GRADE -10 PRACTICALS

Experiment 1A

Aim:
To determine the pH of the given samples using pH paper or universal indicator. The
samples whose pH has to be determined are-

1. Dilute CH3COOH
2. Dilute NaOH
3. Salt NaCl
4. Dilute NaHCO3
5. Water
6. Lemon juice

Materials required:

1. Six test tubes

2. Test tube stand
3. Dilute acid CH3COOH
4. Dilute base NaOH
5. Salt NaCl (preparation: dissolve 1 gram salt in 10 mL distilled water)
6. Water
7. Lemon juice
8. Dilute NaHCO3
9. Glass rod
10. Measuring cylinder (10 mL)
11. Standard pH colour chart
12. pH paper
13. Glass rod
14. Dropper
15. Universal indicator
 Experimental Setup:

Procedure:

1. Wash six test tubes with distilled water and put them on test tube stand and label
them A, B, C, D, E, F.
2. Add 2ml of CH3COOH in test tube A, Add 2ml of NaOH in test tube B, Add 2ml of NaCl
in test tube C, Add 2ml of NaHCO3 in test tube D, Add 2ml of Water in test tube E,
Add 2ml of Lemon juice in test tube F.
3. Take white tile, place 6 pH paper and label them A, B, C, D, E, F.
4. Use a dropper or glass rod to put the respective sample solutions on the labelled pH
paper placed on the white tile.
5. Observe the colour change.

Observation:

Sample Colour on pH paper

A Orange

B Dark blue

C Green

D Light blue
E Green

F Pink

Result and Conclusion:

Test tube Solution pH colour paper pH Nature

Sample A CH3COOH Orange 3 Weak acid

Sample B NaOH Dark blue 14 Strong base

Sample C NaCl Green 7 Neutral

Sample D NaHCO3 Light blue 9 Weak base

Sample E Water Green 7 Neutral

Sample F Lemon juice Pink 2 Weak acid

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Use freshly prepared test sample for the experiment.

 The fruit juice sample should also be fresh to get the proper pH values.
 Glass rod or dropper used for one sample should be washed thoroughly before using
it for the other samples

Experiment 1B
Aim
To study the properties of acids and bases (dilute HCl and dilute NaOH) by their reaction
with
(a) Litmus solution (Blue/Red) (b) Zinc metal (c) Solid sodium carbonate

Materials Required
 A test tube stand, test tubes, match box, test tube holder, droppers, a bent delivery tube,
burner and cork.

Chemicals required:

Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sodium hydroxide, blue litmus solution, red litmus solution,
zinc metal granules or powdered zinc, solid sodium carbonate and freshly prepared lime
water.

Procedure:

Experiment Observation Inference

Litmus Test

Take two clean test tubes. Pour Blue litmus solution turns

1 mL of dilute HCl solution in red in first test tube.

Dil. HCl shows acidic
1. each test tube. Pour a drop of Red litmus solution shows
character.
blue litmus in one test tube and no change in second test

a drop of red litmus solution in tube.

the second test tube.

Reaction with Zinc Metal Zinc metal reacts with the Zinc + dil. HCl →

Take 1 mL of dilute HCl in a acid. Test tube becomes Zinc chloride + Hydrogen gas
2.
clean test tube. Add a small warm and pressure is Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) →

piece of zinc metal/ zinc powder exerted on thumb due to ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

in it. release of a gas. Hydrogen gas always bums

 Light a matchstick and bring it The matchstick bums with with a pop sound when

near the mouth of the test tube, a pop sound. lighted matchstick is

remove the thumb and observe. introduced in it.

Reaction with Sodium Carbonat

Take a clean test tube. Add 2 mL

of dilute HCl. Now add lg/pinch Dilute HCl reacts with (i) Na2CO3 + 2HCl →

of sodium carbonate in it. sodium carbonate to 2NaCl + H20 + CO2

3. Immediately close the mouth release a colourless gas. (ii)Ca(OH)2+CO2 →

with cork containing delivery The gas turns lime water Lime waterCaCO3 +H2O

tube. Hold a test tube with lime milky. White insoluble ppt

water at the other end of the

delivery tube.

(A) Properties of Hydrochloric acid

> It turns blue litmus solution red.

> Hydrochloric acid reacts with metals to release hydrogen gas.

> Test for H2 gas: When a burning splinter is brought near the mouth of test tube releasing
H2 gas, it bums with a ‘pop sound’.
> Hydrochloric acid react with sodium carbonate to release CO 2 gas.

> Test for CO2 gas: When CO2 gas is allowed to pass through freshly prepared lime water,
then the lime water turns milky or when a burning splinter is brought near the mouth of the
test tube releasing CO2 gas then the burning splinter extinguishes.
Sodium hydroxide
> Chemical formula of sodium hydroxide is NaOH.
> When it is dissolved in water releases OH – ions.

Experiment Observation Inference

Litmus Test

Take two clean test tubes.

Blue litmus solution
Pour 1 mL of dilute NaOH in
shows no change.
each test tube. Add a drop
1. Dil. NaOH shows basic
of blue litmus solution in
Red litmus solution character.
one test tube and a drop of
changes to blue colour.
red litmus solution in the

second test tube.

 Reaction with Zinc Metal

Take a clean test tube. Add

On heating the
zinc metal granules/zinc
mixture; reaction
Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq)
powder in it. Pour 2 mL of
begins, colourless gas
Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2(g)
NaOH solution in the tube.
is evolved.
2.
Hydrogen gas always
Hold the test tube with a
The burning
bums with a pop sound.
test tube holder and heat it.
matchstick bums with
Bring a burning matchstick
a ‘pop’ sound.
near the mouth of the test

tube.

