The discipline

• Principles: “Fluid mechanics” and “Thermodynamics”

• Contrast
– Flow process inevitably result from pressure gradients within
the fluid. Moreover, temperature, velocity, and even
concentration gradients may exist within the flowing fluid.
– Uniform conditions that prevail at equilibrium in closed
system.
• Local state
– An equation of state applied locally and instantaneously at any
point in a fluid system, and that one may invoke a concept of
local state, independent of the concept of equilibrium.
Duct flow of compressible fluids
• Equations interrelate the changes occurring in
pressure, velocity, cross-sectional area, enthalpy,
entropy, and specific volume of the flowing
system.
• Consider an adiabatic, steady-state, one
dimensional flow of a compressible fluid:
u 2
H  0 dH  udu
2
dV du dA
• The continuity equation: d (uA / V )  0   0
V u A
  V   V  dV du dA
dV    dS    dP   0
 S  P  P  S V u A
 V  V2
 V   V   T  dV T V dH  udu
            dS  2 dP
 P S c2  S  P  T  P  S  P V CP c dH  TdS  VdP
From physics, 1  V   S  CP   u 2    u 2
 u 2
      1    VdP  1  TdS  dA  0
c is the speed V  T  P  T  P T  c   CP  A
  
of sound in a  V  VT
fluid    u
 S  P CP M    The Mach number
c
dV T V  u 2 
V

CP
dS  2 dP
c 1  M VdP  1  C TdS  A dA  0
2 u2
 P 

dH  TdS  VdP

 u 2 2 
 M  2
 CP   1 u
Relates du to dS and dA udu   TdS   2 
dA  0
1 M 2
1 M  A
 
 
Pipe flow
 u 2   u 2 
  M2  2 1  M VdP  1  C TdS  A dA  0
2 u2
 CP   1 u  P 
udu   TdS   2 
dA  0
1 M 2
1 M  A
 
 

 u 2   u 2 
  M2  1 
du C  dS dP T CP  dS
u  T  P     dx
dx 1  M 2  dx dx V 1 M2
   
   

du dP
0 0
For subsonic flow, M2 < 1, dx dx , the pressure decreases
and the velocity increases in the direction of flow. For subsonic
flow, the maximum fluid velocity obtained in a pipe of constant
cross section is the speed of sound, and this value is reached at the
exit of the pipe.
Consider the steady-state, adiabatic, irreversible flow of an incompressible
liquid in a horizontal pipe of constant cross-sectional area. Show that (a) the
velocity is constant. (b) the temperature increases in the direction of flow. (c) the
pressure decreases in the direction of flow.
Control volume: a finite length of horizontal pipe, with entrance (1) and exit (2)
u1 A1 u2 A2 incompressible V1  V2
The continuity equation:  u1  u2
V1 V2 const. cross-sectional area A  A
1 2

Entropy balance (irreversible): S G  S 2  S1  0

incompressible liquid with heat capacity C
T2 dT
S G  S 2  S1   C 0 T2  T1
T1 T
T2
Energy balance with (u1 = u2): H 1  H 2 H 2  H1   CdT  V ( P2  P1 )  0
T1

T2  T1
P2  P1
If reversible adiabatic: T2 = T1; P2 = P1. The temperature and pressure change
originates from flow irreversibility.
Nozzles:
 u 2  u 2 

 CP

 M2 
  1 u
2 1  M VdP  1  C TdS  A dA  0
2 u2
udu   TdS   2 
dA  0  P 
1 M 2
1 M  A
 
  Reversible flow
Reversible flow
1  M V dx  A dx  0
2 dP u 2 dA
du  1  u 2 dA
u  2 
0
dx  1  M  A dx

Subsonic: M <1 Supersonic: M >1

Converging Diverging Converging Diverging
dA
- + - +
dx
dP
- + + -
dx
du
+ - - +
dx
For subsonic flow in a converging nozzle, the velocity increases as the cross-sectional
area diminishes. The maximum value is the speed of sound, reached at the throat.
 du  1  u 2 dA
u  2 
0
dx  1  M  A dx isentropic
udu  VdP
1  M V dP
2
u dA
2
 0
dx A dx P2
u  u  2 VdP
2
2
2
1
P1

