Unit 02

SRI MANAKULA VINAYAGAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PUDUCHERRY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Subject Name: Analog and Digital Integrated Circuits Subject Code: EE T52
Prepared By:
Mr. B. Parthiban, Associate Professor/EEE
Mr.S.JohnPowl,, Assistant Professor/EEE
Verified by: Approved by:
Unit II: Operational Amplifiers

Introduction to Linear ICs– BJT differential amplifier-Operational amplifier IC 741–Block
diagram and Characteristics- Inverting, non-inverting and difference amplifier–Adder,
Subtractor, Integrator, Differentiator-Comparator- Window detector-Regenerative comparator
(Schmitt trigger)- Precision rectifier- Current to voltage converter–Voltage to current
converter-Log and antilog amplifiers-Instrumentation amplifiers.
2 Marks
1. List characteristic of an ideal op-amp. (April-14), (Nov-15A)
 Infinite voltage gain

 Zero output impedance
 Infinite input impedance
 Zero offset voltage
 Infinite bandwidth
 Infinite CMRR.
 Infinite slew rate.
2. Define CMRR. What is the ideal value of CMRR. (April-14), (Nov-15A)
Common Mode Rejection Ratio is the figure of merit of a differential amplifier and is given by,
2. 1
It is also defined as the ability of the differential amplifier to reject the common mode
signal. An ideal differential amplifier would have infinite CMRR. Practical op-amp has a
minimum CMRR of 70 dB.
3. Define slew rate. What causes it? (Dec-14) (April-15)
 The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage caused by a
step input voltage. An ideal slew rate is infinite which means that op-amp’s output
voltage should change instantaneously in response to input step voltage
 There is a capacitor with-in or outside of an op-amp to prevent oscillation. This capacitor
which prevents the output voltage from responding to a fast changing input. This is the
causes for slew rate.
4. Draw the circuit arrangement for a non-inverting amplifier for AC application. (Dec-
14)
5. Draw the equivalent circuit of practical op-amp. (April-15)
An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models some resistive non-ideal

parameters
2. 2
6. Draw the op-amp adder-subtractor circuit to get the output voltage Vo=(V3+V4)-
(V1+V2). (Nov-15)
7. What is a window detector? (Nov-15)
A window detector circuit, also called window comparator circuit or dual edge limit
detector circuits is used to determine whether an unknown input is between two precise
reference threshold voltages. It employs two comparators to detect over-voltage or under-
voltage.
8. What is mean by Differential Amplifier?
A differential amplifier is a circuit that accepts two input signals and amplifies the
difference between these input signals.
The output voltage is given as Vo = A (Vin1 – Vin2)
Where, Vo – Output voltage
A – Gain of differential amplifier
Vin1 – First input signal or voltage
Vin2 – Second input signal or voltage
9.Why we go for differential amplifier? (Or) What is the need of differential amplifier?
The need for differential amplifier arises in many physical measurements, in medical
electronics and in direct coupled amplifier applications. In this amplifier, there will be no output
voltage resulting from thermal drifts or any other changes provided and changes in both halves
of the circuits are equal.
10.Define common mode signal.

When the input signals to differential amplifier are in phase and exactly equal in magnitude,
they are called common mode signals. The common signals are rejected (not amplified) by the
differential amplifier.
Eg: Noise Signal.
2. 3
11. Define Differential mode signal.

When the input signals to differential amplifier are 1800 out of phase and exactly equal in
magnitude, they are called differential mode signals. These signals are amplified by the
differential amplifier.
12. What are the applications of a differential amplifier?

The applications of a differential amplifier are,
a. To measure many physical quantities,
b. Can be used as a direct coupled amplifier,
c. Used in operational amplifier.
13.Define an operational amplifier.
An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled, high gain amplifier consisting of one or

more differential amplifier. By properly selecting the external components, it can be used to
perform a variety of mathematical operations.
14. State the concept of virtual ground?
This means the differential input voltage Vd between the non inverting and inverting
input terminals is essentially zero.
If the non-inverting terminal is grounded by the concept of virtual short, the inverting
terminal is also at ground potential, though there is no physical connection between the inverting
terminal and the ground. This is the principle of virtual ground.
15. List the four basic building blocks of an op amp.