Reaction with Solid Sodium

Carbonate

Take a clean test tube. Add 2 Dil. NaOH doesn’t react

3. No change.
mL of NaOH solution in a with sodium carbonate.

tube and 1 g of sodium

carbonate. Heat the mixture.

Properties of Sodium hydroxide

> It turns red litmus solution blue.
> Not all bases react with zinc metal to release H2 gas but sodium hydroxide solution
reacts with zinc metal to release hydrogen gas.

> Sodium hydroxide do not react with solid sodium carbonate.

Precaution:
 1. Use clean test tubes.
2. Use very small amount of chemicals.
3. Handle hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions very carefully.
4. Shake the solutions and reaction mixtures carefully without spilling.
5. Always carry out the test for hydrogen with a very small volume of gas.
6. For H2 gas test, be careful as H2 catches fire. The flame on test tube can be seen
due to H2 gas.
7. For lime water test, allow the CO2 gas to pass through lime water and shake the
test tube by placing thumb on the mouth of the tube to get quick result.

Experiment 2

Aim
Performing and observing the actions of-

1. Water on quicklime
2. Heat on ferrous sulphate crystals
3. Iron nails dipped in copper sulphate solution
4. Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solution

On the following reactions-

1. Combination reaction
2. Decomposition reaction
3. Displacement reaction
4. Double displacement reaction

Experiment 2(A) – Combination

Materials Required

1. Quick lime (Calcium oxide)

2. Borosil beaker
3. Glass rod
4. Distilled water
5. Dropper
6. Test tube
7. Litmus paper strips

Procedure

1. Wash a borosil beaker with distilled water and dry it.

 2. Take a small amount of calcium oxide (quick lime) and slowly add water to it.
3. Wash and take a clean glass rod to stir the mixture of quick lime and water.
4. Touch the beaker carefully from outside.
5. Observe the change.
6. With the help of dropper take a few drops of the mixture from the beaker and place
it on red and blue litmus paper strips.
7. Wait and observe.

Observation

Experiment Observation

Mixture in A hissing sound is heard during the reaction when water is added to
beaker the beaker containing quick lime. Due to the evolution of heat during
the reaction the temperature increases and makes the solution hot.

Solution on Drops on the red litmus paper strip change the colour of the paper to
litmus paper blue whereas there is no colour change observed on the blue litmus
paper.

Result and Conclusion

From the above experiment we can conclude that the reaction occurred between calcium
oxide (Quick lime) and water combine to produce one single product slaked lime (Ca(OH) 2)
is called combination reaction as well as an exothermic reaction.

Precautions to be taken during the Experiment

 Take a small amount of compound such as quick lime to perform the experiment.
 Since the reaction is exothermic avoid touching the mixture directly.
 Carefully pour water into the borosil beaker containing calcium oxide (quick lime).
 Calcium oxide causes severe burns and therefore it should be handled with a spatula.
 Use good quality glass beaker during the experiment because if the beaker is of poor
quality then there are chances of crack on the beaker due to the exothermic reaction.

Experiment 2(B) – Decomposition

Materials Required

1. Ferrous sulphate crystals

2. Test tube holder
3. Boiling tube
4. Bunsen burner
5. Safety glass
6. Litmus paper strips

Procedure

1. Wash a boiling tube with distilled water and dry it.

2. Take 2 grams of ferrous sulphate crystals in the tube.
3. Make a note of the colour of the crystals.
4. Use a test tube holder to hold the boiling tube.
5. Heat the boiling tube on the bunsen burner as shown in the figure.
6. Observe the colour of the residue got and smell the odour of the gases evolved.
7. Tiny colourless water droplets are seen near the neck of the tube.
8. Gently turn it towards your nose and smell for any gas evolved.
9. Wet blue and red litmus paper strips.
10. Hold the litmus paper strips near the mouth of the boiling tube.
 11. Observe the change
12. Classify the type of reaction.

Observation

Experiment Observation

Boiling tube  Colour of Ferrous sulphate crystals changes from green to

test white and later brown.
 The gas evolved smells like burning sulphur.

Litmus paper  Blue litmus paper strip turns red when comes in contact with
test gas.

Result and Conclusion

From the above experiment 3 (B) we can conclude that the reaction occurred on heating
ferrous sulphate crystals is decomposition reaction which decomposes to produce Fe 2O3,
SO2, and SO3. Since this decomposition reaction is carried out by heating it is also known as
a thermal decomposition reaction.

Precautions to be taken during the Experiment

 Do not keep the mouth of the boiling tube towards yourself.

 Do not smell the gas by directly getting it under your nose but gently turn it towards
your nose and blow it with your hand.
 Wearing safety glasses is important while you are performing this experiment.
 Thoroughly wash the boiling tube with distilled water and dry it before using it.
 Use good quality boiling tube while heating the ferrous sulphate crystals.
 Take care to keep the sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide gas coming in contact with
your eyes as they cause irritation to eyes.

Experiment 2(C) – Displacement

Materials Required

1. Test tube stand

2. Two test tubes
3. Two iron nails
4. Measuring cylinder
5. Beaker
 6. Sandpaper
7. Copper sulphate solution
8. Laboratory stand with clamp
9. Distilled water
10. Thread

Experimental Setup:

Procedure

1. Wash two test tubes with distilled water and dry them.
2. Label the test tube as P and Q.
3. Add 20mL of distilled water in the test tube and mix copper sulphate crystals in P.
4. Transfer 10Ml of solution from P to Q.
5. Take two iron nails by cleaning them with sandpaper.
6. Take one iron nail and dip it in the CuSO4 in test tube P for 15 minutes.
7. Take another iron nail and dip it in the CuSO4 in test tube Q for 15 minutes.
8. Observe the intensity of the blue colour of CuSO4 before and after the experiment
performed in test tube P and Q.
9. Record your results.

