AKNOWLEDGEMENT

Apart from my efforts, the success of any project depends largely on the encouragement and
guidelines of many others. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the people who have
been instrumental in the successful completion of this project. I express deep sense of gratitude to
Almighty God for giving me strength for the successful completion of the project. I express my
heartfelt gratitude to my parents for constant encouragement while carrying out this project.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to the luminary The Principal Mrs. P. Anthonimammal, who has
been continuously motivating and extending their helping hand to us.

My sincere thanks to Mrs.J.Dharani In-charge, A guide, Mentor all the above a friend, who critically
reviewed my project and helped in solving each and every problem, occurred during implementation
of the project.
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified to be the bonafide Project work done By ______________________ of Class XII ____,
Sivanthi Public School, Kundrathur, Chennai-600 069 during the Year 2023-2024.

Date: Teacher-in-charge:

Submitted for the AISSCE held in the year

2023-2024 at Sivanthi Public School
Kundrathur, Chennai-600 069.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 SIVANTHI PUBLIC SCHOOL

KUNDRATHUR. CHENNAI 600 069

BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

2023-2024

NAME :

STANDARD : XII

ROLL NO. :

PROJECT TITLE :
SNO CONTENT
1) WHAT IS DNA?
2) DNA STRUCTURE
3) DNA DISCOVERY
4) WHEN WAS DNA DISCOVERED?
5) WHO DISCOVERED DNA?
6) DNA SEQUENCING
7) THE FUTURE OF DNA
8) HOW TO DO MORE WITH DNA?
9) CONCLUSION
10) BIBLIOGRAPHY
What is DNA?
DNA is self-replicating material that’s in every living organism. In
simplest terms, it is a carrier of all genetic information. It contains
the instructions needed for organisms to develop, grow, survive, and
reproduce. It’s one long molecule that contains our genetic “code,”
or recipe. This recipe is the starting point for our development, but
DNA’s interaction with outside influences such as our lifestyle,
environment, and nutrition ultimately form the human being.

While most DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell, a small amount can
also be found in the mitochondria, which generates energy so cells
can function properly. Perhaps the most fascinating part of the
process is the fact that nearly every cell in your body has the same
DNA.

DNA Structure
The DNA structure can be thought of like a twisted ladder. This
structure is described as a double-helix, as illustrated in the figure
above. It is a nucleic acid, and all nucleic acids are made up of
nucleotides. The DNA molecule is composed of units called
nucleotides, and each nucleotide is composed of three different
components, such as sugar, phosphate groups and nitrogen bases.

The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which are

composed of a sugar group, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen
base. The sugar and phosphate groups link the nucleotides together
to form each strand of DNA. Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G)
and Cytosine (C) are four types of nitrogen bases.
These 4 Nitrogenous bases pair together in the following way: A
with T, and C with G. These base pairs are essential for the
DNA’s double helix structure, which resembles a twisted ladder.

The order of the nitrogenous bases determines the genetic code or the
DNA’s instructions.

Components of DNA Structure

Among the three components of DNA structure, sugar is the one which
forms the backbone of the DNA molecule. It is also called
deoxyribose. The nitrogenous bases of the opposite strands form
hydrogen bonds, forming a ladder-like structure.
DNA Structure Backbone

The DNA molecule consists of 4 nitrogen bases, namely adenine (A),

thymine (T), cytosine (C) and Guanine (G) which ultimately forms the
structure of a nucleotide. The A and G are purines and the C and T
are pyrimidines.

The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions. These strands are
held together by the hydrogen bond that is present between the two
complementary bases. The strands are helically twisted, where each
strand forms a right-handed coil and ten nucleotides make up a single
turn.

The pitch of each helix is 3.4 nm. Hence, the distance between two
consecutive base pairs (i.e., hydrogen-bonded bases of the opposite
strands) is 0.34 nm.
The DNA coils up, forming chromosomes, and each chromosome has
a single molecule of DNA in it. Overall, human beings have around
twenty-three pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of cells. DNA also
plays an essential role in the process of cell division.

DNA discovery
DNA was first observed by a German biochemist named Frederich
Miescher in 1869. But for many years, researchers did not realize the
importance of this molecule. It was not until 1953 that James Watson,
Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin figured out the
structure of DNA — a double helix — which they realized could carry
biological information.

Watson, Crick and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in

Medicine in 1962 "for their discoveries concerning the molecular
structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer
in living material." Franklin was not included in the award, although
her work was integral to the research. [Related: Unraveling the
Human Genome: 6 Molecular Milestones]

When Was DNA Discovered?

What we know about DNA today can be largely credited to James
Watson and Francis Crick, who discovered the structure of DNA in
1953. Despite there being many important and contributing
discoveries both before and after their work, this is the year they
discovered DNA’s double helix, or spiraling, intertwined structure,
which is fundamental to our current understanding of DNA as a
whole

Who Discovered DNA?

The full answer to the question who discovered DNA is complex,
because in truth, many people have contributed to what we know
about it. DNA was first discovered by Friedrich Miescher, but
researchers and scientists continue to expound on his work to this
day, as we are still learning more about its mysteries. As it turned out,
Miescher’s discovery was just the beginning.

Credit for who first identified DNA is often mistakenly given to James
Watson and Francis Crick, who actually just furthered Miescher’s
discovery with their own groundbreaking research nearly 100 years
later. Watson and Crick contributed largely to our understanding of
DNA in terms of genetic inheritance, but much like Miescher, long
before their work, others also made great advancements in and
contributions to the field.