The basic block diagram constitutes mainly four stages
1. Input stage
2. Intermediate Stage
3. Buffer and Level Shifting stage
4. Output Stage
16. What happens when the common terminal of V+ and V- sources is not grounded?
If the common point of the two supplies is not grounded, twice the supply voltage will
get applied and it may damage the op-amp.
17. Define input offset voltage.
2. 4
A small voltage is applied to the input terminals to make the output voltage as zero when
the two input terminals are grounded is called input offset voltage.
18. Define input offset current. State the reasons for the offset currents at the input of the
op-amp.
The difference between the bias currents at the input terminals of the op-amp is called as
input offset current. The input terminals conduct a small value of dc current to bias the input
transistors. Since the input transistors cannot be made identical, there exists a difference in bias
currents.
19. Why IC 741 is not used for high frequency applications?
IC741 has a low slew rate because of the predominance of capacitance present in the
circuit at higher frequencies. As frequency increases the output gets distorted due to limited slew
rate.
20. What are the advantages of voltage follower?
a. Very large input resistance, of the order of mega ohms.

b. Low output impedance, almost zero. Hence it can be used to connect high impedance
source to a low impedance load as a buffer.
c. It has large band width.
d. The output follows the input exactly without phase shift.
21.What is meant by integrator?

In an integrator circuit, the output voltage is the integration of the input voltage. The
integrator circuit using active devices like op-amp is called active integrator. The integrator
circuit can be obtained without using active devices like op amp, transistors is called passive
integrator.
22.Write the applications of Practical Integrator.
1. Analog computers
2. In solving the differential equations
3. In analog to digital converters
4. In ramp generators
23.What is meant by differentiator?
The circuit which produces the differentiation of the input voltage at its output is called
differentiator. The circuit using active devices like op-amp is called active differentiator. The
circuit can be obtained without using active devices like op amp, transistors is called passive
differentiator.
2. 5
24. Write the applications of Practical differentiator.
 In the wave shaping circuits to detect the high frequency components in the input signal.
 As a rate- of-change detector in the FM demodulation.
25. Write down the condition for good differentiation?

For good differentiation the time period of the input signal must be greater than
or equal to RF C1T>RfC1.
Where Rf is the feedback resistance Cf is the input capacitance.
26.What is the need for an instrumentation amplifier?

The measurement of the physical quantities is generally carried out with the help of a
device called as transducer, but most of the transducer outputs are generally of very low level
signals such a low level signals are not sufficient to drive the next stage of the system, hence the
special amplifier which is used for such a low level amplification with high CMRR, high input
impedance to avoid loading, low power consumption is called instrumentation amplifier.
27. List the features of instrumentation amplifier.

 High gain accuracy
 High CMRR
 High gin stability with low temperature coefficient
 Low dc offset
 Low output impedance
28. What is a comparator?

A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an opamp
with a known reference voltage at the other input. It is an open loop op - amp with output +Vsat.
29. What are the applications of comparator?

• Zero crossing detectors
• Window detector
• Time marker generator
• Phase detector.
30. What are the applications of op-amp?
Because of low cost, small size, versatility, flexibility and dependability op-amps are
used in the fields of,
 Process control and instrumentation.

 Computers and communication systems.
 Power and signal sources
2. 6
 Measuring and display systems.

31. Write any three characteristics of practical op-amp.?
 Open loop gain: it is the voltage gain of the op-amp when no feedback is applied.
Practically it is several thousands.
 Input impedance: it is finite and typically greater than 1 M ohm.
 Output impedance: it is typically few hundred ohms. With the help of negative
feedback, it can be reduced to a very small value like 1 or 2 ohms.
 Bandwidth: the bandwidth of practical op-amp in open loop configuration is very
small. By application of negative feedback, it can be increased to a desired value.
 Input offset voltage: the dc voltage, which makes the output voltage zero, when
the other terminal is grounded is called input offset voltage.
32. Define PSRR.
The power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) is defined as the ratio of the change in input
offset voltage due to the change in supply voltage producing it, keeping other power supply
voltage constant. It is also called power supply sensitivity (PSS)
33. Write the practical value of the following of IC 741.
Parameter Practical value

s.no
1 Open loop voltage gain 2*105
2 Output impedance 75 ohms
3 Input impedance 2 M ohms
4 Input offset current 200 nano A
5 Input offset voltage 2 milli volt
6 Bandwidth 1 mega hertz
7 CMRR 90 dB
8 Slew rate 0.5 V/ micro sec
9 Input bias current 80 nano A
10 Power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) 30 micro volt / V
2. 7
34. Why op amp cannot be used in open loop configuration?
Due to high open loop gain, op amp either shows +V sat or –V sat level. This indicates
the inability of op amp to work as a linear small signal amplifier in the open loop mode. Hence,
the op amp is generally not used as amplifier in the open loop configuration.
35. What is the advantage of negative feedback in op amp circuit?
 Reduced Open loop gain.

