CONTROVERSIES AND CONFLICTS

RUSSIA and UKRAINE WAR

The conflict between Russia and Ukraine is a complex and long-standing issue that dates back to
the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The most recent outbreak of hostilities began in
2014, when Russia annexed Crimea from Ukraine, following a period of political turmoil in
Ukraine.

Since then, the conflict has escalated into a full-scale war, with Ukrainian government forces and
Russian-backed separatists fighting in eastern Ukraine. The conflict has resulted in the deaths of
thousands of people, the displacement of over 1.6 million civilians, and a humanitarian crisis in
the region.

One of the main drivers of the conflict is the question of Ukraine's identity and its orientation
towards the West or Russia. While a majority of Ukrainians support closer ties with Europe and
the West, there is also a significant minority of Russian-speaking Ukrainians who identify with
Russia and prefer closer ties with Moscow.

Another key factor in the conflict is the strategic importance of Ukraine to both Russia and the
West. Ukraine is a key transit country for Russian gas exports to Europe, and Russia sees it as a
buffer zone against the expansion of NATO and the European Union. Meanwhile, the West sees
Ukraine as a key partner in countering Russian aggression in the region and supporting
democratic values.

The conflict has been further fueled by propaganda and disinformation campaigns on both sides,
which have deepened divisions and fueled hatred between Ukrainians and Russians. The
situation remains tense, with sporadic ceasefire violations and low-level fighting continuing in
eastern Ukraine. Diplomatic efforts to resolve the conflict have so far been unsuccessful, and the
situation remains unresolved.

On 30 September 2022, Russia, amid an ongoing invasion of Ukraine, unilaterally declared its
annexation of areas in and around four Ukrainian oblasts – Luhansk, Donetsk, Zaporizhzhia
and Kherson. The boundaries of the areas to be annexed and their borders were not defined.

Date of Attack: 24 Feb 2022

President of Ukraine: VOLODYMYR ZELENSKYY

President of Russia: VLADIMIR PUTIN

Capital of Ukraine: KYIV

Capital of Russia: MOSCOW

CHINA AND TAIWAN CONFLICT

President of China: Xi Jinping; President of Taiwan: Tsai Ing-wen

Capital of China: Beijing; Capital of Taiwan: Taipei

The conflict between China (People’s Republic of China) and Taiwan (officially known as
Republic of India aka Formosa), also known as the Taiwan Strait issue, is a long-standing
dispute that dates back to the Chinese Civil War in the late 1940s. After the Communist Party of
China won the war in 1949, the defeated Nationalist Party retreated to Taiwan and established a
separate government there, which they claimed was the legitimate government of China.

However, the Communist Party also claimed sovereignty over Taiwan, and since then, China has
sought to reunify with Taiwan by force if necessary. Taiwan, on the other hand, has resisted
China's attempts to bring it under its rule and has declared itself an independent, democratic
country.

Over the years, the conflict has led to several military standoffs and diplomatic tensions between
China and Taiwan, as well as the involvement of the United States, which is committed to
defending Taiwan's security.

Despite this, both sides have engaged in various forms of economic and cultural exchange, and
there have been occasional attempts at dialogue and rapprochement between China and Taiwan.
However, the fundamental disagreement over the status of Taiwan remains unresolved, and
tensions continue to simmer beneath the surface.

ARMENIA AND AZERBAIJAN CONFLICT

Capital of Armenia: Yerevan; Capital of Azerbaijan: Baku

The conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan is a long-standing dispute over the Nagorno-
Karabakh region, a predominantly ethnic Armenian enclave located within Azerbaijan's
internationally recognized borders.

The roots of the conflict date back to the early 20th century when the Nagorno-Karabakh region
was part of the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the collapse of the Soviet Union, tensions
escalated between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the status of the region, and in 1988, the
Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast voted to secede from Azerbaijan and join Armenia.
This led to a violent conflict between the two countries that lasted until a ceasefire was reached
in 1994, with Nagorno-Karabakh remaining under Armenian control. However, the conflict
remained unresolved, and sporadic violence continued over the years.

In September 2020, fighting broke out again, resulting in a six-week war that ended in a ceasefire
agreement brokered by Russia. Under the agreement, Azerbaijan regained control of several
regions surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh that had been held by Armenian forces since the 1990s,
while Armenia retained control of Nagorno-Karabakh itself.

The conflict has had a significant impact on the region, causing displacement, economic
disruption, and loss of life. It remains a sensitive issue for both Armenia and Azerbaijan, with
many unresolved issues still to be addressed.

ISRAEL AND PALESTINE CONFLICT

President of Israel: Isaac Herzog; President of Palestine: Mahmoud Abbas

Capital of Israel: Jerusalem ; Capital of Palestine: also claims Jerusalem as its capital

The conflict between Israel and Palestine is a complex and long-standing dispute over territory
and self-determination in the Middle East. The roots of the conflict go back over a century, and it
has been marked by numerous wars, uprisings, and diplomatic efforts.

At the heart of the conflict is the question of who has the right to live in and control the land
between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. The area is home to both Jews and Arabs,
including Palestinians, who have a long history in the region.

The origins of the conflict date back to the late 1800s, when Zionism, a movement to create a
Jewish homeland in Palestine, emerged in Europe. In 1917, the British government issued the
Balfour Declaration, which pledged to support the establishment of a national home for the
Jewish people in Palestine.

After World War II and the Holocaust, the international community supported the creation of a
Jewish state in Palestine, which led to the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948. However,
this also led to the displacement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians who were living in the
area and saw it as their ancestral homeland.

Since then, the conflict has been characterized by a series of wars, violent uprisings, and
diplomatic efforts to find a solution. One of the most contentious issues is the question of Israeli
settlements in the West Bank, which are considered illegal under international law.

Other issues include the status of Jerusalem, which both Israelis and Palestinians claim as their
capital, the rights of Palestinian refugees, and the ongoing security concerns of both sides.
Efforts to resolve the conflict have included peace talks, international agreements, and UN
resolutions, but so far, a lasting solution has proved elusive. The situation remains tense, and the
conflict continues to affect the lives of Israelis and Palestinians, as well as the broader region.

KNESSET PARLIAMENT

The Knesset (Hebrew: gathering or assembly) is the unicameral legislature of Israel. As the
supreme state body, the Knesset is sovereign and thus has complete control of the entirety of the
Israeli government (with the exception of checks and balances from the courts and local
governments).

The Knesset passes all laws, elects the president and prime minister (although the latter is
ceremonially appointed by the President), approves the cabinet, and supervises the work of the
government, among other things.

IRON DOME

Iron Dome is a mobile all-weather air defense system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense
Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries. The system is designed to intercept and destroy short-
range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) to 70 kilometres
(43 mi) away and whose trajectory would take them to an Israeli populated area.

UNITED NATION AND ITS MAIN ORGANS

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization founded on October 24, 1945, after the
end of World War II. Its main objective is to maintain international peace and security, promote
sustainable development, protect human rights, and provide humanitarian aid to people affected
by conflict or natural disasters.

The UN has six main organs:

1. The General Assembly: It is the main deliberative body of the UN and comprises all 193
member states. Its main functions include setting the UN's budget, electing non-
permanent members of the Security Council, and making recommendations on
international issues. The President of the General Assembly is elected annually and is
currently Csaba Kőrösi.
2. The Security Council: It is responsible for maintaining international peace and security.
It has 15 members, of which five are permanent (China, France, Russia, the United
Kingdom, and the United States) and ten are non-permanent members elected for two-
year terms. The presidency of the Security Council rotates monthly among its members,
and its current President for March 2023 is the United States.
3. The International Court of Justice (ICJ): It is the principal judicial organ of the UN
and settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions on legal questions
referred to it by the UN General Assembly, Security Council, and other authorized
international organizations. The current President of the ICJ is Abdulqawi Yusuf from
Somalia.
4. The Secretariat: It is responsible for carrying out the day-to-day work of the UN and is
headed by the Secretary-General, who is appointed by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Security Council. The current Secretary-General is António
Guterres from Portugal.
5. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): It is responsible for promoting
international economic and social cooperation and development. It has 54 members
elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. The current President of ECOSOC
is Munir Akram from Pakistan.
6. The Trusteeship Council: It was established to oversee the administration of trust
territories and ensure their progress towards self-government or independence. With the
last trust territory, Palau, becoming independent in 1994, the Trusteeship Council has
suspended its operations.

Overall, these organs work together to achieve the UN's goals and objectives, with the
Secretary-General acting as the chief administrative officer of the organization.

7. UNGA 77

The theme of the 77th UNGA is 'A Watershed Moment: Transformative Solutions to
Interlocking Challenges'.

In keeping with India’s strong commitment to reformed multilateralism, the Minister will
host a Ministerial meeting of the G4 - India, Brazil, Japan, and Germany - as well as
participate at the High Level Meeting of the L-69 Group on 'Reinvigorating Multilateralism
and Achieving Comprehensive Reform of the UN Security Council'.

The L-69 Group consists of developing countries from Asia, Africa, Latin America,
Caribbean and Small Island Developing States, focused on reforms of the UN Security
Council.

THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE AND THE INTERNATIONAL

CRIMINAL COURT
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the International Criminal Court (ICC) are two
different international judicial bodies, with different mandates and structures.

The ICJ is located in The Hague, Netherlands, and is the principal judicial organ of the
United Nations. It was established in 1945 and its main function is to settle legal disputes
between states and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by UN
organs and specialized agencies. The ICJ is composed of 15 judges, who are elected by the
UN General Assembly and the Security Council for a term of nine years. No two judges
may be nationals of the same state. The presidency of the ICJ is held by one of the judges,
who is elected for a term of three years and may be re-elected. the Court elected Judge Joan
E. Donoghue (United States of America) as President and Judge Kirill Gevorgian (Russian
Federation) as Vice-President.

FACTS

1. Sir Benegal Narsing Rau was the first Indian to serve at ICJ during 1952-1953.
2. Nagendra Singh was the second Indian to serve at ICJ during 1973-1988.
3. Raghunandan Swarup Pathak was the third Indian to serve at ICJ during 1989-1991.
4. Judge Dalveer BHANDARI is the fourth Indian Judge of the Court since 27 April
2012; re-elected from 6 February 2018 for a term of nine years.

The ICC is also located in The Hague, Netherlands, and is a permanent international
criminal court established in 2002. Its mandate is to prosecute individuals for the most
serious crimes of concern to the international community, including genocide, crimes against
humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. The ICC is composed of 18 judges, who
are elected by the Assembly of States Parties for a term of nine years. The presidency of the
ICC is held by one of the judges, who is elected for a term of three years and may be re-
elected. The president of International Criminal Court is Judge Piotr Hofmański.

It is important to note that the ICJ and ICC are independent judicial bodies and are not part
of the United Nations system. The ICJ deals with disputes between states and provides
advisory opinions, while the ICC prosecutes individuals for international crimes.

WORLD BANK AND INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF)

President of World Bank: David Malpass; Managing Director of IMF: Kristalina

Georgieva

The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) are both international
organizations that were established after the end of World War II.
The World Bank, officially known as the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD), was established in 1944 with the goal of promoting economic
development and reducing poverty in middle- and low-income countries. Its headquarters are
located in Washington, D.C., USA. The current President of the World Bank is David
Malpass, who took office in 2019.

The IMF was also established in 1944, with the goal of promoting international monetary
cooperation and exchange rate stability, facilitating balanced international trade, and
promoting economic growth and employment. Its headquarters are also located in
Washington, D.C., USA. The current Managing Director of the IMF is Kristalina
Georgieva from Bulgaria, who took office in 2019.