Observation

Experiment Before Experiment After Experiment

Colour of CuSo4 Blue Green

Colour of iron nail Silvery grey Brownish red coating

Result and Conclusion

From the above experiment 3 (C) we can conclude that the reaction occurred when iron
nails were dipped in the copper sulphate solution for 15 minutes the colour of the solution
changes to green and brownish red copper metal is deposited on the nail. Therefore this is
a displacement reaction.
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Precautions to be taken during the Experiment

 Clean the iron nails by sandpaper before dipping them in a copper sulphate solution.
 Make dilute CuSO4 for the experiment otherwise, the colour change will not be seen
in its concentrated form.
 Use good quality boiling tube.

Experiment 2(D) – Double Displacement

Materials Required

1. Test tube stand

2. Measuring cylinder
3. Two test tubes
4. Glass rod
5. Conical flask
6. Barium chloride solution
7. Sodium sulphate solution
Procedure

1. Take two test tubes, wash them with distilled water and dry them.
2. Label the test tube as P and Q.
3. Pour 5mL of barium chloride in the test tube P and observe the colour.
4. Pour 5mL of sodium sulphate in the test tube Q and observe the colour.
5. Take a conical flask and pour the solutions from both the test tube into it.
6. Stir the mixture added to the conical flask with a glass rod.
7. Keep it undisturbed for some time.
8. Observe the change in colour of the solution.
9. Record your results in the below-given table.

Observation

Experiment Observation

Colour of test tube P and test tube Q Colourless

Mixture of solution in conical flask Precipitation is formed

Result and Conclusion

From the above experiment 3 (D) we can conclude that the reaction occurred on mixing the
solutions of barium chloride and sodium sulphate produce a white precipitate compound
by exchanging their ions. This reaction is known as a double displacement reaction.

Precautions to be taken during the Experiment

 The test tube, glass rod, and conical flask should be washed with distilled water and
dried before the experiment.
 The volume of sodium sulphate and barium chloride should be equal.
 Do not try to taste or touch the chemicals.
 While combining the solutions in the mixture pour sodium sulphate first and then
slowly add barium chloride to it.

Experiment :3

Aim:

1. Observing the action of zinc, iron, copper and aluminium metals for the following salt
solutions.
a. Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4)
 b. Copper sulphate (CuSO4)
c. Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4)
d. Aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3)
2. Arranging the metals Zinc, Copper, Iron, and Aluminium in the decreasing order of
reactivity based on the results obtained from the above.

Materials required:

1. Aluminium foil
2. Zinc granules
3. Copper turnings
4. Iron filings
5. Copper sulphate solution
6. Aluminium sulphate solution
7. Zinc sulphate solution
8. Four 50ml beakers
9. Test tube
10. Test tube stand

Experimental Setup:
Procedure:

1. Wash four beakers with distilled water, dry them and label them A, B, C, D.
2. Prepare 50 mL solution with 5% concentration by volume of ferrous sulphate,
aluminium sulphate, copper sulphate, zinc sulphate.
3. Pour ZnSO4 in beaker A, FeSO4 in beaker B, CuSO4 in beaker C, and add Al2(SO4)3 in
beaker D.
4. Wash four test tubes with distilled water and dry them.
5. Put them in a test tube stand and label them as A, B, C and D as shown in the figure
above.
6. Take 10 mL of the saturated ferrous sulphate (FeSO4), copper sulphate (CuSO4), zinc
sulphate (ZnSO4), and aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3 ) in the test tube as shown in the
figure.
7. Take metal strips of aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn). Clean them
with sandpaper before using them in the experiment.
8. Now dip one of the four metal strips in all the four test tubes and observe if any
colour change occurs in all four test tubes.
9. Continue step 8 with other metal strips by dipping in fresh aqueous solutions of
metals and see the displacement reaction.

Observation:

Metal Dipped Observation

in

Al ZnSO4 No change in the solution. Zinc metal which is greyish

accumulates on Aluminium metal.

Al CuSO4 Blue solution becomes colourless. Copper metal which appears

reddish brown gets accumulated.

Al Al2(SO4)3 No reaction.

Al FeSO4 Green solution becomes colourless. Iron metal which appears

greyish black gets accumulated.

Fe ZnSO4 No reaction.
 Fe CuSO4 Solution becomes light green. Copper metal which appears
reddish brown gets accumulated.

Fe Al2(SO4)3 No reaction.

Fe FeSO4 No reaction.

Zn ZnSO4 No reaction.

Zn CuSO4 Blue solution turns colourless. Reddish brown coppers

accumulates on zinc metal.

Zn Al2(SO4)3 No reaction.

Zn FeSO4 Light green solution turns colourless. Greyish black iron

accumulates on zinc metal.

Cu ZnSO4 No reaction.

Cu CuSO4 No reaction.

Cu Al2(SO4)3 No reaction.

Cu FeSO4 No reaction.

Result and Conclusion:

Metals Inference

Aluminium Aluminium displaces zinc, copper, and iron from their solutions. Aluminium
is the most reactive metal.

Zinc Zinc displaces copper, and iron from their solutions. Zinc is more reactive
than Cu and Fe metal.

Iron Iron displaces copper from its solution. Therefore, copper is less reactive
than iron.
Copper Copper does not displace any metal therefore it is the least reactive.

The decreasing order of reactivity of metals is as follows:

Al

Zn

Fe

Cu

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Use cleanly washed and dried apparatus for the experiment.

 Clean the metals before dipping them in the solution. You can clean it with
sandpaper.
 Use small quantities of aluminium sulphate, iron sulphate, copper sulphate and
copper sulphate solutions for the experiment.
 Handle the chemicals with care and do not allow them to come in contact with your
skin.
 Make sure you wash the test tubes after every observation.
 Wash your hands thoroughly after the experiment as the salt solutions are
poisonous.