 Improves stability
 Reduces frequency distortion
 It reduces the non-linearity and noise in op amp
 Improves frequency response
36. Explain the principle of zero crossing detectors?
The basic comparator can be used as the zero crossing detector i.e., it compares the
signal voltage applied at one input of an op amp with a known reference voltage at the other
input, and produces either a high or a low output voltage, depending on which input is higher.
37. Define precision rectifier?
The major limitation of rectifier circuit using diodes is that they cannot rectify the
voltages below cut-in voltage of diodes. A circuit which used for the rectification of voltage
below the cut-in voltage and provides the ideal diode characteristics is called precision rectifier.
38. List out the practical application of the integrator and differentiator?
Integrator:
 In the analog computers.

 In solving the differential equations.
 In analog to digital converters.
 Various signal wave shaping circuits.
 In ramp generators.
Differentiator:
 In the wave shaping circuits to detect the high frequency components in the
input signal.
 As a rate-of –change detector in the FM demodulators.
2. 8
39. Why instrumentation amplifier should have high slew rate and input impedance?
The slew rate of the instrumentation amplifier must be as high as possible to provide
maximum undistorted output voltage swing.
It should have high input impedance in order to avoid the loading of input sources.
40. Mention the advantages of instrumentation amplifier using op amp?
The advantages of this circuit are,
 The gain variation is easy and precise.

 Gain depends on external resistances and hence can be adjusted accurately and
made stable by selecting high quality resistances.
 The input impedance depends on the input impedance of non inverting
amplifiers which is extremely high.
 The CMRR of the op amp is very high and most of the common mode signal
will be rejected.
41. Write some applications of instrumentation amplifier?
The instrumentation amplifier along with the transducer bridge can be used in many practical
applications some of them are temperature controller, temperature indicator, light intensity
meter, analog weight scale.
42. Define V – I and I – V converter?
V-I converter: It is the circuit in which the output load current is proportional to the input
voltage. Depending upon the connection of load there are two types of V I converter namely
floating load type and grounded load type
I-V converter: It is the circuit in which the output voltage is proportional to input current.
43. What are other names of V-I converter and I-V converter?
V-I converter is also known as Transresistance amplifier or voltage controlled current source.
I-V converter is also known as Transconductance amplifier or current controlled voltage source.
2. 9
44. What are the application of V-I converter?
The various application of V-I converter are
 Low voltage dc voltmeter

 Low voltage ac voltmeter
 Diode tester and match finder
 Zener diode tester
45. What are the applications of I-V converter?
The I-V converters were used in photodiode detector, photo FET detector.
46. What is comparator and write the type of comparator?
A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an op

amp with a known reference voltage at the other input.
There are two types of comparator namely inverting comparator and non-inverting comparator.
47. Write the limitations of the op-amp as comparator?
1. To have better comparator accuracy op amp must have CMRR, high gain, and
negligible input offset current and input offset voltage.
2. To have better response time op amp output must switch rapidly, between saturation
levels and also respond instantaneously to any change of condition at its input.
3. To have output compatibility with digital devices op amp output must swing between
two logic levels suitable for certain logic family.
48. Application of the comparator?
The various application of the comparator are, Zero crossing detector ,Level detector,
Window detector, Duty cycle controller, Pulse generator, Time marker generator, Phase detector.
49. Define log and antilog Amplifier?
Log amplifier: The circuit in which the output is obtained as the function of logarithm
of the input voltage Vin is called log amplifier. The output obtained in this circuit is in natural
logarithm to obtain the logarithm to base 10 proper scaling is to done.
Log10 X = 0.4343 ln (X).
2. 10
Antilog amplifier: The log amplifier can be easily turned around to provide antilog or
exponential function called as antilog amplifier. When compared to the log amplifier the
position of diode and resistor are interchanged.
50. List the applications of log amplifiers?

 Analog computation may require functions such as lnx, logx, sinhx etc.
These functions can be performed by log amplifiers
 Log amplifiers can perform direct db display on digital voltmeter and
spectrum analyzer
 Log amplifier can be used to compress the dynamic range of a signal
51. What are the applications of the analog multiplier?
There is no. of applications of analog multiplier such as Frequency doublers, frequency

shifting, and phase angle detection, real power computation, squaring of signals, dividing and
multiplying two signals.
52. Draw a circuit of a log amplifier using op amp and a transistor.
53. Write short notes on Schmitt trigger