First Deputy Managing Director of IMF: Gita Gopinath

Both the World Bank and the IMF work closely together and with member countries to
provide financial and technical assistance to promote economic growth, reduce poverty, and
address global economic challenges. The World Bank primarily provides loans and grants for
development projects, while the IMF provides loans to countries facing economic difficulties
and provides policy advice to promote macroeconomic stability.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION

WHO stands for the World Health Organization, which is a specialized agency of the United
Nations that was established in 1948. The organization's headquarters are located in Geneva,
Switzerland. The current Director-General of WHO is Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus
from Ethiopia, who was appointed in 2017. The mission of WHO is to promote health, keeps
the world safe, and serve the vulnerable through leadership, partnership, and science-based
action. The organization works with member countries and partners to support health
policies, improve health services, and respond to global health emergencies.

INTERPOL

The International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL) is an intergovernmental

organization that facilitates international police cooperation. It was founded in 1923 and has
its headquarters in Lyon, France. The current Secretary-General of INTERPOL is Jürgen
Stock from Germany, who took office in 2014. INTERPOL's mission is to promote
cooperation among law enforcement agencies to prevent and combat crime, including
terrorism, organized crime, and cybercrime.

The Interpol unveiled the first-ever ‘metaverse’ specifically designed for law enforcement
worldwide, at its ongoing 90th General Assembly in Delhi.
The Interpol Metaverse allows the registered users to take a virtual tour of its general
secretariat headquarters in France’s Lyon, interact with other officers via their avatars, and
even take training courses in forensic investigation and other policing skills, it said

AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL

Amnesty International is a non-governmental organization (NGO) that focuses on human

rights advocacy. It was founded in 1961 and has its headquarters in London, UK. The
current Secretary-General of Amnesty International is Agnes Callamard from France, who
took office in 2021. Amnesty International's mission is to campaign for justice, freedom, and
human rights for all people, regardless of their race, gender, religion, or political beliefs.

FATF

The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an intergovernmental organization that aims to
combat money laundering and terrorist financing. It was founded in 1989 and has its
headquarters in Paris, France. The current President of FATF is Marcus Pleyer from
Germany, who took office in 2020. FATF's mission is to set standards and promote effective
implementation of legal, regulatory, and operational measures to combat money laundering,
terrorist financing, and other threats to the international financial system.

The FATF lauded “Pakistan’s significant progress” saying that the country had completed
two action plans comprising a 34-point tasklist in the period since 2018.

Pakistan has been removed from the list after four years. It was first put on the list in 2008,
removed in 2009 and before adding it again in 2018, it remained under increased monitoring
from 2012 to 2015.

NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an intergovernmental military alliance

that was founded in 1949. It has its headquarters in Brussels, Belgium. The current
Secretary-General of NATO is Jens Stoltenberg from Norway, who took office in 2014.
NATO's mission is to promote the security and defense of its member countries through
political and military cooperation, including collective defense against external threats.

Total members: 30

OIC
The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is an international organization founded in
1969. The OIC aims to promote Islamic solidarity among member states and safeguard the
interests of the Muslim world in the spirit of promoting international peace and harmony. Its
headquarters is located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The current Secretary-General is Dr.
Yousef Al-Othaimeen from Saudi Arabia.

OPEC

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a group of 14 oil-

producing nations founded in 1960. The purpose of OPEC is to coordinate and unify the
petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets. Its
headquarters is located in Vienna, Austria. The current Secretary-General is Mohammad
Sanusi Barkindo from Nigeria.

CONFERENCE OF PARTIES

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), signed in 1992
at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development also known as the Earth
Summit, the Rio Summit or the Rio Conference. The UNFCCC entered into force on 21st
March 1994, and has been ratified by 197 countries.

The UNFCCC secretariat (UN Climate Change) is the United Nations entity tasked with
supporting the global response to the threat of climate change. It is located in Bonn,
Germany.

COP 15

The 15th Conference of Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity will

reconvene from 5 to 17 December 2022 in Montreal, Canada. Originally planned for
Kunming, China in 2020, COP15 was postponed due to the global COVID-19 pandemic and
later split into a two-part event.

COP 26

The United Kingdom hosted the 26th UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties
(COP26) in Glasgow in 2021.

The Conference of Parties (COP) is a well-known annual event that sees nations come
together to discuss measures to reduce anthropomorphic global warming and steps to tackle
Climate Change.

COP 27
At the COP 27, countries came together to take action towards achieving the world’s
collective climate goals as agreed under the Paris Agreement and the Convention.

The conference took place in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt in 2022. The remark of this
conference is the establishment of LOSS and DAMAGE Finance Fund.

COP 28

The United Arab Emirates would host the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) – Conference of Parties 28 (COP 28) in the year 2023. This announcement was
made at the UNFCCC COP 26 Glasgow summit.

SCO

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a regional intergovernmental organization

founded in 2001. The SCO's primary objectives are to strengthen regional security, promote
economic and cultural cooperation, and enhance mutual trust among its member countries. Its
headquarters is located in Beijing, China. The official languages of SCO are Russian and
Chinese.

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) summit 2022 was held recently in
Samarkand, Uzbekistan. Samarkand declaration was signed by the member states and it was
decided that India will take over Presidency of the SCO for 2023.

Varanasi was declared as the SCO Tourism and Cultural Capital for 2022-2023 to promote
the rich cultural and historical heritage of the people and the tourism potential of SCO
member states.

In 2023 the rotational presidency of SCO is vested upon India and the theme of the event is
“For a SECURE SCO”.

India is hosting several activities in the run-up to the SCO summit, which is scheduled to
take place in Goa in July 2023.

The 18th meeting of the Secretaries of the Security Councils of the Shanghai Cooperation
Organisation (SCO) was held in New Delhi (29th March).

G7

The Group of Seven (G7) is a group of seven of the world's largest advanced economies:
Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
The G7 was founded in 1975, and its members meet annually to discuss economic and
foreign policy issues. The G7 has no permanent headquarters or secretariat, and its
presidency rotates annually among its members. The current President is the United States,
represented by President Joe Biden.

BRICS

BRICS is an acronym that stands for the group of five major emerging economies: Brazil,
Russia, India, China, and South Africa. The BRICS countries represent more than 40% of
the world's population and over 25% of the world's land area. The BRICS group was founded
in 2009, and its members meet annually to discuss economic and political issues. The current
chairmanship is with India.

SAARC

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a regional

intergovernmental organization founded in 1985. SAARC's primary objective is to promote
economic and cultural cooperation among its member countries in South Asia. Its
headquarters is located in Kathmandu, Nepal. The current Secretary-General is Esala
Ruwan Weerakoon from Sri Lanka.

ASEAN

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a regional intergovernmental

organization founded in 1967. ASEAN's primary objective is to promote economic and
political cooperation among its member countries in Southeast Asia. Its headquarters is
located in Jakarta, Indonesia. The current Secretary-General is Dato Lim Jock Hoi from
Brunei Darussalam.

IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES:

The Durand Line

The Durand Line is the boundary line between Afghanistan and Pakistan. It was
established in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand, a British diplomat, to separate British India
from Afghanistan. The line was drawn without taking into account ethnic and tribal
divisions, which has led to ongoing tensions between Afghanistan and Pakistan.

The Radcliffe Line

The Radcliffe Line is the boundary line between India and Pakistan, which was established
in 1947 at the time of India's independence from British colonial rule. Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a
British lawyer, was tasked with drawing the boundary line based on religious demographics.
The line resulted in the partition of the Punjab and Bengal regions, and led to the
displacement of millions of people.

The McMahon Line

 The McMahon Line is the boundary line between India and China. It was established in
1914 by Sir Henry McMahon, a British diplomat, as the border between British India and
Tibet. China, however, did not recognize the McMahon Line, and the border remains a
source of ongoing territorial disputes between the two countries.

South Korea
38th The 38th parallel is used to demarcate the central part of the
and North
Parallel Demilitarized zone between North and South Korea.
Korea
It is located 49 degrees north of the equator.
49th The USA and Demarcated after the Anglo-American Convention of 1818 and the
Parallel Canada Oregon Treaty of 1846, it forms the international border between the
northern USA (Excluding Alaska) and Canada.

Dispute between India and Nepal

PM of Nepal: Pushpa Kamal Dahal; President of Nepal: Ram Chandra Poudel

Capital of Nepal: Kathmandu and its Parliament name is Rshtriya Bhawan

India and Nepal share a 1,850 km long border, which is defined by the Treaty of Sugauli
signed between the British East India Company and Nepal in 1816. However, the border
between the two countries has been a subject of dispute over the years, with several areas
along the border being contested by both sides.

One of the main issues between India and Nepal is the Kalapani area, which is a small
region located in the northwestern part of Nepal. The area is currently under Indian control,
but Nepal claims that it is part of its territory.

BOUNDARY LENGTHS

1. CHINA - INDIA shares a border with China that stretches for about 3,488 km, from the
northeastern state of Arunachal Pradesh to the northwestern region of Ladakh.

2. PAKISTAN - INDIA'S border with Pakistan is approximately 3,323 km long, stretching

from Jammu and Kashmir to Gujarat.

3. NEPAL - INDIA shares a border of about 1,751 km with Nepal, which runs along the
northern and eastern borders of India, including the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Sikkim.
4. BANGLADESH - INDIA's border with Bangladesh is approximately 4,096 km long and
stretches across the eastern states of West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and
Mizoram.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND DIMENSIONAL DATA ABOUT INDIA

1. LATITUDE/LONGITUDE OF INDIA

India is located in the northern hemisphere between latitudes 8.4 degrees N and 37.6 degrees
N, and longitudes 68.7 degrees E and 97.25 degrees E.

2. TROPIC OF CANCER

The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of India, at a latitude of approximately 23.5
degrees N.

The Tropic of Cancer passes through eight states in India, including Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, and Mizoram.

3. INDIAN STANDARD TIME

India follows a single time zone, known as Indian Standard Time (IST), which is 5 hours and
30 minutes ahead of Coordinatzed Universal Time (UTC+5:30).

Indian Standard Time is calculated from the clock tower in Mirzapur nearly exactly on the
reference longitude of IST at 82°30'E, within 4 angular minutes.

THE EXTREME POINTS OF INDIA

a. Northernmost point: Indira Col in the Siachen Glacier region, Jammu and
Kashmir (35° 30' N)
b. Southernmost point: Indira Point, Great Nicobar Island, Andaman and Nicobar
Islands (6° 45' N)
c. Easternmost point: Kibithu, Arunachal Pradesh (97° 23' E)
d. Westernmost point: Ghuar Moti, Kutch district, Gujarat (68° 7' E)
4. MARITIME BOUNDARY

India has a maritime boundary of approximately 7,516 km, including the Arabian Sea to the
west, the Bay of Bengal to the east, and the Indian Ocean to the south.

5. LAND BOUNDARY
a. India shares land borders with seven countries: Pakistan to the northwest, China
and Nepal to the north, Bhutan to the northeast, Bangladesh and Myanmar to the
east, and Sri Lanka, which is separated by a narrow strip of sea to the southeast.
 b. States and their International Boundaries: India has 28 states and 8 union
territories.