Experiment: 4

Aim:

1. Verification of Ohm’s Law by showing that the Voltage to Current ratio is constant.
2. To determine the resistance of a wire by plotting a graph for potential difference (V)
versus current (I) using Ohm’s Law.
3. To find the resistivity of a wire by plotting a graph for potential difference versus
current.

Apparatus: The apparatus used for this experiment –

 1. A power supply (Voltage source or Battery): The used battery can supply the
voltage from 0 to 12 volts.
2. An Ammeter (A) to measure current. This Ammeter can measure the current
from 0 to 3 amperes.
3. A Voltmeter (V) to measure Voltage. The used Voltmeter can measure the
voltage from 0 to 3 volts.
4. A rheostat controls and adjusts the current through the circuit.

Circuit Diagram:

Circuit diagram for the verification of Ohm’s Law lab experiment.

Here, R is the resistance of the wire, A is the ammeter, V is the Voltmeter, Rh is

the rheostat and K is the key. The arrow sign indicates the direction of the current flow in
the circuit.

Formula used for the Ohm’s law lab experiment

The formulae used for the Ohms law lab work are
Experimental data

The least count of Ammeter = Smallest division of Ammeter = 0.05 ampere

The least count of Voltmeter = Smallest division of voltmeter = 0.05 Volt

Observation table

So, we can see that in each observation the voltage-to-current ratio is almost the same.
Thus, the voltage across the wire is proportional to the current through the wire.
Hence Ohm’s law is verified.
Now we got the calculated value of the resistance of the wire is R = 1.02 ohm.
We also need to plot I-V graph to confirm the experimental value of R.
Current versus Voltage graph (Ohm’s Law graph)
If we plot the Current as a function of voltage with the help of the above data then we will
get a straight line passing through the origin.
Calculations

Calculation of resistance from the graph

The inverse of the I-V graph gives the resistance of the wire.

Now, from the graph, change in current, ∆I = AB = 0.5 amp

corresponding change in voltage, ∆V = BC = 0.5 volt

Thus, the Resistance from the graph, R = ∆V/∆I = 0.5/0.5 = 1.00 ohm

Calculation of resistivity of the wire

Final result

The resistance of the wire from the Current-Voltage graph is, R = 1.00 ohm

The calculated value of the resistance of the wire is, R = 1.02 ohm.

Resistivity of the material of the wire is 3.92 ×10-7 ohm.m

Experiment 5A

Aim
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in parallel.

Materials Required

1. A battery
2. A plug key
3. Connecting wires
4. An ammeter
5. A voltmeter
6. Rheostat
7. A piece of sandpaper
8. Two resistors of different values

Procedure

1. Make all the connections as shown in the experimental setup I by keeping the key
off.
2. Insert the key when the circuit is connected appropriately.
3. For resistors R1 and R2, note three readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
4. Connect the circuit as shown in the experimental setup II.
5. Resistors and voltmeter both are connected in parallel.
6. Record three readings of ammeter and voltmeter and use a rheostat.
 7. Remove the key.
8. With the help of the observation table, do the calculations.

Observation Table

Resistor used No.of Voltmeter Ammeter R=V/I Mean

observations reading in reading in (in value of
Volts (V) Ampere Ohm) resistance
(I) (Ohm)

R1 (first resistor) a 0.01 0.01 1 R1 = 1 ohm

b 0.02 0.02 1

c 0.04 0.04 1

R2 (second a 0.02 0.01 2 R2 = 2 ohm

resistor)
b 0.06 0.03 2

c 0.08 0.04 2

1/Rp=(1/R1)+(1/R2) a 0.026 0.04 0.67 Rp=0.67

Parallel ohm
combination 1/Rp=1.5
ohm

Result

The calculated value of 1Rp=(1R1)+(1R2)=1.5Ω

1Rp

The experimental value of 1Rp=1.5Ω

1Rp

The equivalent resistance Rp is less than the individual resistance.

Precautions

1. The connecting wires used should be thick copper wire and using sandpaper, the
insulation at the end of the wires should be removed.
2. The connections should be tight to avoid introducing external resistance.
3. To make connections, the circuit diagram should be referred to.
 4. To make the current entry from the positive terminal and exit from the negative
terminal, the ammeter should be connected in series.
5. Resistor and voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
6. The least count of ammeter and voltmeter should be calculated properly.
7. When there is no current flow, the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero.
8. To avoid heating and change the resistor’s resistance value, the current should flow
while taking the readings.

Experiment 5B

Aim
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series.

Materials Required

 Two resistors of different values

 A battery of 6 volts
 Ammeter
 Plug key
 Connecting wires
 A piece of sandpaper
 Voltmeter
 Rheostat

Circuit Diagram

Procedure

1. With the help of a circuit diagram, make the connections.

2. Do not switch on the key.
 3. The ammeter should be connected in series, the voltmeter in parallel, and the
rheostat in series.
4. Make the connections as shown in the experimental setup and check of +ve and -ve
terminals of the battery.
5. By inserting the key, record the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
6. Note three readings by adjusting the rheostat.
7. Note down the readings of a voltmeter by connecting it to each resistor.
8. Measure the potential difference, V1 across the first resistor by plugging in the key.
9. Measure the potential difference, V2 across the second resistor by plugging in the
key.
10. Calculate the relationship between V, V1, and V2.