1866 – Before the many significant discoveries and findings, Gregor

Mendel, who is known as the “Father of Genetics,” was actually the
first to suggest that characteristics are passed down from generation
to generation. Mendel coined the terms we all know today as
recessive and dominant.

1869 – Friedrich Miescher identified the “nuclein” by isolating a

molecule from a cell nucleus that would later become known as DNA.

1881 – Nobel Prize winner and German biochemist Albrecht Kossel,

who is credited with naming DNA, identified nuclein as a nucleic
acid. He also isolated those five nitrogen bases that are now
considered to be the basic building blocks of DNA and RNA: adenine
(A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) (which is replaced by
uracil (U) in RNA).

1882 – Shortly after Kossel’s findings, Walther Flemming devoted

research and time to cytology, which is the study of chromosomes. He
discovered mitosis in 1882 when he was the first biologist to execute
a wholly systematic study of the division of chromosomes. His
observations that chromosomes double is significant to the later
discovered theory of inheritance.

Early 1900s – Theodor Boveri and Walter Sutton were independently

working on what’s now known as the Boveri-Sutton chromosome
theory, or the chromosomal theory of inheritance. Their findings are
fundamental in our understanding of how chromosomes carry genetic
material and pass it down from one generation to the next.

1902 – Mendel’s theories were finally associated with a human

disease by Sir Archibald Edward Garrod, who published the first
findings from a study on recessive inheritance in human beings in
1902. Garrod opened the door for our understanding of genetic
disorders resulting from errors in chemical pathways in the body.
1944 – Oswald Avery first outlined DNA as the transforming
principle, which essentially means that it’s DNA, not proteins, that
transform cell properties .

1944 – 1950 – Erwin Chargaff discovered that DNA is responsible for

heredity and that it varies between species. His discoveries, known as
Chargaff’s Rules, proved that guanine and cytosine units, as well as
adenine and thymine units, were the same in double-stranded DNA,
and he also discovered that DNA varies among species.

Late 1940s – Barbara McClintock discovered the mobility of genes,

ultimately challenging virtually everything that was once thought to
be. Her discovery of the “jumping gene,” or the idea that genes can
move on a chromosome, earned her the Nobel Prize in Physiology.

1951 – Roslind Franklin’s work in X-ray crystallography began when

she started taking X-ray diffraction photographs of DNA. Her images
showed the helical form, which was confirmed by Watson and Crick
nearly two years later. Her findings were only acknowledged
posthumously.

1953 – Watson and Crick published on DNA’s double helix structure

that twists to form the ladder-like structure we think of when we
picture DNA.

DNA sequencing
DNA sequencing is technology that allows researchers to determine the order
of bases in a DNA sequence. The technology can be used to determine the
order of bases in genes, chromosomes, or an entire genome. In 2000,
researchers completed the first full sequence of the human genome, according
to a report by the National Human
Genome Research Institute
The Future of DNA
The future of DNA has great potential. As researchers and scientists
continue to advance what we know about the complexities of DNA
and the insights it codes for, we can imagine a world with less and
better-managed disease, longer life spans, and a personalized view of
medicine that’s specifically applicable to individuals rather than the
population as a whole.

DNA insights are already enabling the diagnosis and treatment of

genetic diseases. Science is also hopeful that medicine will advance
to be able to leverage the power of our own cells to fight disease.
For example, gene therapy is designed to introduce genetic material
into cells to compensate for abnormal genes or to make a
therapeutically beneficial protein.

Researchers also continue to use DNA sequencing technology to learn

more about everything from combating infectious disease outbreaks to
improving nutritional security.

Ultimately, DNA research will accelerate breaking the mold of the

one-size-fits-all approach to medicine. Every new discovery in our
understanding of DNA lends to further advancement in the idea of
precision medicine, a relatively new way doctors are approaching
healthcare through the use of genetic and molecular information to
guide their approach to medicine. With precision or personalized
medicine, interventions take into consideration the unique biology of
the patient and are tailored individually to each patient, rather than
being based on the predicted response for all patients. Using genetics
and a holistic view of individual genetics, lifestyle, and environment
on a case-by-case basis, doctors are better able to not only predict
accurate prevention strategies, but also suggest more effective
treatment options.
We’ve come leaps and bounds from where we were in terms of our
understanding of DNA 150 years ago. But still, there is much to learn.
And with the potential that a deeper understanding of DNA will
improve human health and quality of life across our world, no doubt,
the research will continue. A full understanding of DNA of and
between all living things could one day contribute to solving problems
like world hunger, disease prevention, and fighting climate change.
The potential truly is unlimited, and to say the least, extremely
exciting.

How To Do More With Your DNA

Until recently, individuals were sources of samples in the traditional
research model. Today, the gap between research and individual is
closing and the community is coming together to contribute health
data to support research at scale, advance science, and accelerate
medical discoveries at Luna DNATM.

If you’d like to help researchers better understand you, your family,

and your family health history, take the Luna DNA family health
history survey or share your DNA data file. The more people who
come together to contribute health data for the greater good, the
quicker and more efficient research will scale, and improve the
quality of life for us all

Conclusion

DNA evidence is easy to obtain because genetic material is found in

all human cells, save red blood cells. As a result, when we leave
behind small biological bits of ourselves, these bits can be used to
identify us and link us to the places we've been.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

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