Schmitt trigger is a regenerative comparator. It converts sinusoidal input into a
square wave output. The output of Schmitt trigger swings between upper and lower
threshold voltages, which are the reference voltages of the input waveform. (Or)
Schmitt trigger is an inverting comparator with positive feedback.
2. 11
54. Draw op amp circuits that can be used as a subtractor circuit and write its
output equation.
Output equation
By connecting each input in turn to 0V ground, by superposition to solve for the

output voltage Vout.
V1  Va V2  Vb Va  (Vout )
I1  , I2  , If 
R1 R2 R3
Summing point Va  Vb
 R4 
Vb  V2  
 2R  R4 
 R3 
If V2  0 , then Vout ( a )  V  
1
 R1 
 R4  R1  R3 
If V1=0, then: Vout( a )  V2   
 2
R  R4  R1 
Vout( a )  Vout( a )  Vout(b )

R   R4  R1  R3 
Vout  V1  3   V2   
 R1   R2  R4  R1 
When resistor, R1=R2 and R3=R4 Vout can be simplified:-
2. 12
Vout 
R3
V2  V1 
R1
55. Applications of Schmitt trigger circuit?
 Squaring circuit
 Sine-to-Square comparator
 Amplitude comparator
 As flip flops
11 marks
1. Compare the ideal and practical characteristics of op-amp. (3) ( Nov-13)

The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a non-inverting input (+) with voltage V+ and an
inverting input (–) with voltage V−; ideally the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage
between the two, which is called the differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp
Vout is given by the equation:
Open loop amplifier
The magnitude of AOL is typically very large—100,000 or more for integrated circuit
op-amps—and therefore even a quite small difference between V+ and V− drives the
amplifier output nearly to the supply voltage. Situations in which the output voltage is
equal to or greater than the supply voltage are referred to as saturation of the amplifier.
The magnitude of AOL is not well controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is
impractical to use an open loop amplifier as a stand-alone differential amplifier.
where AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier
Closed loop
 The closed loop feedback greatly reduces the gain of the circuit. When negative feedback
is used, the circuit's overall gain and response becomes determined mostly by the
feedback network, rather than by the op-amp characteristics.
2. 13
The input signal Vin appears at both (+) and (−) pins, resulting in a current i through Rg equal to
Vin/Rg.
Since Kirchhoff's current law states that the same current must leave a node as enter it, and since
the impedance into the (−) pin is near infinity, we can assume practically all of the same current i
flows through Rf, creating an output voltage
By combining terms, we determine the closed-loop gain ACL:
Op-amp characteristics of Ideal op-amps
An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties:
 Infinite open-loop gain G = vout / vin

 Infinite input impedance Rin, and so zero input current
 Zero input offset voltage
 Infinite output voltage range
 Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift and infinite slew rate
 Zero output impedance Rout
 Zero noise
 Infinite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
 Infinite power supply rejection ratio.
2. 14

An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models some resistive non-ideal
parameters
These ideals can be summarized by the two rules:
I. In a closed loop the output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage
difference between the inputs zero.
II. The inputs draw no current
The first rule only applies in the usual case where the op-amp is used in a closed-loop design
(negative feedback, where there is a signal path of some sort feeding back from the output to the
inverting input). These rules are commonly used as a good first approximation for analyzing or
designing op-amp circuits
Op-amp characteristics of Real op-amps

Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various aspects.
a) DC imperfections
i. Finite gain
Open-loop gain is infinite in the ideal operational amplifier but finite in real
operational amplifiers. Typical devices exhibit open-loop DC gain ranging from
100,000 to over 1 million.
ii. Finite input impedances
The differential input impedance of the operational amplifier is defined as the
impedance between its two inputs; the common-mode input impedance is the
impedance from each input to ground. MOSFET-input operational amplifiers
often have protection circuits that effectively short circuit any input differences
greater than a small threshold, so the input impedance can appear to be very low
in some tests. However, as long as these operational amplifiers are used in a
typical high-gain negative feedback application, these protection circuits will be
inactive. The input bias and leakage currents described below are a more
important design parameter for typical operational amplifier applications.
iii. Non-zero output impedance
Low output impedance is important for low-impedance loads; for these loads, the
voltage drop across the output impedance effectively reduces the open loop gain.
2. 15
In configurations with a voltage-sensing negative feedback, the output impedance