Observation Table

Resistor used No.of Voltmete Ammete R= Mean value of

observation r reading r reading V/I resistance (ohm)
s in Volts in (in
(V) Ampere ohm
(I) )

R1 (first a 0.01 0.01 1 R1=1+1+13=33=1oh

resistor) m
b 0.02 0.02 1

c 0.04 0.04 1

R2 (second a 0.02 0.01 2 R1=2+2+23=63=2oh

resistor) m
b 0.06 0.03 2

c 0.08 0.04 2

Rs=R1+R2 (serie a 0.03 0.01 3 R1=3+3+33=93=3oh

s combination) m
b 0.06 0.02 3

c 0.09 0.03 3

Result

The calculated value of Rs Rs=R1+R2=3Ω

 The experimental value of Rs 3Ω
Hence, it is verified that Rs=R1+R2.

Precautions

1. Voltmeter and resistor should always be in parallel.

2. The least count of voltmeter and ammeter should be calculated properly.
3. Connections should be as per the experimental setup.
4. When no current flows through the ammeter and voltmeter, the pointers should be
at zero.
5. The connecting wires that are used should be thick copper wire and using sandpaper
the insulation at the end of the wires should be removed.
6. The connections should be tight to avoid introducing external resistance.
7. To avoid heating and change the resistor’s resistance value, the current should flow
while taking the readings.

Experiment:6

Aim
To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.
Materials Required
Freshly plucked leaf of Rheo or Tradescantia, petri dish, slide, coverslip, needle, forceps,
brash, dropper, watch glass, filter paper, glycerine, safranin solution and microscope.
Procedure

1. Take a freshly plucked leaf (Rheo or Tradescantia).

2. Stretch the leaf with its dorsal (lower) part facing upwards.
3. Break the leaf by applying suitable pressure so that the epidermis projects from
the leaf.
4. Cut the epidermis and put it in a petri dish.
5. Take a watch glass, add few drops of water and a drop of stain in it.
6. Transfer the small piece of epidermis from petri dish into the watch glass with
the help of brash.
7. Allow the peel to remain in the stain for 2-3 minutes, so that it can take up the
stain.
8. With the help of brush transfer the stained peel into a petri dish with water to
remove the extra stain.
9. Now take a clean slide and place it on a filter paper. In the centre of the slide
put a drop of glycerine and transfer the stained peel from petri dish on the slide.
10. Gently hold the coverslip with the needle and place it on the peel. Avoid air
bubbles formation.
 11. Use the filter paper to clean the excess stain, water or glycerine that comes out
from the coverslip sides.
12. Ensure that the slide is clean and place it under the microscope. First view it
under low power (10X) and then under high power(45X).
13. Record your observations.

Observations

1. In an epidermal peel we see single layer of cells.

2. In between the epidermal layer small spots are seen.
3. When focused under powerful microscope the stomata pores are clearly seen.
4. Each stomata pore has two kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.
5. Each guard cell has one nucleus and many chloroplasts.

Conclusion
Epidermal layer of leaf peel has many stomata pores. Each stomatal pore has two kidney
shaped guard cells, in dicots plants. Each guard cell has one nucleus and many chloroplasts.
Precautions

1. While removing the epidermal peel, ensure that you pluck the thinner scrap of
leaf.
2. Do not overstain the peel.
3. Avoid air-bubbles formation while placing the coverslip.
4. The peel should not be folded.
5. The slide should be clean and dry before placing it under microscope.
Experiment: 7

Test to show that carbon dioxide given out during respiration

7A : Test to show that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration in animals.

Aim
To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.
Materials Required
Two test tubes, a cork with two holes, two glass tubes, syringe, lime water.

Procedure

1. Take some freshly prepared lime water in two test tubes.

2. Fit cork with two holes in test tubes A and B.
3. Fix two glass tubes in this cork of test tube A as shown in the figure.
4. Exhale air into the tube and record your observations.
5. In another test tube B, which has lime water, pass air through syringe and
record your observations.

Observation

 In test tube A, the lime water turns milky sooner than in test tube B.

Conclusion
 1. The exhaled air contains lot of CO2 which turns lime water milky.
2. This proves that during respiration we exhale CO2 gas.

Precautions

1. The glass tube should be dipped in the lime water.

2. The lime water should be freshly prepared.

(B) To test release of C02 by plants during respiration.

Aim
To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.
Materials Required
A conical flask, small test tube, cork, thread, germinating seeds, a bent tube, a beaker,
water and freshly prepared lime water.
Procedure

1. Take two conical flasks, add germinating seeds with little water sprinkled over
it.
2. Fix the mouth of conical flasks with cork in which a bent tube is fixed.
3. Suspend a small test tube containing KOH solution in it with the help of a thread
in conical flask A.
4. Allow the mouth of the bent tube to be immersed in water in set-up A and in
lime water in set-up B as shown below.
5. Record your observations after few hours.

Observations

1. In set-up A, the water level in the bent tube dipped in beaker increases after
few hours.
This is because the oxygen present in the conical flask is taken up by
germinating seeds and CO2 released due to respiration is absorbed by KOH
present in small tube. Hence, the air pressure in the flask reduces and water
level rises.
 2. In set-up B, the freshly prepared lime water turns milky. This is due to excess
CO2 released into the test tube during respiration of germinating seeds.

Conclusion
This shows that CO2 is given out during respiration.

Precautions

 The seeds that are to be germinated need to be moistened

 Air-tight environment for all the connections in the experimental set-up
 The KOH solution that is used needs to be freshly prepared
 Care needs to be taken to ensure that one end of the delivery tube is placed in the
conical flask. The other edge is submerged in the water of the beaker
 The tube that contains the KOH solution needs to be suspended carefully

Experiment 8
Aim:
To study the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid)-
i)Odour (Smell)
ii)Solubility in water
iii)Effect on litmus
iv)Reaction with sodium bicarbonate
Materials required:
Test tube, Litmus paper, Dropper, Cork fit, Test tube stand, Water, Beaker, Acetic acid,
Sodium bicarbonate, Distilled water, Lime water (freshly prepared)
Procedure:
To determine the odour:
Step 1: Take a test tube of 10 ml.
Step 2: Add 5 mL of ethanoic acid into it
Step 3: Bring the test tube near your nose and smell it by wafting.
To check the solubility in water:
Step 1: Take a test tube of 20 ml.
Step 2: Add 2 mL of ethanoic acid to it
Step 3: Pour 10-15 mL of distilled water and mix it.