IMPORTANT DAYS AND DATES AND THEIR THEMES

DAY DATE THEME

1. Human Rights Day 10 December Dignity, Freedom and Justice
for all
2. Constitution Day 26 November India- The mother of
Democracy
3. International Labour 1st May Universal Social Protection to
day End Child Labor
4. National Science Day 28 February Global Science for Global
Wellbeing
5. National Youth Day 12 January Viksit Yuva-Viksit Bharat
6. National Voter’s Day 25 January Nothing like voting, I vote for
sure
7. Pravasi Bhartiye 8-10 January Diaspora: Reliable partners for
Diwas India's progress in Amrit Kaal
8. Janjatiye Gaurav 15 November My Inspiration from Birsa
Diwas Munda
9. Environment Day 5 June Only One Earth

10. World Water Day 22 March Accelerating Change

11. Women Day 8 March Accelerating Equality &

Empowerment: How Women's
Leadership & Collective
Action Can Make a Difference

12. AIDS Day 1 December Equalize

13. Hindi Diwas 10 January लोगोों को उनकी मातृभाषा से दू र

ककए किना क ोंदी को लोकमत की
भाषा िनाना
COUNTRIES AND THEIR CAPITALS

Countries Currency Capital

1. India Rupee Delhi
2. Pakistan Rupee Islamabad
3. Bangladesh Taka Dhaka
4. Nepal Rupee Kathmandu
5. Srilanka Rupee Colombo (executive and judicial capital)
Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (legislative capital)
6. Saudi Arabia Riyal Riyadh
7. Afghanistan Afghani Kabul
8. Syria Syrian Pound Damascus
9. Israel New Shekel Jerusalem
10. Russia Ruble Mosco
11. USA Dollar Washington D C
12. Germany Euro Berlin
13. Canada Dollar Ottawa
14. Mexico Peso Mexico City
15. France Euro Paris
16. Spain Euro Madrid
17. Brazil Real Brasilia
18. Australia Dollar Canberra
19. Egypt Pound Cairo
20. North Korea Won Pyongyang
21. South Korea Won Seoul
22. China Yuan Shanghai
23. Japan Yen Tokyo
24. Finland Euro Helsinki
SPORTS, AWARDS, RECOGNITION, RELATED TERMS AND THEIR MEANING

1. QATAR WORLD CUP 2022

The FIFA World Cup is a professional football tournament held between national football
teams, Organised by FIFA. The tournament, held every four years, was first played in
1930 in Uruguay.

The Qatar World Cup tournament was the first World Cup to be held in the Middle East, and
the first to be held in November and December due to the extreme heat in Qatar during the
summer months.

Argentina was crowned as FIFA World Cup champion for the third time and this time against
France in Qatar. Leonel Messi has won Golden Ball for being the best player. Emiliano
Martinez and Enzo Fernandez has won the Golden Glove.

French player, Kylian Mbappe became the first player to hit hat trick since 1966 and won the
Golden Boot by scoring most (8) goals.

The 14th successive ball named Al Rihla was created by Adidas for the FIFA World Cup™
travels faster in flight than any other in the tournament’s history, supporting high-speed and
high-quality games. Al Rihla means “the journey” in Arabic and is inspired by the culture,
architecture, iconic boats and flag of Qatar.

2. Hockey World Cup 2023

The 15th Men’s FIH Hockey World Cup was held in 2023, it was organised by
International Hockey Federation. The opening ceremony was organized in the Barabati
stadium in Cuttack, Odisha. Hoever the matches were organized in the Kalinga Stadium in
Bhubaneshwar and Birsa Munda International Hockey Stadium in Rourkela, India.
Germany won their third title after defeating the defending champions Belgium in the final
5–4 in a shoot-out after the match finished 3–3 in regular time.

The stadium has been named after the tribal leader, Birsa Munda, who was a famous freedom
fighter. With a seating capacity of 20,011 permanent seats, it is officially recognised by the
Guinness World Records as the largest fully seated hockey arena in the world on January 29,
2023.

3. Cricket World Cup

The Cricket World Cup is an international cricket championship tournament that takes place
every four years organized by International Cricket Council. The most recent Cricket World
Cup took place in 2019 in England and Wales, where England emerged as champions for the
first time in their history.
The 2023 Cricket World Cup is scheduled to take place in India from October 13 to
November 26, 2023. This is a shift from the traditional February-March schedule that the
tournament has followed in the past.

MANKAD: The name is derived from the great Indian all-rounder Vinoo Mankad, who
famously ran out Australia’s Bill Brown in this fashion in the Sydney Test in 1947.

The ‘Mankad’ is a thoroughly fair, legal act, as even Don Bradman, who was captain of that
Australian team in 1947, insisted back then. The provision to run the non-striker out is
clearly laid out in the Laws of Cricket. Following are the sections relating to this act-

38.3.1 At any time from the moment the ball comes into play until the instant when the
bowler would normally have been expected to release the ball, the non-striker is liable to be
run out if he/she is out of his/her ground. In these circumstances the non-striker will be out
run out if he/she is out of his/her ground when his/her wicket is put down by the bowler
throwing the ball at the stumps or by the bowler’s hand holding the ball, whether or not the
ball is subsequently delivered.

38.3.1.1 The instant when the bowler would normally have been expected to release the ball
is defined as the moment the bowler’s arm reaches the highest point of his/her normal
bowling action in the delivery swing.

4. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna

The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna is India's highest sporting honour, awarded annually by the
Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports to the country's most outstanding sportsperson. It was
instituted in 1991-92 and is named after the former Prime Minister of India, Rajiv Gandhi. In
2021, the award was renamed as Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award.

5. The Arjuna Award

The Arjuna Award is one of India's oldest sporting awards, instituted in 1961 by the Ministry
of Youth Affairs and Sports. It is awarded annually to recognize outstanding achievement in
National sports by Indian athletes. The award is named after the legendary warrior Arjuna
from the Indian epic Mahabharata.

6. The Dronacharya Award

The Dronacharya Award is named after the mythological character Dronacharya, who was
the guru of the Pandavas and Kauravas in the Mahabharata. The award is presented to
coaches who have produced excellent results in national and international competitions. It
was first awarded in 1985 and is given by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports.

7. The Laureus World Sports Awards

The Laureus World Sports Awards are annual awards presented by the Laureus Sport for
Good Foundation to honor individuals and teams from the world of sports. The awards were
established in 2000 and are considered to be among the most prestigious honors in the field
of sports. The awards are presented in various categories, including Sportsman of the Year,
Sportswoman of the Year, Team of the Year, and more.

8. TENNIS GRANDSLAM

Tennis Grand Slam refers to winning all four major tournaments that are Australia Open,
French Open, British (Wimbledon) Open and US Open in tennis in the same calendar year.
Winning all four tournaments in a career is called a Career Grand Slam.

The first player to win the Grand Slam title was Don Budge, United States in 1938. The last
player to achieve the Grand Slam in singles was Steffi Graf in 1988. Roger Federer,
Switzerland (2009 French Open), Rafael Nadal, Spain (2010 US Open) and Novak Djokovic,
Serbia (2016 French Open) are famous CAREER GRAND SLAM winners and not in a
calendar year.

Recently, Novak Djokovic has won the Australian Open 2023.

NARENDRA MODI STADIUM

The Narendra Modi Stadium, (formerly known as Motera Stadium or Sardar Vallabhbhai
Patel stadium) is a cricket stadium situated in Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Sports
complex, Ahmedabad, India. It is the largest stadium in the world, with a seating capacity of
132,000 spectators. Owned by the Gujarat Cricket Association and is a venue
for Test, ODI, T20I, and Indian Premier League cricket matches.

BIRSA MUNDA STADIUM

The Birsa Munda International Hockey Stadium is an international field hockey stadium
situated at Rourkela, India. The stadium has been named after the tribal leader, Birsa Munda,
who was a famous freedom fighter. With a seating capacity of 20,011 permanent seats, it is
officially recognised by the Guinness World Records as the largest fully seated hockey arena
in the world on January 29, 2023.

BOOKS AND AUTHORS

JNANPITH AWARD

The Jnanpith Award is the oldest and the highest Indian literary award presented annually by
the Bharatiya Jnanpith to an author for their "outstanding contribution towards literature".
Instituted in 1961, the award is bestowed only on Indian writers writing in Indian languages
included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India and English.
 Assamese poet Nilmani Phookan and Konkani writer Damodar Mauzo has been conferred
with the 56th and 57th Jnanpith Award respectively.

BOOKER’S PRIZE

Sri Lankan author Shehan Karunatilak has been awarded the Booker Prize 2022 for his
second novel The Seven Moons of Maali Almeida. The 47-year-old author is the second
after Michael Ondaatje to be awarded the award in 1992 for ‘The English Patient’, to win a
literary prize of £50,000 (GBP) at a ceremony in London on October 2023.

List of Important Books

1. Ghulam Nabi Azad’s Autobiography ‘Azaad’ Released Soon

2. Snakes In The Ganga: Breaking India 2.0 Authored By Shri Rajiv Malhotra And Mrs.
Vijaya
3. “Women And Men In India 2022” Launched By MoSPI Rao Inderjit Singh
4. “Bipin: The Man Behind The Uniform” Written By Rachna Biswat Rawat
5. A Book Titled “India’s Struggle For Independence – Gandhian Era” Released
6. A Book Titled “As Good As My Word” Wrote By KM Chandrasekhar
7. ‘Mundaka Upanishad: The Gateway To Eternity’, Written By Former MP Dr. Karan
Singh, Is Released
8. Dr. Mansukh Mandaviya Unveils ‘India’s Vaccine Growth Story’ At World Book Fair
2023
9. Short Stories Collection “The Book Of Bihari Literature” By Abhay K
10. JP Nadda Launched Book ‘Modi: Shaping A Global Order In Flux’
11. Salman Rushdie New Novel ‘Victory City’ Released
12. A New Book Titled ‘The Best Of Satyajit Ray’ Offers A Glimpse To Satyajit Ray’s
13. British Economist Meghnad Desai Authored A New Book Titled “The Poverty Of
Political Economics”

List of books authored by some National Movement Leaders

1. The Story of My Experiments with Truth by Mahatma Gandhi

2. Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule by Mahatma Gandhi
3. An Autobiography: The Story of My Life and Work by Jawaharlal Nehru
4. Glimpses of World History by Jawaharlal Nehru
5. Discovery of India by Jawaharlal Nehru
6. India Wins Freedom by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
7. The Indian Struggle by Subhas Chandra Bose
8. My Years with Nehru: The Chinese Betrayal by M.O. Mathai
9. Autobiography of a Yogi by Paramahansa Yogananda (not a national movement
leader, but an influential spiritual figure in India's history)
AWARDS AND RECOGNITION

1. Nobel Prize

The Nobel Prize is an international award that is given annually to individuals or

organizations that have made outstanding contributions to science, literature, peace, and
economics. The winners are selected by committees in Sweden and Norway. Recent
winners include:

1. Nobel Prize in Physics 2022 - awarded jointly to Syukuro Manabe, Klaus

Hasselmann, and Giorgio Parisi

2. Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2022 - awarded jointly to Benjamin List and David W.C.
MacMillan

3. Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology 2022 - awarded jointly to Shinya Yamanaka

and Rudolf Jaenisch

2. Bharat Ratna –

The Bharat Ratna is India's highest civilian award, given to individuals who have made
exceptional contributions in various fields, including science, literature, arts, and public
service. Recent winners include:

1. Atal Bihari Vajpayee (posthumous), former Prime Minister of India, 2019

2. Pranab Mukherjee (posthumous), former President of India, 2019

3. Nanaji Deshmukh (posthumous), social activist and RSS leader, 2019

3. Padma Vibhushan

The Padma Vibhushan is the second-highest civilian award in India, given to individuals
who have made exceptional contributions in various fields. Recent winners include:

1. Shinzo Abe, former Prime Minister of Japan, 2021

2. M. C. Mary Kom, Indian boxer, 2020

3. Chhannulal Mishra, Indian classical vocalist, 2019

4. Magsaysay Award

The Magsaysay Award is an annual award given to individuals or organizations in Asia

who have made outstanding contributions to society. It was established in memory of
former Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay. Recent winners include:
 1. Ravish Kumar, Indian journalist and media personality, 2019

2. Ko Swe Win, Burmese journalist and social activist, 2019

3. Raymundo Pujante Cayabyab, Filipino musician and composer, 2019

DEFENCE RELATED INFORMATION, TERMS AND THEIR MEANING

Brahmos: Brahmos is a supersonic cruise missile developed jointly by India and Russia. The
name Brahmos is a combination of the names of two rivers - the Brahmaputra of India and the
Moskva of Russia. The missile has a range of around 300 km and can be launched from land,
sea, and air. It is currently one of the fastest cruise missiles in the world.