of the amplifier is effectively lowered; thus, in linear applications, op-amp circuits
usually exhibit a very low output impedance indeed.
Low-impedance outputs typically require high quiescent (i.e., idle) current in the
output stage and will dissipate more power, so low-power designs may purposely
sacrifice low output impedance.
iv. Input current
Due to biasing requirements or leakage, a small amount of current (typically ~10
nano amperes for bipolar op-amps, tens of picoamperes (pA) for JFET input
stages, and only a few pA for MOSFET input stages) flows into the inputs. When
large resistors or sources with high output impedances are used in the circuit,
these small currents can produce large unmodeled voltage drops. If the input
currents are matched, and the impedance looking out of both inputs are matched,
then the voltages produced at each input will be equal. Because the operational
amplifier operates on the difference between its inputs, these matched voltages
will have no effect. It is more common for the input currents to be slightly
mismatched. The difference is called input offset current, and even with matched
resistances a small offset voltage (different from the input offset voltage below)
can be produced. This offset voltage can create offsets or drifting in the
operational amplifier.
v. Input offset voltage
This voltage is required across the op-amp's input terminals to drive the output
voltage to zero. In the perfect amplifier, there would be no input offset voltage.
However, it exists in actual op-amps because of imperfections in the differential
amplifier that constitutes the input stage of the vast majority of these devices.
Input offset voltage creates two problems: First, due to the amplifier's high
voltage gain, it virtually assures that the amplifier output will go into saturation if
it is operated without negative feedback, even when the input terminals are wired
together. Second, in a closed loop, negative feedback configuration, the input
offset voltage is amplified along with the signal and this may pose a problem if
high precision DC amplification is required or if the input signal is very small.
vi. Common-mode gain
A perfect operational amplifier amplifies only the voltage difference between its
two inputs, completely rejecting all voltages that are common to both. However,
the differential input stage of an operational amplifier is never perfect, leading to
the amplification of these common voltages to some degree. The standard
measure of this defect is called the common-mode rejection ratio (denoted
CMRR). Minimization of common mode gain is usually important in non-
inverting amplifiers (described below) that operate at high amplification.
vii. Power-supply rejection
The output of a perfect operational amplifier will be completely independent from
its power supply. Every real operational amplifier has a finite power supply
2. 16
rejection ratio (PSRR) that reflects how well the op-amp can reject changes in its
supply voltage.
viii. Temperature effects
All parameters change with temperature. Temperature drift of the input offset
voltage is especially important.
ix. Drift
Real op-amp parameters are subject to slow change over time and with changes in
temperature, input conditions, etc.
b) AC imperfections
The op-amp gain calculated at DC does not apply at higher frequencies. Thus, for high-speed
operation, more sophisticated considerations must be used in an op-amp circuit design.
i. Finite bandwidth
All amplifiers have finite bandwidth. To a first approximation, the op-amp has the
frequency response of an integrator with gain. That is, the gain of a typical op-
amp is inversely proportional to frequency and is characterized by its gain–
bandwidth product (GBWP). For example, an op-amp with a GBWP of 1 MHz
would have a gain of 5 at 200 kHz, and a gain of 1 at 1 MHz. This dynamic
response coupled with the very high DC gain of the op-amp gives it the
characteristics of a first-order low-pass filter with very high DC gain and low
cutoff frequency given by the GBWP divided by the DC gain.
The finite bandwidth of an op-amp can be the source of several problems,
including:
ii. Stability
Associated with the bandwidth limitation is a phase difference between the input
signal and the amplifier output that can lead to oscillation in some feedback
circuits. For example, a sinusoidal output signal meant to interfere destructively
with an input signal of the same frequency will interfere constructively if delayed
by 180 degrees forming positive feedback. In these cases, the feedback circuit can
be stabilized by means of frequency compensation, which increases the gain or
phase margin of the open-loop circuit. The circuit designer can implement this
compensation externally with a separate circuit component. Alternatively, the
compensation can be implemented within the operational amplifier with the
addition of a dominant pole that sufficiently attenuates the high-frequency gain of
the operational amplifier.
iii. Distortion, and Other Effects
Limited bandwidth also results in lower amounts of feedback at higher
frequencies, producing higher distortion, and output impedance as the frequency
increases.
2. 17
Typical low-cost, general-purpose op-amps exhibit a GBWP of a few megahertz.

Specialty and high-speed op-amps exist that can achieve a GBWP of hundreds of
megahertz. For very high-frequency circuits, a current-feedback operational
amplifier is often used.
iv. Noise
Amplifiers generate random voltage at the output even when there is no signal
applied. This can be due to thermal noise and flicker noise of the devices. For
applications with high gain or high bandwidth, noise becomes a very important
consideration.
v. Input capacitance
Most important for high frequency operation because it reduces input impedance
and may cause phase shifts.
vi. Power-supply rejection
With increasing frequency the power-supply rejection usually gets worse. So it
can be important to keep the supply clean of higher frequency ripples and signals,
e.g. by the use of bypass capacitors.
c) Non-linear imperfections
i. Saturation
a. Output voltage is limited to a minimum and maximum value close to the power
supply voltages. The output of older op-amps can reach to within one or two volts
of the supply rails. The output of newer so-called "rail to rail" op-amps can reach
to within millivolts of the supply rails when providing low output currents.
ii. Slewing
The amplifier's output voltage reaches its maximum rate of change, the slew rate,
usually specified in volts per microsecond. When slewing occurs, further
increases in the input signal have no effect on the rate of change of the output.
Slewing is usually caused by the input stage saturating; the result is a constant
current i driving a capacitance C in the amplifier (especially those capacitances
used to implement its frequency compensation); the slew rate is limited by
dv/dt=i/C.
iii. Non-linear input-output relationship
The output voltage may not be accurately proportional to the difference between
the input voltages. It is commonly called distortion when the input signal is a
waveform. This effect will be very small in a practical circuit where substantial
negative feedback is used.
iv. Phase reversal
In some integrated op-amps, when the published common mode voltage is
violated (e.g., by one of the inputs being driven to one of the supply voltages), the
output may slew to the opposite polarity from what is expected in normal
2. 18
operation.[6][7] Under such conditions, negative feedback becomes positive, likely