To determine the effect on litmus:

Step 1: Take a clean dropper
Step 2: Take a blue litmus paper
Step 3: Pour 2-3 drops of ethanoic acid on the litmus paper.
Reaction with sodium bicarbonate:
Step 1: Take a test tube of 5 mL.
Step 2: Add a pinch of sodium bicarbonate to it
Step 3: Pour 1 mL of dilute ethanoic acid into the test tube.
Step 4: To the mouth of the test tube fix a cork with a bent delivery tube
Step 5: The other end of the delivery tube is required to be dipped in lime water.
Observation and results:
Properties Observation
Determination of odour Pungent/vinegar smell
Checking its solubility in water Dissolves in water
Determining the effect on litmus Blue litmus paper turns red
Reaction with sodium bicarbonate A colourless gas is produced which
turns the lime water milky

Results:
Ethanoic acid or acetic acid or glacial acetic acid smells like vinegar.
Glacial acetic acid is water-soluble.
Ethanoic acid turns blue litmus paper red.
When acetic acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate, carbon dioxide gas is liberated.
Precautions to be taken during the experiment:
Handle the solution with care.
Add a small amount of sodium bicarbonate.
Do not inhale the vapours of the chemicals.
Lime water should be freshly prepared.
Experiment 9
Aim:
The aim of this experiment – Study the comparative cleaning capacity of a sample of soap in
soft and hard water.
Materials required:
Test tube (2), Measuring cylinder, Test tube stand
Experimental Setup:
Procedure 1:
Take a test tube and mark it as X.
Add 10 mL of soft water in it.
Take another test tube and mark it Y.
Add 10 mL of hard water in the test tube Y.
Add a few drops of soap solution in both the test tubes.
Shake the test tubes X and Y strongly for an equal amount of time.
Place both the test tubes on the test tube stand.
Observe and record the results.
Observation and results:
Test tube Observation
X Forms lather
Y White precipitate is formed
Results:
The test tube which is marked X forms foam when mixed with soap solution.
The test tube which is marked Y does not form foam but forms a white precipitate when
mixed with soap solution.
Precautions to be taken during the experiment:
Make sufficient amount of soap solution so that the same solution is used for soft water as
well as hard water.
Add equal amount of soap solution to both the test tubes.
Take equal concentration test tubes.
Mix the soap solution added to the test tubes in a similar pattern and for equal period of
time.
Procedure 2:
Take a test tube and mark it as P.
Add 10 mL of soft water in it.
Add one drop of cooking oil.
Take a test tube and mark it as Q.
Add 10 mL of hard water in it.
Add one drop of cooking oil.
Add a few drops of soap solution to P and Q.
Shake the test tubes P and Q strongly for an equal amount of time.
Place both the test tubes on the test tube stand.
Observe and record the results.
Observation and results:
Test tube Observation
P Oil emulsifies
Q No emulsification
Results:
The test tube which is marked P emulsifies due to the presence of soap solution.
The test tube which is marked Q does not emulsify due to the presence of soap solution.
Precautions to be taken during the experiment:
Make a sufficient amount of soap solution so that the same solution is used for soft water
as well as hard water.
Add an equal amount of soap solution to both the test tubes.
Take equal concentration test tubes.
Mix the soap solution added to the test tubes in a similar pattern and for an equal period of
time.
Use the same cooking oil in both the test tubes.

Experiment: 10
Aim:

a)To determine focal length of a given concave mirror

Materials Required

1. A concave mirror
2. A measuring scale
3. A screen holder
4. A mirror holder
5. A mirror stand

Procedure

1. The distance between the selected distinct object should be more than 50 ft.
2. The concave mirror placed on the mirror stand and the distant object should be
facing each other.
3. The screen should be placed in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror. To obtain
a clear, sharp image the screen should be adjusted.
4. Using a metre scale, the distance between the concave mirror and screen can be
determined. The distance is the same as the focal length of the given concave mirror.
5. Repeat the above procedure thrice to calculate the average focal length.

Experimental Setup
Observation Table

Sl.no Position of concave mirror (M) Position of screen (S) Focal length = (M-S)
cm

1 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

2 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

3 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

Calculation
Following is the mean value of the focal length of concave mirror:

f1+f2+f3cm=10cm

Result
10 cm is the focal length of the concave mirror.

Precautions

1. To get a well illuminated and distinct image of the distinct object, the distant object
shold be well illuminated.
2. A concave mirror should be always placed near an open window.
3. The polished surface of the concave mirror and the distinct object should be facing
each other.
4. There should not be any hurdle between the rays of light from the object and the
concave mirror.
5. The screen and the concave mirror stand should be parallel to the measuring scale.
6. The mirror holder along with the mirror should be perpendicular to the measuring
scale.

Experiment 10B

To determine focal length of a convex lens

Materials Required

1. A wooden bench
2. A convex lens
3. A lens holder
4. A screen fixed to a stand
5. A measuring scale

Experimental Setup

Procedure

1. Without disturbing the lens and screen, arrange both of them on the wooden bench.
2. Place the lens on the holder facing a distant object.
3. Place the holder with the screen on the bench.
4. The position of the screen should be such that the sharp image of the distant object
is obtained on it.
5. The difference between the position of the lens and the screen is equal to the focal
length of the given convex lens.
6. Now shift the focus to towards various other distant object and calculate the focal
length of the convex lens.