PV   const.
 1
 
2P1V1   P2   
u 2  u1 
2 2
1   
 1   P1  
 
 P 
u2  c c 2  V 2  
 V  S
u1  0 PV   const.
 P  P
  
 V  S V
 1
P2  2  
  
P1    1 
A high-velocity nozzle is designed to operate with steam at 700 kPa and 300°C. At
the nozzle inlet the velocity is 30 m/s. Calculate values of the ratio A/A1 (where A1 is
the cross-sectional area of the nozzle inlet) for the sections where the pressure is
600, 500, 400, 300, and 200 kPa. Assume the nozzle operates isentropically.
kJ kJ cm 3
Initial values from the steam table: S1  7.2997 H1  3059.8 V  371.39
kg  K kg 1 g

A u1V A  30  V
The continuity equation:   
A1 V1u A1  371.39  u

Energy balance: u 2  u12  2( H  H 1 ) u 2  900  2( H  3059.8 103 )

Since it is an isentropic process, S = S1. From the steam table:
kJ kJ cm3 m A
600 kPa: S  7.2997 H  3020.4 V  418.25 u  282.3  0.120
kg  K kg g s A1

Similar for other pressures P (kPa) V (cm3/g) U (m/s) A/A1

700 371.39 30 1.0
600 418.25 282.3 0.120
500 481.26 411.2 0.095
400 571.23 523.0 0.088
300 711.93 633.0 0.091
200 970.04 752.2 0.104
Consider again the nozzle of the previous example, assuming now that steam behaves
as an ideal gas. Calculate (a) the critical pressure ratio and the velocity at the throat.
(b) the discharge pressure if a Mach number of 2.0 is required at the nozzle exhaust.
(a)
The ratio of specific heats for steam,   1.3
 1
  1 .3 P2
P2  2  
 0.55
   P1
P1    1 
 1
  We have u1, P1, V1, P2/P1, γ
2P1V1   P2    m
u 2  u1 
2 2
1    u 2  544.35
 1   P1   s
 
(b) m
M2 u 2  2  544.35  1088 .7
s

 1
 
2P1V1   P2   
u2  u1 
2 2
1    P2  30.0 kPa
  1   P1  
 
Throttling Process:

When a fluid flows through a restriction, such as an orifice, a partly

closed valve, or a porous plug, without any appreciable change in
kinetic or potential energy, the primary result of the process is a
pressure drop in the fluid.

d (mU ) cv  1 2   Q  0
   H  u  zg m   Q  W H  0
dt  2   fs W  0
Constant enthalpy

For ideal gas: H  0 H 2  H1 T2  T1

For most real gas at moderate conditions of temperature and pressure, a reduction
in pressure at constant enthalpy results in a decrease in temperature.

If a saturated liquid is throttled to a lower pressure, some of the liquid vaporizes

or flashes, producing a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor at the lower
pressure. The large temperature drop results from evaporation of liquid.
Throttling processes find frequent application in refrigeration.
Propane gas at 20 bar and 400 K is throttled in a steady-state flow process to 1 bar.
Estimate the final temperature of the propane and its entropy change. Properties of
propane can be found from suitable generalized correlations.
Constant enthalpy process:
H  C Pig (T2  T1 )  H 2R  H1R  0
H

Final state at 1 bar: assumed to be ideal gas and H 2R  S 2R  0

H1R
T2  ig  T1 Tr1  1.082 Pr1  0.471
CP And based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation
H