causing the circuit to "lock up" in that state.
d) Power considerations
a) Limited output current
a. The output current must be finite. In practice, most op-amps are designed to limit
the output current so as not to exceed a specified level – around 25 mA for a type
741 IC op-amp – thus protecting the op-amp and associated circuitry from
damage. Modern designs are electronically more rugged than earlier
implementations and some can sustain direct short circuits on their outputs
without damage.
b) Output sink current
a. The output sink current is the maximum current allowed to sink into the output
stage. Some manufacturers show the output voltage vs. the output sink current
plot, which gives an idea of the output voltage when it is sinking current from
another source into the output pin.
c) Limited dissipated power
a. The output current flows through the op-amp's internal output impedance,
dissipating heat. If the op-amp dissipates too much power, then its temperature
will increase above some safe limit. The op-amp may enter thermal shutdown, or
it may be destroyed.
2. 19
2. Explain differential amplifier with neat block diagram. (3) ( Nov-13)
2. 20
2. 21
2. 22
3. Derive the expression for inverting and non-inverting amplifier

A. Inverting Amplifier
The inverting amplifier converts positive voltages on the inputs to a negative amplified voltages
on the output and vice-versa.
The inverting amplifier is the simplest configuration for an op-amp.
2. 23
B. Non- Inverting Amplifier
2. 24
2. 25
C.Voltage follower
2. 26
2. 27
4. Explain in details about integrator and Differentiator op-amp.

a) op-amp Integrator
2. 28
Input and output of Integrated op-amp
2. 29
b) Op-amp Differentiator
2. 30
2. 31
2. 32
2. 33
5. Explain differential amplifier in detail. (Nov-15A)
Differential Input Amplifier
Output equation
By connecting each input in turn to 0V ground, by superposition to solve for the

output voltage Vout.
V1  Va V2  Vb Va  (Vout )
I1  , I2  , If 
R1 R2 R3
Summing point Va  Vb
 R4 
Vb  V2  
 2 R  R4 
 R3 
If V2  0 , then V out ( a )  V  
1
 R1 
 R4  R1  R3 
If V1=0, then: Vout( a )  V2   
 2
R  R4  R1 
Vout( a )  Vout( a )  Vout(b )