Observation Table

Sl.no Position of convex lens (L) Position of screen (S) Focal length = (L-S) cm

1 60 cm 50 cm f1 = 10cm

2 60 cm 50 cm f2 = 10cm

3 60 cm 50 cm f3 = 10cm
Calculation
Following is the mean value of the focal length of convex lens:

f1+f2+f3cm=10cm

Result
10 cm is the focal length of the convex lens.

Precautions

1. The placing of the convex lens should be vertical.

2. There should not be any hurdle between the rays of light from the object and the
convex lens.
3. To get a well illuminated and distinct image of the distinct object, the distant object
should be well illuminated.
4. The convex lens stand and the screen should be parallel to the measuring scale.

Experiment: 11

Aim
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different
angles of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, and angle of
emergence, and interpret the result.

Materials Required

1. A drawing board
2. 4-6 all pins
3. White sheet of paper
4. Rectangular glass slab
5. A protractor
6. A scale
7. A pencil
8. Thumb pins

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet on the soft drawing board using thumb pins.
2. Place the glass slab at the centre of the white paper and draw its outline boundary
using a sharp pencil.
3. Let ABCD be the rectangular figure obtained by drawing.
4. Mark a point E on AB and draw a perpendicular EN and label it as a normal ray.
5. Draw one angle of 30° with the help of protractor with EN. Fix pins at P and Q at 4-5
cm on the ray that is obtained by the angle.
 6. Place the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.
7. To fix R and S, see through the glass slab from side CD, such that when seen through
the glass slab, all the pins P, Q, R, and S should lie in a straight line.
8. Draw small circles around the pins P, Q, R and S and remove the pins.
9. Remove the glass slab.
10. Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F. Draw a perpendicular N’M’ to CD
at point F.
11. Using a pencil, join the points E and F.
12. Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e, the incident angle, refracted angle, and
emergent angle.
13. The lateral displacement is obtained by extending the ray PQ in a dotted line which is
parallel to ray FRS.
14. Measure the lateral displacement.
15. Repeat the same procedure for angles 45° and 60°.

Ray Diagram
Observation Table

Sl.no Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Angle of emergence ∠i – ∠e

∠i = ∠PEN ∠r = ∠MEF ∠e = ∠SFM’ ∠PEN – ∠SFM’

1 30° 28° 30° 0°

2 45° 43° 44.8° 0.2°

3 60° 56° 59.8° 0.2°

Due to human error the value of ∠i – ∠e may not be equal to zero.

Conclusion

1. The angle of incidence and the angle of emergence are almost equal.
2. As the light is traveling from rarer to denser optical medium, the angle of refraction
will be lesser than the angle of incidence.
3. For different angles of incidence, the lateral displacement will remain the same.
4. The light will bend towards the normal when it travels from an optically rarer
medium to an optically denser medium.

Precautions

1. The rectangular glass slab used should have perfectly smooth faces.
2. The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.
4. All pins base should be in a straight line.
5. The distance between the pins P and Q or the pins R and S, about 5 cm gap should be
maintained.
6. Using a sharp pencil, draw thin lines.
7. The quality of the protractor should be good.
8. The placement of the protractor should be correct to get correct measurements.
9. The perpendiculars should be drawn with care.

Sources of Error

1. There shouldn’t be any air bubbles in the glass slab.

2. The measurements done by the protractor should be accurate.
Experiment: 11

Aim
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different
angles of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, and angle of
emergence, and interpret the result.

Materials Required

1. A drawing board
2. 4-6 all pins
3. White sheet of paper
4. Rectangular glass slab
5. A protractor
6. A scale
7. A pencil
8. Thumb pins

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet on the soft drawing board using thumb pins.
2. Place the glass slab at the centre of the white paper and draw its outline
boundary using a sharp pencil.
3. Let ABCD be the rectangular figure obtained by drawing.
4. Mark a point E on AB and draw a perpendicular EN and label it as a normal ray.
5. Draw one angle of 30° with the help of protractor with EN. Fix pins at P and Q
at 4-5 cm on the ray that is obtained by the angle.
6. Place the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.
7. To fix R and S, see through the glass slab from side CD, such that when seen
through the glass slab, all the pins P, Q, R, and S should lie in a straight line.
8. Draw small circles around the pins P, Q, R and S and remove the pins.
9. Remove the glass slab.
10. Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F. Draw a perpendicular N’M’
to CD at point F.
11. Using a pencil, join the points E and F.
12. Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e, the incident angle, refracted
angle, and emergent angle.
13. The lateral displacement is obtained by extending the ray PQ in a dotted line
which is parallel to ray FRS.
14. Measure the lateral displacement.
15. Repeat the same procedure for angles 45° and 60°.
Ray Diagram

Observation Table

Sl.no Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Angle of emergence ∠i – ∠e

∠i = ∠PEN ∠r = ∠MEF ∠e = ∠SFM’ ∠PEN – ∠SFM’

1 30° 28° 30° 0°

2 45° 43° 44.8° 0.2°

3 60° 56° 59.8° 0.2°

Due to human error the value of ∠i – ∠e may not be equal to zero.

Conclusion

1. The angle of incidence and the angle of emergence are almost equal.
2. As the light is traveling from rarer to denser optical medium, the angle of
refraction will be lesser than the angle of incidence.
3. For different angles of incidence, the lateral displacement will remain the
same.
4. The light will bend towards the normal when it travels from an optically rarer
medium to an optically denser medium.
Precautions

1. The rectangular glass slab used should have perfectly smooth faces.

2. The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.

3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.

