• for many purposes it is necessary to extract features and objects from a scanned image
o e.g. a road on the input document will have produced characteristic values in each of
a band of pixels
o if the scanner has pixels of 25 microns = 0.025 mm, a line of width 0.5 mm will
create a band 20 pixels across
o the vectorized version of the line will be a series of coordinate points joined by
straight lines, representing the road as an object or feature instead of a collection of
contiguous pixels
• successful vectorization requires a clean line scanned from media free of cluttering labels,
coffee stains, dust etc.
o to create a sufficiently clean line, it is often necessary to redraft input documents
 e.g. the Canada Geographic Information System redrafted each of its
approximately 10,000 input documents
• since the scanner can be color sensitive, vectorizing may be aided by the use of special inks
for certain features
• although scanning is much less labor intensive, problems with vectorization lead to costs
which are often as high as manual digitizing
o two stages of error correction may be necessary: 1. edit the raster image prior to
vectorization 2. edit the vectorized features

G. INTEGRATING DIFFERENT DATA SOURCES

Formats

• many different format standards exist for geographical data

• some of these have been established by public agencies
o e.g. the USGS in cooperation with other federal agencies is developing SDTS
(Standard Data Transfer Standard) for geographical data, will propose it as a national
standard in 1990
o e.g. the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) has developed the DIGEST data transfer
standard
• some have been defined by vendors
o e.g. SIF (Standard Interchange Format) is an Intergraph standard for data transfer
• see Unit 69 for more on GIS standards
• a good GIS can accept and generate datasets in a wide range of standard formats

Projections

• there are many ways of representing the curved surface of the earth on a flat map
o some of these map projections are very common, e.g. Mercator, Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM), Lambert Conformal Conic
o each state has a standard SPC (State Plane Coordinate system) based on one or more
projections

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 o see Unit 27 for more on map projections
• a good GIS can convert data from one projection to another, or to latitude/longitude
• input derived from maps by scanning or digitizing retains the map's projection
• with data from different sources, a GIS database often contains information in more than one
projection, and must use conversion routines if data are to be integrated or compared

Scale

• data may be input at a variety of scales

• although a GIS likely will not store the scale of the input document as an attribute of a dataset,
scale is an important indicator of accuracy
• maps of the same area at different scales will often show the same features
o e.g. features are generalized at smaller scales, enhanced in detail at larger scales
• variation in scales can be a major problem in integrating data
o e.g. the scale of most input maps for a GIS project is 1:250,000 (topography, soils,
land cover) but the only geological mapping available is 1:7,000,000
o if integrated with the other layers, the user may believe the geological layer is equally
accurate
o in fact, it is so generalized as to be virtually useless

Resampling rasters

• raster data from different sources may use different pixel sizes, orientations, positions,
projections
• resampling is the process of interpolating information from one set of pixels to another
• resampling to larger pixels is comparatively safe, resampling to smaller pixels is very
dangerous

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Plotters

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Vdu’s

Tablet PCS

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Printers

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Data storage:

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