Agni: Agni is a series of ballistic missiles developed by India's Defence Research and
Development Organisation (DRDO). The Agni missile series includes short-range, medium-
range, and intercontinental-range ballistic missiles. Agni missiles are nuclear-capable and can
carry conventional or nuclear warheads.

Nag: Nag is a third-generation, fire-and-forget anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) developed by

India's DRDO. The missile has a range of around 4 km and can be launched from ground-based
platforms or helicopters.

Trishul: Trishul is a short-range surface-to-air missile developed by India's DRDO. The missile
has a range of around 9 km and is designed to defend against low-level aerial threats such as
helicopters and aircraft.

ATGMs: ATGMs, or anti-tank guided missiles, are missiles designed to destroy tanks and other
armored vehicles. India has developed several types of ATGMs, including the Nag mentioned
earlier, as well as the Milan and the Konkur.

Kinzhal: Kinzhal is a hypersonic air-launched missile developed by Russia. The missile has a
range of around 2,000 km and is designed to be launched from aircraft such as the MiG-31.

S-400: The S-400 Triumf is a mobile, surface-to-air missile system (SAM) designed by Russia.
The system can engage all types of aerial targets including aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAV) and ballistic and cruise missiles within the range of 400km, at an altitude of up to 30km.
The system can track 100 airborne targets and engage six of them simultaneously.

TEJAS: The Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) programme was started by the Government of India
in 1984 when they established the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) to manage
the LCA program. It replaced the ageing MIG 21 fighter planes.

Designed by: Aeronautical Development Agency under the Department of Defence Research and
Development.
Manufactured by: State-owned Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).

The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) has recently cleared a deal worth Rs. 48,000 crore for
the acquisition of 83 Tejas Light Combat Aircraft for the Indian Air Force.

DRDO

DRDO was established in 1958 after combining Technical Development Establishment (TDEs)
of the Indian Army and the Directorate of Technical Development & Production (DTDP) with
the Defence Science Organisation (DSO). Samir V Kamat is now the head of DRDO.

SIPRI REPORT

The SIPRI is an independent international institute dedicated to research into conflict,

armaments, arms control and disarmament. Established in 1966 at Stockholm.

India was the world’s largest arms importer between 2018 and 2022, accounting for 11 per cent
of global imports, according to fresh data released by the Sweden-based Stockholm International
Peace Research Institute (SIPRI). India received 31 per cent of the total arms exported by Russia
during this period.

INS VIKRANT

From the first indigenous warship INS Ajay in 1960, to the first indigenous frigate INS Nilgiri in
1968, the commissioning of the first indigenously designed and built aircraft carrier, INS
Vikrant, is a significant punctuation in India’s pursuit of self-reliance (Aatmanirbhar Bharat).

At 45,000 tonnes, Vikrant is the largest naval ship to be designed and built in India, and with this
accomplishment, the country joins the band of nations that have demonstrated such capability
with major countries like United States (US), the United Kingdom (UK), France, Russia, Italy,
and China.

Vikrant (which means courageous) is named after India's first aircraft carrier, bought from the
UK and commissioned in 1961.

The first INS Vikrant played an important role in several military operations including the 1971
Indo-Pak War before being decommissioned in 1997.

What are the Challenges of Indigenisation for Indian Navy?

Dependence on Import For Subsystems and Components: Any warship has three components,
from design to final operational induction ( FLOAT, MOVE, FIGHT).

Indian Navy has been able to achieve about 90% indigenisation in the ‘FLOAT’
category, followed by about 60% in ‘MOVE' category depending upon the type of propulsion.
However, in the ‘FIGHT’ category we have achieved only about 30% indigenisation. Imports
make up the remainder.

ISRO (INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH ORGANISATION)

• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the national space agency of India.
• ISRO was established in 1969 with its headquarters in Bengaluru, India.
• Chairman: K Sivan, who assumed office in January 2018.

SPACE REALATED INFORMATION, TERMS AND THEIR MEANING

NEW SATELLITE LAUNCHES

• The EOS-03 satellite was launched on August 12, 2021, and the GISAT-1 satellite was
launched on March 5, 2022.
• ISRO successfully launched India's largest Launch Vehicle Mark-III (LVM3)
rocket/OneWeb India-2 Mission with 36 satellites onboard from Satish Dhawan Space
Centre in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.
• The Aditya L1 mission is an upcoming mission that aims to study the sun's corona and is
expected to be launched in the next few years.

GAGANYAAN

Gaganyaan is India's first manned space mission, which aims to send Indian astronauts to space.
The mission is expected to be launched in 2022, the 75th anniversary of India's independence.

ADITYA L1

Aditya L1 is a mission by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to study the Sun's
corona and its impact on the Earth's climate. Aditya L1 is the name of the spacecraft that will be
launched for this mission.

SKYROOT

Skyroot is an Indian private space launch company that is developing small satellite launch
vehicles to make space more accessible and affordable.

AGNIKUL

Agnikul is another Indian private space launch company that is developing small satellite launch
vehicles using 3D printing technology.

VIKRAM S
VikramS is a space technology startup that is focused on developing advanced propulsion
technologies for space exploration and transportation. They are also involved in developing
systems for satellite communication and Earth observation.

SLV

Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3) was India's first experimental satellite launch vehicle, which
was an all solid, four stage vehicle weighing 17 tonnes with a height of 22m and capable of
placing 40 kg class payloads in Low Earth Orbit (LEO (Low Earth Orbit) ).

SLV-3 was successfully launched on July 18, 1980 from Sriharikota Range (SHAR), when
Rohini satellite, RS-1, was placed in orbit, thereby making India the sixth member of an
exclusive club of space-faring nations .

PSLV

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is the third generation launch vehicle of India. It is the
first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages. After its first successful launch in
October 1994, PSLV emerged as a reliable and versatile workhorse launch vehicle of India.
PSLV earned its title 'the workhorse of ISRO' through consistently delivering various satellites
into low earth orbits, particularly the IRS Series of satellites.

GSLV

GSLV Mk-III (LVM3) is the new heavy lift launch vehicle of ISRO for achieving a 4000 kg
spacecraft launching capability to GTO (Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit) in a cost effective
manner. LVM3 is a three stage launch vehicle consisting of two solid propellant S200 strap-ons
and core stages comprising of L110 liquid stage, C25 cryogenic stage, the equipment bay (EB)
and the Encapsulated assembly (EA).

NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

NASA is an independent agency of the U.S. federal government responsible for the civilian
space program, as well as aeronautics and aerospace research. NASA was established in 1958
and has been involved in many groundbreaking missions, including the Apollo moon landing
program and the Space Shuttle program. NASA also has a mandate to conduct research in Earth
science, heliophysics, astrophysics, and aeronautics. NASA is headquartered in Washington,
D.C.

JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency)

JAXA is the national aerospace agency of Japan. It was established in 2003 through the merger
of three previously existing organizations. JAXA is responsible for research and development in
the fields of space and aviation technology. JAXA has been involved in a number of notable
missions, including the Hayabusa asteroid sample return mission, and is currently working on the
Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) mission. JAXA is headquartered in Tokyo, Japan.

ESA (European Space Agency)

ESA is an intergovernmental organization dedicated to the exploration of space. It was

established in 1975 and has 22 member states. ESA is responsible for a wide range of space
activities, including launch services, Earth observation, human spaceflight, exploration, and
science missions. ESA has been involved in a number of landmark missions, including the
Rosetta mission to study a comet and the Huygens probe that landed on Titan, a moon of Saturn.
ESA is headquartered in Paris, France.

SpaceX (Space Exploration Technologies Corp.)

SpaceX is a private American aerospace company founded in 2002 by entrepreneur Elon Musk.
The company's primary goal is to reduce the cost of space transportation and enable the
colonization of Mars. SpaceX has developed a series of reusable rockets and spacecraft,
including the Falcon 9 rocket and the Crew Dragon spacecraft. The company has been contracted
by NASA to provide cargo and crew transportation to the International Space Station. SpaceX is
headquartered in Hawthorne, California.

James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)

This is a large, infrared telescope that is set to launch in late 2021 or early 2022. It will be
located in space, about 1.5 million km (930,000 miles) from Earth, and will be able to observe
the universe in unprecedented detail. JWST is designed to study the early universe, stars and
galaxies, and exoplanets (planets outside our solar system).

Artemis Program

This is NASA's program to return humans to the Moon by 2024, with the goal of establishing a
sustainable presence on the lunar surface. The program includes several missions, such as the
Artemis I uncrewed test flight, Artemis II crewed mission, and the Artemis III crewed lunar
landing. The program also involves developing new spacecraft and technologies, such as the
Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and the Orion spacecraft.

Orion Capsule

This is NASA's crewed spacecraft that will be used for the Artemis program. It is designed to
carry up to four astronauts to the Moon and back, and will also be used for other deep space
missions. The spacecraft is designed to be reusable, with the ability to withstand the harsh
conditions of spaceflight.

Parker Solar Probe

This is a NASA spacecraft that was launched in 2018 to study the Sun up close. It is currently in
a highly elliptical orbit around the Sun, which takes it closer to the Sun than any spacecraft has
ever been. The mission is designed to help scientists understand the Sun's corona (outer
atmosphere) and solar wind (stream of charged particles).

Juno Probe

This is a NASA spacecraft that was launched in 2011 and has been orbiting Jupiter since 2016.
The mission is designed to study the gas giant's atmosphere, magnetic field, and interior
structure. Juno is also studying Jupiter's four largest moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS AND THEIR MEANING

1. Checkmate: A term used in chess to describe a situation where a player's king is in a

position to be captured (in "check") and there is no legal move that can be made to escape
capture, resulting in the end of the game.
2. Moonlighting: The practice of working a second job, typically after regular working
hours or during weekends/holidays, in addition to one's primary job.
3. Shrikflation: A situation where there is a simultaneous increase in inflation and decrease
in economic growth or stagnation, leading to a difficult economic environment.
4. Green Gold: A term used to describe the economic value of forests and other
ecosystems, which provide important environmental services and resources.
5. Pitch (other than cricket): A pitch can refer to the playing field in various sports, such as
baseball, football (soccer), or American football, where the game is played.
6. White Collar: Refers to professional or office jobs, typically in business, finance, or
administration, that require more mental than physical effort, and often require formal
education and training.
7. Blue Collar: Refers to manual labor jobs, typically in manufacturing, construction, or
other industries that involve physical work and often do not require formal education or
training beyond high school
8. Viticulture: Viticulture is the science, production, and study of grapes, which includes
the cultivation of grapevines, harvesting and processing of grapes, and making of wine. It
is a significant industry in many countries around the world, and it requires specialized
knowledge and skills to produce high-quality grapes.
9. Truck Farming: Truck farming is a form of agriculture in which crops are grown on
small, intensively cultivated plots of land and then transported to local markets for sale. It
is often used in urban areas where land is limited, and it allows farmers to grow a variety
of crops year-round.
10. H3N2: H3N2 is a subtype of the influenza A virus that causes seasonal flu in humans. It
is one of several flu viruses that circulate each year, and it can cause severe illness in
vulnerable populations, such as the elderly and young children.
11. Adeno virus: Adenoviruses are a group of viruses that can cause respiratory,
gastrointestinal, and other infections in humans. They are common in children, and most
people will have been infected with at least one type of adenovirus by the time they reach
adulthood.
12. Marburg Virus: The Marburg virus is a highly infectious virus that is similar to the
Ebola virus. It causes a severe and often fatal disease called Marburg hemorrhagic fever,
which is characterized by fever, vomiting, diarrhea, and bleeding from multiple organs.
13. Oxford Dictionary Word of the Year: In 2021, the Cambridge Dictionary Word of the
Year was 'perseverance'. In 2020, 'quarantine'.