R   R4  R1  R3 
Vout  V1  3   V2   
 1
R  2
R  R4  R1 
When resistor, R1=R2 and R3=R4 Vout can be simplified:-
2. 34
Vout 
R3
V2  V1 
R1
This circuit can be analyzed by the ideal op-amp rules and the principle of superposition.
Set V2 = 0 and the circuit becomes the equivalent of the Inverting Amplifier. (No current flows
through I+ or the connected resistors so I+ is effectively at 0V.) (Rule 2)
Set V1 = 0 (ground) and the circuit becomes equivalent to a non-inverting amplifier with the
voltage at I+ given by
By superposition Vout( a )  Vout( a )  Vout(b )
Note that matching pairs of resistors R1 and R2 are needed for this simple equation to work. Vout
can be calculated for other resistor values by adapting the above equations.
Applications of the differential amp
This circuit is the basis of the instrumentation amplifier. Non-inverting amplifiers are attached to
each of the inputs. This ensures that the input impedance is very high. It is also possible to
arrange these input stages so they share a common resistor Rg. This becomes the single resistor
that controls the gain of the complete amplifier. All the other resistors and amplifiers are built
onto a single chip where matched resistance pairs are easier to achieve and the entire amplifier
gain is controlled from a single external resistor.
2. 35
6.Draw the block diagram of operation amplifier and describe the various stage of block
diagram. Also discuss the ideal characteristic of Op-amp. (7) (Nov-15)
a. The input stage is a differential amplifier. The differential amplifier used as an input
stage provides differential inputs and a frequency response down to d.c. Special
techniques are used to provide the high input impedance necessary for the operational
amplifier.
b. The second stage is a high-gain voltage amplifier. This stage may be made from several
transistors to provide high gain. A typical operational amplifier could have a voltage gain
of 200,000. Most of this gain comes from the voltage amplifier stage.
c. The final stage of the OP AMP is an output amplifier. The output amplifier provides low
output impedance. The actual circuit used could be an emitter follower. The output stage
should allow the operational amplifier to deliver several milliamperes to a load.
 Notice that the operational amplifier has a positive power supply (+V CC) and a negative
power supply (-V EE). This arrangement enables the operational amplifier to produce
either a positive or a negative output. The two input terminals are labeled "inverting
input" (-) and "noninverting input" (+).
 The operational amplifier can be used with three different input conditions (modes). With
differential inputs (first mode), both input terminals are used and two input signals which
are 180 degrees out of phase with each other are used.
 This produces an output signal that is in phase with the signal on the noninverting input.
If the noninverting input is grounded and a signal is applied to the inverting input (second
mode), the output signal will be 180 degrees out of phase with the input signal (and one-
half the amplitude of the first mode output).
2. 36
 If the inverting input is grounded and a signal is applied to the noninverting input (third
mode), the output signal will be in phase with the input signal (and one-half the
amplitude of the first mode output).
7. Draw the explain Half-wave rectifier and full wave rectifier using operation amplifier.
(April-14)
Basic circuit of Precision Half Wave Rectifier using op-amp

A half wave rectifier using OP amp is also known as a Precision rectifier or super diode, is a
configuration obtained with an operational amplifier in order to have a circuit behaving like an
ideal diode and rectifier.
Figure 1 shows the circuit of a Precision rectifier .On positive voltage swings the diode conducts
and a voltage is developed across the resistor. On negative swings, the diode turns off and the
output voltage is zero (no current through the resistor).
The basic idea behind the superdiode is to use the high-gain of an op-amp to mask the finite turn-
on voltage (and other nonlinearities) of the diode. This is done by placing it in the negative
feedback path as shown in fig 1. Any positive voltage at the op-amp â€œ+â€• terminal is now
sufficient to turn on the diode, and the negative feedback regulates the current through the load
resistor to maintain an output voltage equal to the input voltage for these positive input voltages.
For positive signals the circuit is a unity-gain buffer(fig 2). For negative signals, the output goes
negative, and the diode turns off (fig 3).
When Diode is conducting: The feedback loop is closed, and the circuit looks like the buffer
with small drop across diode. And Vo=Vin.
2. 37
When Diode is not conducting: : i.e. Vi<0 And Vo = 0V.
Improved circuit of Half Wave Rectifier using op-amp
An alternative version is given on the right.
In this case, when the input is greater than zero, D1 is OFF and D2 is ON, so the output is zero
because one side of is connected to the virtual ground, and there is no current through it. When
the input is less than zero, D1 is ON and D2 is OFF, and the output is like the input with an
amplification of –R2/R1 . Its input-output relationship is the following:
2. 38
This circuit has the benefit that the op-amp never goes into saturation, but its output must change
by two diode voltage drops (about 1.2 V) each time the input signal crosses zero. Hence, the slew
rate of the operational amplifier, and its frequency response (gain-bandwidth product) will limit
high frequency performance - especially for low signal levels - although an error of less than 1%
at 100 kHz is possible.
Precision Full Wave Rectifier using op-amp
The circuit shown above performs full-wave rectification on the input signal, as shown. For
positive instead of negative wave, simply reverse the two diodes in the half-wave rectifier
section.
The full-wave rectifier depends on the fact that both the half-wave rectifier and the summing
amplifier are precision circuits. It operates by producing an inverted half-wave-rectified signal
and then adding that signal at double amplitude to the original signal in the summing amplifier.
The result is a reversal of the selected polarity of the input signal.
2. 39
The resistor values shown are reasonable; the resistors themselves must be of high precision in
order to keep the rectification process accurate.
2. 40
8. Explain how the op-amp can be used as a summing amplifier.(5) (Nov-15A)
This is an amplifier structure which is essentially a multiple version of the Inverting

Amplifier, having several inputs as shown in Fig. Each input is connected via a
corresponding resistor to the inverting input terminal of the op-amp. Since this input is
considered to have a very high input resistance, it can be assumed that no current flows into
the inverting input. This means that, applying Kirchoff’s Current Law, all of the input
currents from the sources, I1 , I2 and I3 must combine at the inverting input terminal to flow
out of this node through the feedback resistor, Rf . In this case the inverting input terminal of
the op-amp is referred to as a current-summing node. It can still also be considered as a
virtual earth, since Ve → 0V and the non-inverting input terminal is connected to ground.
Then:
V -  VO V1  V - V2  V - V3  V -
  