4. All pins base should be in a straight line.

5. The distance between the pins P and Q or the pins R and S, about 5 cm gap should be
maintained.

6. Using a sharp pencil, draw thin lines.

7. The quality of the protractor should be good.

8. The placement of the protractor should be correct to get correct measurements.

9. The perpendiculars should be drawn with care.

Sources of Error

1. There shouldn’t be any air bubbles in the glass slab.

2. The measurements done by the protractor should be accurate.

Experiment:12

Aim
To study about (a) Binary Fission in amoeba and (b) Budding in yeast and hydra with the
help of prepared slides

Material Required

 Compound microscope
 Permanent slides of budding in yeast and binary fission in amoeba

Procedure

 Place the slide under a compound microscope

 Focus the slide, first under low power and later under high power of the compound
microscope
 Various stages of budding and binary fission can be carefully examined
Diagram
Observation
(a) Binary fission in Amoeba

 Initially, the pseudopodia are retrieved. The body of amoeba is coiled and becomes
round
 Amitosis is observed, the division of the nucleus takes places which are followed by
splitting of cytoplasm
 At the point of fission in the body of the amoeba, a constriction starts to develop.

 The constriction or furrow turns deeper resulting in the formation of two daughter
cells
(b) Budding in yeast

 Protuberance or a tiny outgrowth is observed on the parent cell.

 Division of the nucleus is observed which is later seen in the bud.
 Repetitive budding leads to the formation of a chain of cells.

(c) Budding in Hydra

 Protuberance or a tiny outgrowth is observed on the parent cell.

 The small bud then receives its nutrition from the parent hydra and grows healthy.
 the small newly produced hydra gets separated from its parent hydra and becomes
an independent organism.

Conclusions
The prepared slides display asexual reproduction. One individual is involved to produce a
new offspring of its own kind mitotic division.

Precautions

 Slides need to be aligned and focused accurately.

 Sketch out your observation that is observed under a microscope.
 The slides first need to be examined under a low-power magnification of the
compound microscope and then under high-power magnification.
Experiment: 13

Aim
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Materials Required
Following are the list of materials required for this experiment:

 A white sheet
 Soft board
 Thumb pins
 4-6 all pins
 Prism
 Pencil
 Scale
 Protractor
 Drawing board

Experimental Setup

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2. Place the triangular prism resting on its triangular base. Using a pencil, draw the
outline of the prism.
3. Draw NEN normal to the face of the prism AB. Make an angle between 30° and
60° with the normal.
4. On the line PE, fix two pins at a distance of 5cm from each other and mark these as P
and Q.
5. Look for the images of the pins at P and Q through the other face of the prism AC.
 6. Fix two pins at R and S such that they appear as a straight line as that of the P and Q
when it is viewed from the AC face of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the prism.
8. At point F, make the points R and S meet by extending them.
9. PQE is the incident ray which is extended till it meets face AC. SRF is the emergent
ray which is extended backward to meet at point G.
10. Now mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of
emergence ∠e and the angle of deviation ∠D as shown in the experimental setup.
11. Repeat the experiment for more angles between 30° and 60°.

Observations

1. At surface AB, the light ray enters and bends towards the normal on refraction.
2. At surface AC, the light ray bends away from the normal as it travels from one
medium (glass) to the other (air).
3. The angle of deviation is observed. Here, the emergent ray bends at an angle from
the direction of the incident ray.

Conclusion

1. The incident ray bends towards the normal when it enters the prism and while
leaving the prism it bends away from the normal.
2. With the increase in the angle of incidence, the angle of deviation decreases. After
attaining the minimum value, it increases with an increase in the angle of incidence.

Precautions

 For drawing the boundary of the prism, a sharp pencil should be used.
 Soft board and pointed pins should be used.
 The distance between the pins should be 5cm or more.
 The pins should be fixed vertically and should be encircled when they are removed
from the board.
 The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.
 The arrows drawn for incident ray, reflected ray and emergent ray should be proper.
 For viewing the col-linearity of all four pins and images, the head should be slightly
tilted on either side. While doing this it can appear as if all are moving together.

Experiment: 14

Aim
To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed

Material Required
  Seeds of red kidney bean/gram
 Forceps
 Magnifying glass
 Cloth
 Petri dish
 Water

Procedure

 Soak a few seeds overnight

 Next morning, drain the excess water out
 Now wrap the seeds in a clean and a moist cloth for a day, allow it to dry
 Next, carefully peel the seed coat
 With the help of forceps, dissect the seed so as to get two equal halves
 Examine with the help of a magnifying glass. Carefully identify and locate different
parts of the seed
 Sketch out the interior of the seed you examined labelling all the parts as shown in
the diagram.

Diagram

Observation

 The bean seed resembles the shape of a kidney. It has a convex and a concave side
 A scar known as the hilum is observed on the slightly darker side of the concave side
 A tiny pore known as the micropyle is located just adjacent to the hilum
 The seed is enclosed by a seed coat
 The embryo possesses two distinct and large cotyledons that resemble the shape of a
kidney and are white in colour
  Lateral attachment of the cotyledons to the curved embryonal axis is observed
 Radicle is examined. It is the rod-shaped and lightly protrusive lower end of the
embryonal axis that is found placed towards the micropylar end.
 The upper end of the embryonal axis exhibits the plumule
 Hypocotyl is observed which is a section of the embryo axis found in between the
radicle and adjunct of cotyledon leaves
 The epicotyl is also observed which is the section of the embryo axis between the
adjunct of cotyledon leaves and plumule

Conclusion
Three principle parts of the embryo of dicot seeds are observed, they are:

 Cotyledons
 Plumule
 Radicle

Precautions

 Care needs to be taken while dissecting the seed as it may damage the seed
 The cloth that is used to wrap the seeds needs to be moist