CYCLONE

A cyclone is a large-scale weather system that forms over the ocean and is characterized by
rotating winds and a low-pressure center. The rotation of a cyclone is determined by the
CORIOLIS EFFECT, which causes the wind to deflect to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The center of a cyclone is called
the eye, which is typically calm and surrounded by a wall of clouds and intense winds known
as the eyewall.

CLOUDBURST

Cloudbursts are typically characterized by extremely high rainfall rates, often measured in
millimeters per hour. In some cases, rainfall amounts of 100 mm or more can be recorded in
just a few hours during a cloudburst. The actual amount of rainfall can vary depending on the
intensity and duration of the storm, as well as the local topography and weather conditions.
However, cloudbursts are generally known for their ability to produce very heavy rainfall in
a short period of time, leading to flash floods and other water-related disasters.

JOSHIMATH LAND SUSIDENCE

• Due to land subsidence, Joshimath a key transit point for tourists travelling to
Badrinath and Hemkund Sahib - developed cracks, causing panic and protests among
the local population.
• Joshimath has been declared a landslide-subsidence zone and over 60 families living
in uninhabitable houses in the sinking town have been evacuated to temporary relief
centres.
• Joshimath is a hilly town located on the Rishikesh-Badrinath National Highway (NH-
7) in Chamoli district of Uttarakhand.
• The town (fall in high-risk seismic Zone-V) is traversed by running streams with a
high gradient from Vishnuprayag, a confluence of the Dhauliganga and the
Alaknanda rivers.
 • It is home to one of the four cardinal maths or monasteries established by Adi
Shankara - Sringeri in Karnataka, Dwarka in Gujarat, Puri in Odisha and Joshimath
near Badrinath in Uttarakhand.

LIST OF IMPORTANT GOVERNMENT POLICIES

1. Naari Shakti: Launched by the Government of India in 2015, Naari Shakti is a

comprehensive program for empowering women in India. The program aims to provide
opportunities for education, skill development, and employment to women, and also
addresses issues such as violence against women, gender discrimination, and female
foeticide.
2. Amritkaal: Launched by the Government of India in 2021, Amritkaal is a program
aimed at providing affordable and reliable drinking water to all rural households in India.
The program is based on the principle of community participation, and involves the
setting up of water supply systems that are managed and maintained by the local
communities.
3. Panchamrit: Launched by the Government of India in 2021, Panchamrit is a program
aimed at improving the health and nutritional status of children in India. The program
focuses on five key areas - immunization, nutrition, education, health, and sanitation -
and seeks to provide a comprehensive package of services to children from birth to age
six.
4. Panch Pran: Launched by the Government of India in 2021, Panch Pran is a program
aimed at promoting the use of clean and renewable energy in India. The program focuses
on five key areas - solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, biomass energy, and
geothermal energy - and seeks to promote the adoption of these technologies in
households, industries, and the transportation sector.
5. Saptrishi: Launched by the Government of India in 2021, Saptrishi is a program aimed at
promoting the development of scientific temper among school students in India. The
program seeks to create a network of science clubs in schools across the country, and
provides students with opportunities to engage in hands-on science activities and
experiments.
6. GatiShakti: Launched by the Government of India in 2021, GatiShakti is a program
aimed at improving the efficiency and connectivity of India's transportation
infrastructure. The program seeks to integrate different modes of transportation - such as
roads, railways, ports, and airports - and to streamline logistics and supply chain
management. The program is expected to boost India's economic growth and
competitiveness.
7. PM TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan: Launched by H'nble President Smt Draupadi Murmu

Goal: Eliminate TB by 2025 (Global Goal 2030)

World TB Day 2023

 • 24 March
• This year's theme: ‘Yes! We can end TB!’
• 2025
• According to the Global TB Report 2022, India accounts for 28% of all TB cases in
the world.

NAME OF STATE, THEIR CHIEF MINISTER AND ADVOCATE GENERAL

STATE CHIEF MINISTER ADVOCATE GENERAL

1. Andhra Pradesh Shri YS Jagan Mohan Reddy Subrahmanyam Sriram
2. Arunachal Pradesh Shri Pema Khandu Nilay Ananda Dutta
3. Assam Shri Himanta Biswa Sarma Devajit Lon Saikia
4. Bihar Shri Nitish Kumar Lalit Kishore
5. Chhattisgarh Shri Bhupesh Baghel Satish Chandra Verma
6. Delhi (NCT) Shri Arvind Kejriwal
7. Goa Shri Pramod Sawant Devidas Pangam
8. Gujarat Shri Bhupendra Patel Kamal Trivedi
9. Haryana Shri Manohar Lal Baldev Raj Mahajan
10. Himachal Pradesh Shri Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu Ashok Sharma
11. Jharkhand Shri Hemant Soren Rajiv Ranjan
12. Karnataka Shri Basavaraj Bommai Prabhuling K. Navadagi
13. Kerala Shri Pinarayi Vijayan K Gopala Krishna Kurup
14. Madhya Pradesh Shri Shivraj Singh Chouhan Prashant Singh
15. Maharashtra Shri Eknath Shinde Ashutosh Kumbhakoni
16. Manipur Shri N. Biren Singh Lenin Singh Hijam
17. Meghalaya Shri Conrad Kongkal Sangma Amit Kumar
18. Mizoram Shri Pu Zoramthanga Diganta Das
19. Nagaland Shri Neiphiu Rio K. N. Balagopal
20. Odisha Shri Naveen Patnaik Ashok Parija
21. Puducherry (UT) Shri N. Rangaswamy
22. Punjab Shri Bhagwant Singh Mann Vinod Ghai
23. Rajasthan Shri Ashok Gehlot Narpat Mal Lodha
24. Sikkim Shri PS Golay Vivek Kohli
25. Tamil Nadu Shri M. K. Stalin Thiru R.Shunmugasundaram
26. Telangana Shri K Chandrasekhar Rao B. S. Prasad
27. Tripura Dr. Manik Saha Siddhartha Shankar Dey
28. Uttar Pradesh Shri Yogi Aditya Nath Ajay Kumar Mishra
29. Uttarakhand Shri Pushkar Singh Dhami S. N. Babulkar
 30. West Bengal Km. Mamata Banerjee Advocate SN Mookherjee

IMPORTANT BODIES

1. Chief Election Commissioner (CEC)

The Chief Election Commissioner is the head of the Election Commission of India and is
responsible for conducting and supervising elections in the country. The CEC is appointed by the
President of India and serves a term of six years or until they attain the age of 65, whichever is
earlier.

Sushil Chandra head of CEC.

2. Central Vigilance Commissioner (CVC)

The Central Vigilance Commissioner is the head of the Central Vigilance Commission, which is
responsible for addressing corruption and malpractice in government organizations. The CVC is
appointed by the President of India on the recommendation of a committee consisting of the
Prime Minister, the Minister of Home Affairs, and the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok
Sabha.

Sanjay Kothari current head of CVC.

3. Chief Information Commissioner (CIC)

The Chief Information Commissioner is the head of the Central Information Commission, which
is responsible for ensuring transparency and accountability in government functioning. The CIC
is appointed by the President of India on the recommendation of a committee consisting of the
Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, and a Union Cabinet Minister
nominated by the Prime Minister.

Yashvardhan Kumar Sinha is the current head of CIC.

4. National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) Chairman

The Chairman of the National Human Rights Commission is responsible for leading and
directing the activities of the NHRC, which is an independent statutory body that aims to protect
and promote human rights in India. The Chairman is appointed by the President of India on the
recommendation of a committee consisting of the Prime Minister, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha,
the Minister of Home Affairs, the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, and the Leader of
the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha.

Justice Arun Kumar Mishra is the head of NHRC.

 5. National Commission for Women (NCW)

The National Commission for Women is an independent statutory body that works to safeguard
and promote the rights of women in India. The NCW is headed by a Chairperson who is
appointed by the Government of India.

Rekha Sharma is the head of NCW.

6. National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR)

The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights is a statutory body that works to
protect and promote the rights of children in India. The NCPCR is headed by a Chairperson who
is appointed by the Government of India.

Priyank Kanoongo is the head of NCPCR.

7. Enforcement Directorate (ED)

The Enforcement Directorate is a law enforcement agency that is responsible for enforcing
economic laws and fighting economic crime in India. The ED is headed by a Director who is
appointed by the Government of India.

S.K. Mishra current acting director.

8. Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)

The Central Bureau of Investigation is a premier investigation agency of India that handles a
range of cases, including high-profile cases of corruption and crime. The CBI is headed by a
Director who is appointed by the Government of India

NAME OF VITAMINS AND MINERALS AND FRUITS

Vitamin C:

Fruits: oranges, strawberries, kiwis, guavas, papayas, mangoes, pineapples

Vitamin A:

Fruits: cantaloupe, apricots, mangos, peaches, papayas

Vitamin E:

Fruits: avocados, kiwis, mangoes, papayas

Vitamin K:

Fruits: kiwis, figs, grapes, avocados

Vitamin B6:

Fruits: bananas, avocados, watermelon

Vitamin B12:

Fruits: There are no significant sources of vitamin B12 in fruits.

Iron:

Fruits: apricots, prunes, raisins, figs

Calcium:

Fruits: oranges, kiwis, figs

Potassium:

Fruits: bananas, avocados, cantaloupes, honeydew melons, kiwis, mangoes, papayas

Magnesium:

Fruits: avocados, bananas, figs

Zinc:

Fruits: avocados, blackberries, raspberries

IMPORTANT SI UNITS

NAME SI UNIT SYMBOL

1. Length METER m
2. Mass KILOGRAM kg
3. Time SECOND s
4. Electric current AMPERE A
5. Temperature KELVIN K
6. Amount of substance MOLE M
7. Luminous intensity CANDELA cd
8. Area SQUARE METER m2
9. Volume CUBIC METER m3
10. Velocity METER PER SECOND m/s
11. Acceleration METER PER SECOND m/s2
SQUARED
12. Force NEWTON (N) kg.m/s2
13. Energy JOULE (J) N.m or kg.m2/s2
 14. Power WATT (W) J/s or kg.m2/s3

IMPORTANT ELEMENTS AND THEIR SYMBOLS

15. Hydrogen H
16. Helium He
17. Lithium Li
18. Beryllium Be
19. Boron B
20. Carbon C
21. Nitrogen N
22. Oxygen O
23. Fluorine F
24. Neon Ne
25. Sodium Na
26. Magnesium Mg
27. Aluminum (or Aluminium) Al
28. Silicon Si
29. Phosphorus P
30. Sulfur S
31. Chlorine Cl
32. Argon Ar
33. Potassium K
34. Calcium Ca
35. Titanium Ti
36. Chromium Cr
37. Manganese Mn
38. Iron Fe
39. Cobalt Co
40. Nickel Ni
41. Copper Cu
42. Zinc Zn
43. Gallium Ga
44. Germanium Ge
45. Arsenic As
46. Bromine Br
47. Silver Ag
48. Tin Sn
49. Antimony Sb
 50. Iodine I
51. Xenon Xe
52. Cesium (or Caesium) Cs
53. Barium Ba
54. Tungsten (or Wolfram) W
55. Rhenium Re
56. Osmium Os
57. Platinum Pt
58. Gold Au
59. Mercury (or Hydrargyrum) Hg
60. Lead (or Plumbum) Pb
61. Radium Ra
62. Uranium U

IMPORTANT CONSTELLATIONS

1. Orion - Named after a hunter in Greek mythology, this constellation is easily

recognizable by its three bright stars in a row, which make up Orion's Belt.