Rf R1 R2 R3
But since V- → 0V then:
2. 41
R1
- VO V1 V2 V3
  
Rf R1 R 2 R 3
So that
R R R 
VO   f V1  f V2  f V3 
 R1 R2 R3 
This shows that this circuit structure essentially adds or sums the input source voltages V1 ,
V2 and V3. The overall output is inverted but this can easily be corrected by following this
stage with a single inverting amplifier stage having unity gain. Each input source voltage is
scaled by a coefficient which is determined by the associated input resistor so that individual
input voltages can be scaled by different factors.
2. 42
9. Explain the operation of instrumentation amplifier and its advantage. (April-15)
2. 43
2. 44
2. 45
2. 46
2. 47
10. Draw and explain the circuit of a voltage to current converter if the load is (April-14)
a) Floating
b) Grounded
Explain how the op-amp can be used as voltage to current converter.(6) (Nov-15A),
I) Voltage to current converter –
a) floating
a) Voltage to Current Converter with floating loads (V/I):
2. 48
b) Voltage – to current converter with Grounded load:
2. 49
2. 50
Application of V-I converter:

I. Low Voltage A.C Voltmeter
II. Low Voltage D.C Voltmeter
III. Diode Tester and Match Finder
IV. Zener Diode tester
II) Current to Voltage Converter (I –V):
2. 51
a)Photodiode Detector
b) PhotoFet Detector
2. 52
11. Explain in detail, the working of Log and antilog amplifier.(8) ( Nov-13), Explain in
details about working of log and Antilog Amplifiers. (Dec-14)
Fundamentals of Log Amplifiers:
2. 53
2. 54
Basic Logarithmic Amplifier:
Basic Log Amplifier Using Diode:
2. 55
Basic Log Amplifier Using Transistor:
2. 56
Disadvantages of Basic Circuit:
Antilog Amplifier:
Basic Antilog Amplifier Using Diode:
2. 57
Basic Antilog Amplifier Using Transistor:
2. 58
2. 59
12. Explain in detail, bias compensation of IC741
2. 60
2. 61
2. 62
2. 63
2. 64
2. 65
2. 66
2. 67
2. 68
2. 69
13.Explain in detail, the working of window detector.
2. 70

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SRI MANAKULA VINAYAGAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PUDUCHERRY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Verified by: Approved by:

Unit II: Operational Amplifiers

 Infinite voltage gain

5. Draw the equivalent circuit of practical op-amp. (April-15)

An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models some resistive non-ideal

7. What is a window detector? (Nov-15)

8. What is mean by Differential Amplifier?

10.Define common mode signal.

11. Define Differential mode signal.

12. What are the applications of a differential amplifier?

An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled, high gain amplifier consisting of one or

14. State the concept of virtual ground?

15. List the four basic building blocks of an op amp.

17. Define input offset voltage.

19. Why IC 741 is not used for high frequency applications?

20. What are the advantages of voltage follower?

a. Very large input resistance, of the order of mega ohms.

21.What is meant by integrator?

22.Write the applications of Practical Integrator.

23.What is meant by differentiator?

24. Write the applications of Practical differentiator.

25. Write down the condition for good differentiation?

26.What is the need for an instrumentation amplifier?

27. List the features of instrumentation amplifier.

28. What is a comparator?

29. What are the applications of comparator?

30. What are the applications of op-amp?

 Process control and instrumentation.

 Measuring and display systems.

33. Write the practical value of the following of IC 741.

Parameter Practical value

1 Open loop voltage gain 2*105

2 Output impedance 75 ohms

3 Input impedance 2 M ohms

4 Input offset current 200 nano A

5 Input offset voltage 2 milli volt

6 Bandwidth 1 mega hertz

8 Slew rate 0.5 V/ micro sec

9 Input bias current 80 nano A

10 Power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) 30 micro volt / V

34. Why op amp cannot be used in open loop configuration?

35. What is the advantage of negative feedback in op amp circuit?

 Reduced Open loop gain.

37. Define precision rectifier?

 In the analog computers.

40. Mention the advantages of instrumentation amplifier using op amp?

The advantages of this circuit are,

 The gain variation is easy and precise.

41. Write some applications of instrumentation amplifier?

42. Define V – I and I – V converter?

44. What are the application of V-I converter?

The various application of V-I converter are

 Low voltage dc voltmeter

45. What are the applications of I-V converter?

46. What is comparator and write the type of comparator?

A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an op