 ?? H1R  H1R  H1R  

0 1
C Pig  
H   HRB(TR, PR, OMEGA)
RTc  RTc RTc 
 HRB(1.082,0.471,0.152)  0.452
J
C Pig  1.213  28.785 10 3 T  8.824  10 6 T 2 C Pig  94.07
T  400 K mol  K
T2  385.2 K ???
J
T  0.5  385.2  0.5  400  392.6 K C Pig  C Pig  92.73
H mol  K
T2  385.0 K SR 1
 SRB(1.082,0.471,0.152)  0.2934
T2 P R J
S  C Pig ln  R ln 2  S1R S  23.80
S T1 P1 C Pig  C Pig mol  K
S H
Throttling a real gas from conditions of moderate temperature and pressure usually
results in a temperature decrease. Under what conditions would an increase in
temperature be expected.
 T 
Define the Joule/Thomson coefficient:     When will μ < 0 ???
 P  H
 T   T   H  1  H   H 
            Sign of   ???
 P  H  H  P  P T CP  P T  P T

 H   V   H  RT 2  Z 
  V T      
 P T  T  P ZRT  P T P  T P
V
P
RT 2  Z   Z 
     
C P P  T  P  T  P
Always positive Same sign
 Z 
The condition   0
may obtain locally for real gases. Such
 T  P
points define the Joule/Thomson inversion curve.
Fig 7.2
 Turbine (Expanders)
• A turbine (or expander):
– Consists of alternate sets of nozzles and
rotating blades
– Vapor or gas flows in a steady-state expansion
process and overall effect is the efficient
conversion of the internal energy of a high-
pressure stream into shaft work.

Turbine W S
d (mU ) cv  1  
   H  u 2  zg m   Q  W S W S  m H  m ( H 2  H 1 )
dt  2   fs

WS  H  H 2  H1

The maximum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S1 = S2)

WS (isentropic )  (H ) S
The turbine efficiency
WS H
 
WS (isentropic ) ( H ) S Values for properly designed turbines: 0.7~ 0.8
 A steam turbine with rated capacity of 56400 kW operates with steam
at inlet conditions of 8600 kPa and 500°C, and discharge into a
condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Assuming a turbine efficiency of
0.75, determine the state of the steam at discharge and the mass rate of
flow of the steam.
P1  8600 kPa T1  500  C
H 1  3391.6 kJ S1  6.6858 kJ
kg kg  K

H S  H 2  H1  1274.2 kJ kg
Turbine W S
H   H S  955.6 kJ
kg
H 2  H 1  H  2436.0 kJ  (1  x v ) H 2l  x v H 2v
kg P2  10 kPa S 2  6.6858 kJ
kg  K
x  0.9378 S 2  (1  x ) S  x S  7.6846 kJ
v v l v v
2 2 kg  K
W S  m H  56400 kJ S   (1  x v ) S 2l  x v S 2v  (1  x v )0.6493  x v 8.1511  6.6858 kJ
s 2 kg  K
m  59.02 kg
s H 2  (1  x v ) H 2l  x v H 2v  2117.4 kJ
kg x v  0.8047
A stream of ethylene gas at 300°C and 45 bar is expanded
adiabatically in a turbine to 2 bar. Calculate the isentropic work
produced. Find the properties of ethylene by: (a) equations for an ideal
gas (b)appropriate generalized correlations.
P1  45 bar P2  2 bar T1  573.15 K
H  C Pig
H
(T2  T1 )  H 2R  H 1R S  C Pig ln
T2 P
 R ln 2  S 2R  S1R S  0
S T1 P1
(a) Ideal gas
T P WS (isentropic )  (H ) S  C Pig (T2  T1 )
S  C ig
P S ln 2  R ln 2 H
T1 P1
C Pig
H
S  0 R
 MCPH (573.15,370.18;1.424,14.394 E  3,4.392 E  6,0.0)
 
   7.224
 3 . 1135
T2  exp ig  6.3511
 CP  J
 S  WS ( isentropic )  7 . 224  8 . 314  (370 . 8  573 . 15)   12153
 R  mol

iteration C Pig
S  MCPS (573.15, T2 ;1.424,14.394 E  3,4.392 E  6,0.0)
R

T2  370.8 K
(b) General correlation
Tr1  2.030 Pr1  0.893

based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation

H1R  H1R  H1R   S1R
0 1

    HRB(2.030,0.893,0.087)  0.234 R  SRB(2.030,0.893,0.087)  0.097

RTc  RTc RTc 

Assuming T2 = 370.8 K
Tr 2  1.314 Pr 2  0.040
based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation
S 2R
 SRB(1.314,0.040,0.087)  0.0139
R
T2 2
iteration S  C Pig ln  R ln  0.116  0.806  0
S 573.15 45