2. Ursa Major - Also known as the Great Bear or the Big Dipper, this constellation is one
of the most well-known in the northern hemisphere. It is made up of seven stars that form
a distinctive shape resembling a ladle.

3. Ursa Minor - This constellation, also known as the Little Dipper, contains the North
Star, Polaris, which is an important navigational tool for travelers.

4. Cassiopeia - This constellation is named after a queen in Greek mythology and is easily
recognizable by its distinctive W shape.

5. Leo - Named after the lion in Greek mythology, this constellation contains several bright
stars and is visible in the night sky during the spring months in the northern hemisphere.

6. Sagittarius - This constellation is often depicted as a centaur aiming a bow and arrow. It
is located in the southern hemisphere and is visible during the summer months in the
northern hemisphere.

7. Scorpius - This constellation is named after a scorpion and is visible in the southern
hemisphere during the summer months in the northern hemisphere.

8. Cygnus - This constellation is named after a swan and contains the bright star Deneb. It
is visible in the northern hemisphere during the summer months.
 9. Aquarius - This constellation is named after a water-bearer and is visible in the southern
hemisphere during the summer months in the northern hemisphere.

10. Taurus - Named after the bull in Greek mythology, this constellation contains the bright
star Aldebaran and is visible in the winter months in the northern hemisphere.

TERMS AND THEIR MEANING

1. GPS
GPS, or Global Positioning System, is a satellite-based navigation system that provides
location and time information anywhere on or near the Earth's surface.
2. AI
AI, or Artificial Intelligence, refers to the development of computer systems that can
perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning,
problem-solving, perception, and natural language processing.
3. WEB 3.0
Web 3.0, also known as the Semantic Web, refers to the next generation of the World
Wide Web, where information is organized in a way that is more easily understood by
machines, making it possible for them to perform more sophisticated tasks and create
more personalized experiences for users.
4. CHAT GPT

Chat GPT is a large language model trained by OpenAI, based on the GPT-3.5
architecture, designed to converse with humans in natural language and provide
assistance with a wide range of tasks, such as answering questions, generating text, and
completing tasks.

DOCTORS AND THEIR SPECIALISATION

5. Cardiologist: A doctor who specializes in the study and treatment of heart-related

conditions.
6. Dermatologist: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of skin-related
conditions.
7. Endocrinologist: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of hormone-
related conditions such as diabetes and thyroid disorders.
8. Gastroenterologist: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of digestive
system-related conditions.
9. Neurologist: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of conditions
related to the nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord.
10. Oncologist: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer.
11. Obstetrician/Gynecologist: A doctor who specializes in the care of women's
reproductive health, including pregnancy and childbirth.
 12. Ophthalmologist: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of eye-related
conditions.
13. Orthopedic Surgeon: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of
conditions related to bones, muscles, and joints.
14. Pediatrician: A doctor who specializes in the care of children, from infancy to
adolescence.
15. Psychiatrist: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental health
conditions.
16. Pulmonologist: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of conditions
related to the respiratory system.
17. Rheumatologist: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of conditions
related to the joints and connective tissues.
18. Urologist: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of conditions related
to the urinary tract and male reproductive system

NAME OF ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR FREQUENCIES

1. Radio waves: These waves have frequencies ranging from a few kilohertz (kHz) to
several gigahertz (GHz), depending on the application. Radio waves are used for
communication, such as in broadcasting, cellular networks, and satellite communication.

2. Microwaves: These waves have frequencies ranging from around 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
They are used in applications such as microwave ovens, radar, and communication
systems.

3. Infrared radiation: This is a type of electromagnetic radiation with frequencies ranging

from around 300 GHz to 400 THz. Infrared radiation is used for remote sensing, heating,
and communication.

4. Visible light: This is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human
eye. It has frequencies ranging from around 400 THz (violet light) to 790 THz (red
light).

5. Ultraviolet radiation: This is a type of electromagnetic radiation with frequencies

ranging from around 790 THz to 30 PHz. Ultraviolet radiation is responsible for
sunburns and is used in sterilization applications.

6. X-rays: These are a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation with frequencies

ranging from around 30 PHz to 30 EHz. X-rays are used in medical imaging and
industrial applications.
 7. Gamma rays: These are the most energetic type of electromagnetic radiation, with
frequencies above 30 EHz. They are produced by nuclear reactions and are used in
medical imaging and radiation therapy.

NAME OF VACCINES AND THEIR INVENTORS OR DISCOVERER

1. Smallpox vaccine - Edward Jenner

2. Polio vaccine - Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin

3. Measles vaccine - John Enders, Thomas Peebles, and Maurice Hilleman

4. Hepatitis B vaccine - Baruch Blumberg

5. Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine - Ian Frazer and Jian Zhou

6. Rotavirus vaccine - Paul Offit and colleagues

7. COVID-19 vaccine - Multiple inventors/companies, including Pfizer-BioNTech,

Moderna, Johnson & Johnson, AstraZeneca-Oxford, and Sinovac

PRESIDENT OF INDIA

Droupadi Murmu is an Indian politician who is serving as the 15th and current President of
India since 2022. She is the first person belonging to the tribal community and also the second
woman after Pratibha Patil to hold the office. She is also the youngest person to occupy the post
and the first President born in Independent India.

Droupadi Murmu was born to a Santali (TRIBE) family on 20 June 1958, in Uparbeda village in
the Baidaposi area of Rairangpur, (District- Mayurbhanj), Odisha.

VICE PRESIDENT

The vice president of India is the deputy to the head of state of the Republic of India, i.e. the
president of India. The office of vice president is the second-highest constitutional office. The
vice president is also the ex officio chairman of the Rajya Sabha.

Article 66 of the Constitution of India states the manner of election of the vice president. The
vice president also acts as the chancellor of the Central Universities of India.

Jagdeep Dhankhar of the Bharatiya Janata Party is the current Vice President. He became Vice
President after defeating Indian National Congress candidate Margaret Alva in the 2022 Indian
vice presidential election.

SPEAKER OF LOK SABHA

The speaker of the Lok Sabha is the presiding officer and the highest official of the Lok Sabha,
the lower house of the Parliament of India. The speaker is elected generally in the first meeting
of the Lok Sabha following general elections. Newly elected Members of Parliament from the
Lok Sabha elect the Speaker among themselves. The Speaker should be someone who
understands how the Lok Sabha functions and he/she should be someone accepted among the
ruling and opposition parties. Serving for a term of five years, the speaker is chosen from sitting
members of the Lok Sabha.

Shri Om Birla is the 17th and current speaker of the Lok Sabha, born on 23 Nov 1962 in Kota,
Rajasthan.

COLLEGIUM SYSTEM IN INDIA

In the original constitution, there is no mention of a collegium. According to Article 124,

Supreme Court judges are appointed by the President of India in consultation with Chief Justice
of India (CJI) and other judges that he deems fit. The collegium consists of CJI and 4 senior most
judges of the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court collegium will have six members instead of the usual five-most senior
judges. This arrangement has been made to make space for Justice Sanjiv Khanna, who will be
the successor to Chief Justice of India (CJI) D.Y. Chandrachud if seniority is followed. In the
landmark Three Judges Cases, the court had said that the successor CJI should also be part of
the collegium. Therefore, the Collegium’s strength is raised to six to make space for Justice
Khanna.

How did the collegium system evolve?

1. The Constitution vested in the President the power to make appointments to Supreme
Court and High Courts and transfer judges between High Courts.
2. The President (to act on the advice of the council of ministers) was required to consult
certain authorities such as the CJI or chief justice of the high court appropriately.
3. First Judges Case,
4. Accordingly the CJI’s opinion was not binding on the executive.
5. Second Judges Case, 1993 - The court overruled its earlier decisions and held that
“consultation” meant “concurrence”.
6. This means that the advice rendered by the CJI on matters of appointments is binding on
the President.
7. But, the CJI was to formulate the opinion only through a body of senior judges that the
court described as the 'collegium'.
8.

Article 124 in The Constitution Of India 1949

Establishment and Constitution of Supreme Court

CLAUSE 2: Every Judge of the Supreme Court shall be appointed by the President by
warrant under his hand and seal after consultation with such of the Judges of the Supreme
Court and of the High Courts in the States as the President may deem necessary for the
purpose and shall hold office until he attains the age of sixty five years: Provided that in the
case of appointment of a Judge other than the chief Justice, the chief Justice of India shall
always be consulted.

According to Section 124 the two main elements are:

1. The judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President.

2. President before appointment shall consult number of Supreme Court judges.

The term ‘consultation’ was meant to reduce the executive element in the appointment
process to the minimum and to eliminate any political influence.

FIRST JUDGES CASE

1981 (SP Gupta case): The Supreme Court ruled that the word “consultation” could not be
interpreted as “concurrence”. Hence the decision of Supreme Court is not binding upon the
President, this judgment gave the upper hand to executive in the matter of appointment of the
Supreme Court judges.

SECOND JUDGES CASE, 1993

The court overruled its earlier decisions and held that “consultation” meant “concurrence”.
This means that the advice rendered by the CJI on matters of appointments is binding on the
President.

But, the CJI was to formulate the opinion only through a body of senior judges that the court
described as the 'collegium'.

THIRD JUDGES CASE, 1998

The court clarified that the collegium would comprise:

CJI and 4 senior-most colleagues - Appointments to Supreme Court

CJI and 2 senior-most colleagues - Appointments to High Courts

NJAC

The government, through 99th constitutional amendment, sought to replace the collegium
with the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC). The NJAC included the
Union Minister for Law and Justice and two eminent persons, besides the CJI and next two
senior most SC judges.

FOURTH JUDGES CASE (2015)

The court ruled that the primacy of the judiciary in judges’ appointments was embedded in
the basic structure of the Constitution. It also held that the NJAC law gave politicians an
equal say in judicial appointments to constitutional courts and declared NJAC to be
unconstitutional.

INDIAN HIGHEST MOUTAIN PEAKS

1. Kangchenjunga - 8,586 meters - located in the state of Sikkim, this is the highest peak in
India and the third highest peak in the world.

2. Nanda Devi - 7,816 meters - located in the state of Uttarakhand, this is the second highest
peak in India and the 23rd highest peak in the world.

3. Kamet - 7,756 meters - located in the Garhwal Himalayas in Uttarakhand, this is the third
highest peak in India.

4. Nanda Kot - 6,861 meters - located in the Kumaon Himalayas in Uttarakhand, this is one
of the highest peaks in the region.

IMPORTANT DESERTS IN INDIA

1. Thar Desert: Also known as the Great Indian Desert, the Thar Desert is located in
northwest India it spans across four Indian states - Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and
Haryana, as well as the Pakistani province of Punjab. It is the 18th largest desert in the
world and receives very little rainfall, making it a harsh and arid region.

2. Kutch Desert: Also known as the Rann of Kutch, this desert is located in the Kutch
district of Gujarat. It is a seasonal salt marsh and desert, which is flooded during
monsoon season and becomes dry and arid during the rest of the year.

RAMSAR SITES

Ramsar sites are wetland areas that are recognized for their ecological significance,
biodiversity, and cultural importance. There are a total of 75 recognised Ramsar Sites in
India currently. Tamil Nadu has a maximum no. of Ramsar sites (14 nos), followed by UP
which has 10 nos. of Ramsar sites.

Important Ramsar Sites in the World:

1. Doñana National Park, Spain

 2. Sundarbans 0Wetland, Bangladesh

3. Everglades National Park, USA

4. Lake Baikal, Russia

5. Chilika Lake, India

6. Lagoons of New Caledonia, France

Important Ramsar Sites in India:

1. Chilika Lake, Odisha

2. Loktak Lake, Manipur

3. Bhoj Wetland, Madhya Pradesh

4. Wular Lake, Jammu and Kashmir

5. Sunderbans National Park, West Bengal

NATIONAL PARKS

1. Jim Corbett National Park - Uttarakhand

2. Kaziranga National Park - Assam

3. Bandhavgarh National Park - Madhya Pradesh

4. Kanha National Park - Madhya Pradesh

5. Sunderbans National Park - West Bengal

6. Sariska National Park - Rajasthan

7. Gir National Park - Gujarat

8. Pench National Park - Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh

9. Ranthambore National Park - Rajasthan

10. Periyar National Park – Kerala

RIVERS OF INDIA
 1. Ganges: It originates from the Gangotri Glacier in the Himalayas and flows through the
states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal before emptying into the
Bay of Bengal.

2. Yamuna: This is the largest tributary of the Ganges and flows through the states of
Delhi, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.

3. Brahmaputra: Originating in Tibet and flowing through the northeastern states of

Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.

4. Godavari: This is the second longest river in India, originating in the Western Ghats and
flowing through the states of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.

5. Krishna: This is the fourth longest river in India, originating in the Western Ghats and
flowing through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.

6. Narmada: This is one of the major rivers in India, originating in the Amarkantak hills
and flowing through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. It is an
important river for irrigation and power generation.

7. Kaveri: This is a major river in southern India, originating in the Western Ghats and
flowing through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is an important river for
agriculture and hydropower generation.

INDIAN DANCE FORMS

1. Bharatanatyam: Originating from Tamil Nadu in Southern India. It is known for its
intricate footwork and expressive hand gestures.

2. Kathak: Originating from northern India, which was developed by the Mughal rulers. It
is known for its fast footwork and storytelling through dance.

3. Kathakali: Originating from Kerala in southern India, which is known for its elaborate
makeup, costumes, and facial expressions.

4. Kuchipudi: Originating from Andhra Pradesh in southern India, which is known for its
graceful movements and storytelling.

5. Manipuri: Originating from Manipur in northeastern India, which is known for its
delicate movements and graceful hand gestures.

6. Odissi: Originating from the state of Odisha in eastern India, which is known for its fluid
movements and storytelling.

7. Mohiniyattam: Originating from Kerala in southern India, which is known for its
graceful movements and expressive hand gestures.
 8. Bhangra: Originating from Punjab in northern India, which is known for its energetic
and lively movements.

9. Garba: Originating from Gujarat in western India, which is performed during the festival
of Navratri and is known for its circular movements and colorful costumes.

HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF INDIA

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (c. 2600 BC - c. 1900 BC)

The history of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as
Harappan Civilization. It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, in
contemporary Pakistan and Western India. The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four
ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. In 1920s, the
Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins
of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed. In 1924, John Marshall,
Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus Valley to
the world.

Phases Of IVC

There are three phases of IVC:

1. Early Harappan Phase (3300-2600 BCE)

2. Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and
3. Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.

Town Planning

The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning. Harappa and
Mohenjodaro each had its own citadel or acropolis, which was possibly occupied by members
of the ruling class. Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses,
which were inhabited by the common people. The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the
houses in the cities is that they followed the grid system. Granaries constituted an important
part of the Harappan cities. The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is remarkable,
because in the contemporary buildings of Egypt mainly dried bricks were used.

In Kalibangan many houses had their wells. At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the
entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by walls.

Agriculture

The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient foodgrains.
Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea and mustard were produced. Millets are also
found from sites in Gujarat.
While rice uses were relatively rare. The Indus people were the earliest people to produce
cotton.

Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and
archaeologists extrapolate shows oxen were also used for ploughing.

Economy

The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is witnessed by the presence of
numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area. The
Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc. Metal money was not used
and trade was carried by barter system.

Crafts

The Harappans were very well acquainted with the manufacturing and use of Bronze.

Copper was obtained from the Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan and Tin was possibly
brought from Afghanistan.

Religion

In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In one figurine a plant
is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman. The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the
earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her in the same manner as the Egyptians worshipped
the Nile goddess Isis.

The male deity is represented on a seal with three horned heads, represented in the sitting
posture of a yogi. This god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a buffalo
below his throne. At his feet appear two deer.The depicted god is identified as Pushupati
Mahadeva.

The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees and Animals. The most important of
them is the one horned unicorn which may be identified with the rhinoceros and the next
important was the humped bull. Amulets have also been found in large numbers.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are still debated.
One theory claims that Indo-European tribe i.e. Aryans invaded and conquered the IVC.
In later cultures various elements of the IVC are found which suggest that civilization did not
disappear suddenly due to an invasion. On the other hand, many scholars believe natural
factors are behind the decline of the IVC. The natural factors could be geological and climatic.
It is believed that the Indus Valley region experienced several tectonic disturbances which
causes earthquakes which also changed courses of rivers or dried them up. Another natural
reason might be changes in patterns of rainfall. There could be also dramatic shifts in the
river courses, which might have brought floods to the food producing areas. Due
to combination of these natural causes there was a slow but inevitable collapse of IVC.

VEDIC PERIOD (c. 1500 BC - c. 500 BC)

The Vedic texts may be divided into two broad chronological strata:

1. The early Vedic or Regvedic period (1500-1000 B.C.).

2. The later Vedic (1000-600B.C.).

The Early Vedic or Rigvedic period (1500-1000 B.C.)

• The source of information of this period includes the archeological evidences as well as
the literary source i.e. Rig Veda. It is an important source of information for this period.

• The Rig Veda has many things in common with the Avesta, which is the oldest text in the
Iranian language.

Geographical Extension

• The Early Aryans settled in eastern Afghanistan, modern Pakistan, Punjab and parts of
western U.P. The whole region in which the Aryans first settled in India is called the
Land of Seven Rivers or Sapta Sindhava (the Indus and the five tributaries and the
Saraswati).

Political Organization

The Tribe = Jana and King = Rajan was the leader in battle and protector of the tribe. His office
was not hereditary and was selected among the clan’s men. The Rajan was not an absolute
monarch government was responsible for councils like Sabhas, Samitis, Gana and Vidhata.

Women only can attend the Gana and Vidhata.

The basic social unit was the Kula = family and head called Kulapa. King was assisted by the
Purohit(important) and head of army was called Senani (second imp post). Aryans army was
advanced and use chariot driven by horse.

Social Life

Family was the basic unit of society and was patriarchal in nature.

Women enjoyed equal powers.

 • Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, but there are a few instances of
polyandry, levirate (marry to brother’s widow) and widow marriage.

Economy

Aryans followed mixed economy = Agriculture + Pastoral in which pastoral is dominant. Most
of their wars were fought for cow (most important form of wealth). Standard unit of exchange
was the cow. At the same time coins were also there (gold coins like Nishka, Krishnal and
Satmana).

Gavyuti= measurement of distance, Gopati = king, Godhuli = time.

Religion

From Rig-Veda, we come to know that there were 33 gods that time who were divided into three
categories viz., Varuna, Surya, Aditi, and Savitri were heavenly gods. Indra, Rudra, Maruts etc.
were Atmospheric gods. Agni, Soma, and Prithvi were earthly gods.

The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings. Didn’t believe
in erecting temples or idol worship. Worshipped in open air through Yajnas.

Later Vedic Period/Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000-600 B.C.)

Geographical Extention

They reveal that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western U.P. covered by
the Ganga-Yamuna doab. In the beginning, they cleared the land by burning; Later with the use
of iron tools which became common by 1000-800 B.C. In Later Vedic period, many great cities
like Videha, Kaushambhi, Kasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur and Indraprashtha etc. had sprung up.

Political Organization

Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms. Powers of the king who was called the
Samrat increased. Importance of assemblies declined. Women were no longer permitted to attend
assemblies and the term ‘Rashtra’ indicating territory first appeared in this period.

The Sabha and the Samiti were now not powerful enough to check the power of the kings. The
office of the monarch had now become more or less hereditary. A regular army was maintained
for the protection of the kingdom. The officials got many new assistants of the king were present.
References of Priest (Purohita),Commander in chief (Senapati), Charioteer (Suta),Treasurer
(Sangrihita), Tax collector (Bhagdugha), Chief Queen (Mahisi) and the Great companion
(Aksavapa).

Social Life
The four fold division of society became clear initially based on occupation which later became
hereditary; Brahmins (priests), Kshatriya (warriors), Vaishyas (agriculturists, cattle-rearers, and
traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three). Women enjoyed freedom and respect but their
status deteriorated compared to earlier time.

Types of Marriages

• Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same class.

• Daiva: Marriage in which the father gave his Daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of
his fees.

• Arsa: Marriage in which a token bride price of a cow and a bull was paid to the
daughter’s father.

• Prajapatya: Marriage in which the father gave the girl without any dowry and without
demanding bride price.

• Gandharva: Marriage often clandestine, by the consent of the two parties.

• Asura: Marriage by purchase.

• Rakshasa: Marriage by capture.

• Paishacha: Marriage involving the seduction of a

girl while sleeping, etc.

MAURYA EMPIRE (322 BC - 185 BC)

The Mauryan Dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya (324/321- 297 BCE) who
conquered almost the whole of the north, the north-west and a large region of Peninsular India.
The Buddhist text speaks of the existence of a Kshatriya clan called Mauryas living in the region
of Gorakhpur adjoining Nepalese terrain. But Brahmanical sources consider Mauryas as Shudras.

Chandragupta Maurya (324/321 – 297 BCE)

The Mauryan dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the assistance of
Chanakya/Kautilya.

Justin, a Greek writer, says that Chandragupta Maurya overran the whole of India with an army
of 600,000. He liberated northwestern India from the Thraldom of Seleucus, who ruled over the
area west of the Indus. In the war with the Greek viceroy, Chandragupta seems to have come out
victorious. Eventually, there was peace between the two and in return for 500 elephants,
Seleucus gave him eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area West of Indus.
According to Jain texts, Chandragupta Maurya adopted Jainism and went to the hills of
Shravanabelagola (near Mysore) and committed Sallekhana (death by slow starvation).

Bindusara (297 – 273 BCE)

Also known as Amitrochates (destroyer of foes) by the Greek scholars while the Mahabhasya
refers to him as Amitraghata (killer of enemies).

Bindusara conquered the land between the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal. The Tibetan
monk who wrote a 17th-century history of Buddhism, Taranatha, states that one of Binduasara’s
lords, Chanakya, destroyed the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made him master of all the
territory between the eastern and western seas.

Ashoka (268 – 232 BCE)

There was a four-year succession conflict after the death of Bindusara in 273 BCE. Bindusara
wanted his son Susima to succeed him. With the help of a minister named Radhagupta and after
killing 99 brothers, Ashoka (son of Bindusara) acquired the throne. Ashoka had been the Viceroy
of Taxila and Ujjain (cities that mainly handled commercial activities) during the reign of
Bindusara. Ashoka was one of the greatest kings of all times, and is regarded as the first ruler to
maintain direct contact with his people through his inscriptions.

Ashoka was a great proponent of Buddhism. He converted to Buddhism and during his reign,
Buddhism went outside India. His children Mahendra (son) and Sanghamitra (daughter) were
sent to Sri Lanka (Ceylon) to propagate Buddhism.

GUPTA EMPIRE (C. 320 AD - C. 550 AD)

Samudragupta was succeeded by his son – Chandragupta-II during Chandragupta-II’s reign, the
Gupta dynasty reached its peak by expanding territories through conquests as well as by
marriage alliances. An Iron Pillar inscription at Mehrauli in Delhi indicates that his empire
included even north-western India and Bengal. He adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’ (powerful
as the sun) and Simhavikrama.