T2  365.8 K
Tr 2  1.296 Pr 2  0.040 Ws (isentropic )  H S
H 2R J
 HRB(1.296,0.040,0.087)  0.20262  C Pig (T2  T1 )  H 2R  H1R  11920
RTc H mol
 Compression process compressor W S

• Pressure increases: compressors, pumps, fans,

blowers, and vacuum pumps.
• Interested in the energy requirement
d (mU ) cv  1  
   H  u 2  zg m   Q  W S W S  m H  m ( H 2  H 1 )
dt  2   fs

WS  H  H 2  H1
The minimum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S1 = S2)
WS (isentropic )  (H ) S
WS (isentropic ) ( H ) S
The compressor efficiency   
WS H
Values for properly designed compressors: 0.7~ 0.8
 Saturated-vapor steam at 100 kPa (tsat = 99.63 °C ) is compressed
adiabatically to 300 kPa. If the compressor efficiency is 0.75, what is
the work required and what are the properties of the discharge stream?

kJ kJ
For saturated steam at 100 kPa: S1  7.3598 H 1  2675.4
kg  K kg

Isentropic compression

kJ 300 kPa kJ kJ
S 2  S1  7.3598 H 2  2888.8 H S  213.4
kg  K kg kg

T2  246.1 C 300 kPa H  H  H  2959.9 kJ H 

H S  284.5
kJ

2 1
kJ kg kg
S 2  7.5019
kg  K
kJ
WS  H  284.5
kg
If methane (assumed to be an ideal gas) is compressed adiabatically
from 20°C and 140 kPa to 560 kPa, estimate the work requirement
and the discharge temperature of the methane. The compressor
efficiency is 0.75.
T2 P
S  C Pig ln  R ln 2  S 2R  S1R
S T1 P1 T2  428.65 K
S  0 C Pig
S  MCPS (293.15, T2 ;1.702,9.081E  3,2.164 E  6,0.0)
R

R C Pig Ws  H
 P2  C Pig H
T2  T1   S
R
 C Pig (T2  T1 )
 P2   MCPH (293.15, T2 ;1.702,9.081E  3,2.164 E  6,0.0) H

Ws (isentropic ) J
P2 Ws   5288.3
iteration P1
 4 T1  293.15K  mol

J
T2  397.37 K Ws (isentropic )  3966.2
mol
Ws (isentropic )  H S
 C Pig (T2  T1 )  H 2R  H1R
H
 Pumps
• Liquids are usually moved by pumps. The same
equations apply to adiabatic pumps as to adiabatic
compressors.
• For an isentropic process: Ws (isentropic )  H S  P VdP
P 2

dT
• With dH  C P dT  V (1  T )dP dS  C P   VdP
T
• For liquid,
– Ws (isentropic )  H S  V ( P2  P1 )
– H  C P T  V (1   T )P
– T2
S  C P ln   VP
T1
Water at 45°C and 10 kPa enters an adiabatic pump and is discharged
at a pressure of 8600 kPa. Assume the pump efficiency to be 0.75.
Calculate the work of the pump, the temperature change of the water,
and the entropy change of water.
cm3 6 1
kJ
The saturated liquid water at 45°C: V  1010   425  10 C P  4 . 178
kg K kg  K

Ws (isentropic )  H S  V ( P2  P1 )

kPa cm 3 kJ
Ws (isentropic )  1010  (8600  10)  8.676  10 6
 8.676
kg kg

Ws (isentropic ) kJ
Ws   H  11.57 H  C P T  V (1   T )P
 kg
T  0.97 K
T2
S  C P ln   VP
T1
kJ
S  0.0090
kg  K