➢ He issued gold coins (Dinara), silver coins and copper coins. On his coins, he is
mentioned as Chandra.
➢ During his reign, a Chinese traveller, Fa-Hien visited India and wrote a detailed account
about the life of its people.
➢ The Udaigiri cave inscriptions refer to his digvijaya, that is, his conquest of the whole
world.
➢ His court at Ujjain was adorned by nine famous scholars known as the Navratnas (nine
gems).
 i. Kalidasa – He wrote Abhijnashakuntalam, one of the best hundred literary works
in the world and also the earliest Indian work to be translated to European
languages.
ii. Amarasimha – His work Amarakosha is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots,
homonyms and synonyms. It has three parts containing around ten thousand
words and is also known as Trikanda.
iii. Varahamihira – He composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical
systems. His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in the Sanskrit language. It deals
with a variety of subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography, architecture,
weather, animals, marriage and omens.
iv. Dhanvantri – He is considered to be the father of Ayurveda.
v. Ghatakarapara – An expert in sculpture and architecture.

vi. Shanku – An architect who wrote the Shilpa Shastra.

vii. Kahapanaka – An astrologer who wrote Jyotishya Shastra.

viii. Vararuchi – Author of Prakrit Prakasha, the first grammar of the Prakrit
language.

ix. Vetala Bhatta – Author of Mantrashastra and was a magician.

KUMARAGUPTA-I (C. 415 – 455 CE)

Most importantly, he laid the foundation of Nalanda University which emerged as an institution
of international reputation.

SKANDAGUPTA (c. 455 – 467 CE)

Adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’.

MUGHAL EMPIRE (1526 - 1857)

Babur was a descendant of both Genghis Khan and Timur, two famous conquerors from Central
Asia. He became the ruler of Ferghana (in present-day Uzbekistan) at the age of 12 after his
father's death.

Babur was a skilled military commander and strategist. He introduced new tactics and weapons,
such as muskets and cannons, to his army. He fought several wars such as:

1. Battle of Ghazni (1504): Babur defeated the Sultan of Ghazni and captured the city.

2. Battle of Khanwa (1527): Babur defeated the combined forces of Rana Sanga of Mewar
and Medini Rai of Malwa, which helped him consolidate his power in India.
 3. Battle of Chanderi (1528): Babur defeated Medini Rai of Malwa and captured the city
of Chanderi.

4. Battle of Ghaghra (1529): Babur defeated the combined forces of Afghan and Rajput
rulers led by Mahmud Lodi and Raja Medini Rai. This battle secured Babur's control over
northern India.

5. Battle of Panipat (1526): This was one of the most important battles of Babur's life. He
defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, and established the Mughal Empire in India.

He was also a poet and writer. He wrote his memoirs, called the Baburnama, which provide a
detailed account of his life and the events of his time. Babur was known for his religious
tolerance and respect for diversity. He was a Sunni Muslim but was known to patronize scholars
and artists of different faiths.

Babur died in 1530 and was succeeded by his son, Humayun, who continued to expand the
Mughal Empire in India.

HUMAYUN (1508-1556)

Humayun was the second Mughal emperor of India, succeeding his father Babur. His reign was
marked by several challenges, including internal rebellions and external invasions.

Humayun was born in Kabul, Afghanistan, in 1508. He was the eldest son of Babur. He became
the emperor of the Mughal Empire in 1530 after the death of his father.

In 1540, Sher Shah Suri, a Pashtun ruler, defeated Humayun and took over the Mughal Empire.
Humayun fled to Iran, where he received support from the Safavid dynasty and was able to
recapture his kingdom with their help in 1555. Humayun commissioned the construction of
several notable buildings, including the Purana Qila in Delhi and the Dinpanah Palace in Delhi.

His widow Amida Benu Bhegum built Humayun’s tomb (UNESCO site). Humayun’s sister, Gul
Badan Begum, wrote “Humayun-Nama”.

He died in 1556 after falling down a flight of stairs, and was succeeded by his son, Akbar the
Great.

AKBAR (1556-1605)

He succeeded the throne after his father Humayun’s death. In 1556, in the second battle of
Panipat, he defeated Hemu (Sur’s wazir). Between 1556-60, Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan’s
regency. Bairam became Wakil of the kingdom with title of Khan-i-Khanam.

Battle of Haldighati (1576): Akbar defeated Rana Paratap following most of the Rajput rulers
accepted Akbar’s suzerainty.
Akbar defeated Gujarat ruler Muzaffar Shah. To commemorate this victory, he built Buland
Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include much of the
Indian subcontinent.

In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called “Din-e-Ilahi” or Divine Faith. It believes in one
God.

Nine Gems of Akbar’s Court:

1. Abul Fazl a wrote Ain-i-Akbari and “Akbar Nama”.

2. Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana a Great poet, Translated Baburnama into Turki
3. Birbal a Was a Hindu advisor and main commander (mukhya senapati) of army in the
court. Akbar gave him title ’Raja Birbal’.
4. Mirza Aziz Koka a also known as Kotaltash, was the foster brother of Akbar built by
Mirza Aziz Koka as a mausoleum for himself, at the time of Jahangir’s reign
5. Faizi a Translated Lilavati into Persian & under his supervision Mahabharata was
translated into Persian language.
6. Raja Man Singh a was a mansabdar.
7. Raja Todar Mal a Finance Minister. Akbar bestowed on him title of Diwan-i-Ashraf.
8. Faqir Azio-Din a one of the Chief advisors of Akbar
9. Tansen a Musician, Hindu of Gwalior. He served to King Ramachandra, who gave him
the title of “Tansen”. Akbar gave him title of “Mian”.

SHAH JAHAN (1628-1658)

Succeeded Jahangir ad ascended throne in 1628. Three years after accession, his beloved wife
Mumtaj Mahal died in 1631.

Salutation: Under Shah Jahan it was CHAHAR TASLIM and ZAMINBOS (kissing the
ground).

i. Built Taj Mahal in 1632-33 to perpetuate memories of his wife, Mumtaj Mahal.
ii. Moti Masjid (entirely of white marble), Sheesh Mahal and Mussaman Burj at Agra.
iii. Red Fort with its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas at Delhi.
iv. Jama Masjid in Delhi (red stone), Shalimar Bagh in Lahore and city of Shahjahanabad.
v. The pietra dura method was used on a large scale in the Taj Mahal by Shah Jahan.

JAHANGIR (1958-1707)

Masir – I Alamgiri book written by Mustaid Khan throws light on Aurangzeb’s rule. He assumed
the title Alamgir, World Conqueror. He was also called Zinda Pir.

In 1679, he reimposed Jizya and pilgrim tax. He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The
celebration of Muharram was stopped. He executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur.
BRITISH RAJ (1858 - 1947)

History of the Crown Rule

The Crown Rule did not always exist. The Revolt of 1857 was not simply a Sepoy Mutiny; it
was a manifestation of the accumulated wrath, fury, and grievances of the Indian people against
British rule. As a consequence, the British government made the decision to dissolve the East
India Company and take direct control of India. India was under Crown Rule from 1858 to 1947.

Important Acts and Crown Rule

The Government Of India Act 1858

1. The post of the Indian Secretary of State was created. A council composed of 15
representatives supported him.

2. The Viceroy served as his agent, and he was in control of the Indian administration.
Viceroy was also awarded to the Governor-General (Lord Canning).

3. Both the Court of Directors and the Board of Control were abolished.

Indian Councils Act 1861

1. Indians were permitted to participate as unofficial members of the Viceroy’s Executive

Council.

2. The return of legislative authority to the Madras and Bombay presidency marked the
beginning of decentralization.

Indian Councils Act 1909

1. Direct elections for provincial legislatures were held for the first time. The Central
Legislative Council was replaced by the Imperial Legislative Council.

2. The number of members on the legislative council has increased from 16 to a total of 60
during Crown Rule.

3. For the first time, an Indian was elected to the Viceroy’s Executive Council. (Member of
the Law Satyendra Prasad Sinha)

The Government Of India Act 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)

1. Diarchy was implemented in provincial administrations, with ministers responsible for

the transferred list of issues and executive councillors in control of the reserved list.

2. The ministers were selected from among the elected members of the legislative council
and were answerable to the legislature during Crown Rule.
 3. A bicameral legislature was constituted for the first time at the center. Rajya Sabha and
Lok Sabha were then changed to their respective names (Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha).

4. It called for the Viceroy’s executive council to consist of three Indians.

5. This statute made it possible to create a Public Service Commission for the first time in
India.

The Government Of India Act 1935

1. The central government and the districts each had a different set of subjects. The
Concurrent List served both the Federal List and the Provincial List, which were in
control of the Centre and the Provinces, respectively.

2. At the national level, monarchy took the place of diarchy after it was eliminated at the
provincial level.

3. A federal court was established, and the Indian Council was disbanded.

4. Up until the adoption of the new Indian Constitution, this Act was in force.

Indian Independence Act 1947

1. India was proclaimed to be INDEPENDENT and SOVEREIGN.

2. The designation of constitutional (nominal) rulers was bestowed upon the Viceroy and
Governors.

INDEPENDENT INDIA (1947 - PRESENT)

➢ Independent India refers to the era in Indian history following its independence from
British colonial rule on August 15, 1947. The independence movement was led by
Mahatma Gandhi and other notable leaders, who fought for India's freedom through
peaceful protests, civil disobedience, and nonviolent resistance.
➢ After independence, India became a sovereign, democratic republic with a constitution
that guaranteed fundamental rights to all citizens. The first Prime Minister of independent
India was Jawaharlal Nehru, who played a key role in shaping India's political, economic,
and social landscape.

-----------------------
Miscellaneous Topics:
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

GOAL 1: No Poverty

GOAL 2: Zero Hunger

GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being

GOAL 4: Quality Education

GOAL 5: Gender Equality

GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation

GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality

GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production

GOAL 13: Climate Action

GOAL 14: Life Below Water

GOAL 15: Life on Land

GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions

GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal

Global Hunger Index

India is ranked 107/121 on the Global Hunger Index. Released by 2 European NGOs every year in
October –

• Concern Worldwide
• Welthungerhilfe

Some important abbreviations and their full forms:

1. AIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

 2. HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus
3. UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
4. UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme
5. CAATSA: Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act
6. NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
7. NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
8. FATF: Financial Action Task Force
9. CBDC: Central Bank Digital Currency
10. UPI: Unified Payments Interface
11. SARS-CoV-2: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2
12. LiFE: Lifestyle for Environment

Some names of Popular Cryptocurrencies

1. Bitcoin (BTC)
2. Ethereum (ETH)
3. Binance Coin (BNB)
4. Cardano (ADA)
5. Dogecoin (DOGE)

INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF MILLET

The year 2023 has been declared as the International Year of Millets by the United Nations
General Assembly. The resolution was adopted on December 20, 2019, to raise awareness about
the health benefits and nutritional value of millets and promote their cultivation and
consumption. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations is leading the
implementation of the International Year of Millets, in collaboration with governments, non-
governmental organizations, and other stakeholders. The aim is to support smallholder farmers,
particularly women farmers, and contribute to food security, poverty reduction, and sustainable
agriculture.

LIVING ROOT BRIDGES

Living root bridges are a unique form of architecture found in the northeastern Indian state of
Meghalaya. These bridges are made by training the roots of the Ficus elastica tree to grow in a
specific direction over a period of several years. The roots are guided over a gap, such as a river
or stream, and allowed to take hold on the opposite bank. The bridge is then gradually
strengthened by allowing more roots to grow and intertwine with each other until they form a
solid, living structure that can support the weight of people and animals.

Living root bridges have been used for centuries by the Khasi and Jaintia tribes of Meghalaya as
a way to cross rivers and streams in the region's dense forests. They are particularly well-suited
to the region's high rainfall and rugged terrain, as they are more durable and reliable than
conventional wooden bridges, which can rot or wash away during floods. The bridges can last
for several hundred years and become stronger over time as the roots continue to grow and
mature. The most famous living root bridge is the double-decker bridge in the village of
Nongriat, which has two levels and is believed to be over 200 years old.