ELECTRICAL DRIVES

Dr. B. B. Pimple
Department of Electrical Engineering

1
AC DRIVES:
Induction motor drives, Review of speed-torque relations,
Review of starting methods,
Braking (Regenerative, Plugging, AC/DC Dynamic braking),

Speed control: Stator voltage control variable frequency control

from voltage Source (V/F Control),
Wound rotor induction motor control, rotor resistance control,
Slip power recovery scheme, State Kramer and Scherbius drive,

Vector control (elementary treatment only),

Introduction to Synchronous Motor variable speed drive
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS:
Three Phase I.Ms are of two types: squirrel-case and wound-rotor.

 In both, stator carries a three-phase balanced distributed winding.

 This winding deals with three phase power and called Armature
winding

 In squirrel-cage, the rotor consists of longitudinal conductor-bars

shorted by circular connectors at the two ends BY END RINGS

 In squirrel-cage, the rotor has the capability to adopt itself for

same number of stator poles
 As squirrel-cage rotor is permanently short circuited, rotor
winding is not accessible
 Only stator can be connected to electrical supply. Hence called
Singly Fed Induction Machines
 In wound-rotor motor, the rotor also has a balanced three-phase
distributed winding having same poles as stator winding.
 In wound-rotor motor, the rotor terminals are accessible
electrically. Hence, electrical supply can be connected to stator as
well as rotor or both.
 The desired performance can be achieved with the connections to
both stator and rotor

 Called as Doubly Fed Induction Machines

Slip Ring and Brushes arrangement
ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE:
 Per-phase eq. ckt. of a 3φ IM is shown. R′r and X′r are the stator
referred values of rotor resistance Rr and rotor reactance Xr.

ωms -ωm
Slip=S= -----------------------------(1)
ωms
 ωm and ωms are actual rotor and synchronous speeds in rps

4πf
ωms = rad/s -----------------------------(2)
P
 f and P are supply frequency and number of poles
 ωm =ωms (1-S) -----------------------------(3)

 Rotor current is given by:

' V
I =
r '
--------------------------(4)
R
(Rs + )+j(X s +X r' )
r
S
 Power transferred to rotor (or air-gap power):
Rr'
Pg =3I r'2 -----------------------------(5)
S
 Rotor Cu loss is , PCU =3I r'2 Rr' --------------------------(6)
 Mechanical Power (Pm) is obtained by subtracting rotor cu. Loss
from the air gap power (Pg )
Pm =Pg -PCU
(1-S)
'2 '
Pm =Pg -PCU =3I R r r
--------------------------(7)
S
 Electromagnetic Torque developed by motor is:

Pg
T= --------------------------(8)
ωms

 Substitute Pg in T:
'
3 R
T= I r'2 r --------------------------(9)
ωms S

 Substitute from (4) in (9):

 The electromagnetic Torque developed by motor is:
 2 R'
r

3  V 
T=  S  --------------------------(10)
ωms  Rr 2
'
(Rs + ) +j(X s +X r' )2 

 S 

 Motor output T at the shaft is obtained by deducting friction
windage and core-loss torques from the developed torque.

 If V, F, and rotor resistance is constant, the developed T is a

function of slip only. Diff. (10), wrt. ‘S’ and equating to zero gives
the ‘S’ for max. T

du dv
v u
dT dT d u dx dx  0
dx  
=0, = = ------------(11)
 
2
dS dS v v
 dT
=0,
dS
 Rr' 2 2  1  1 Rr'  Rr'   
  (Rs + ) +j(X s +X r )   - 2  - 
'
 2(Rs + ) - 2  
 
3V Rr      
2 '
S S S  S S
ωms   =0
= 2
  '
Rr 2 2  
 
'
 (R s + ) +j(X s +X r ) 
  S  

 Rr' 2   1  1  R'
 R '

 (Rs + ) +j(X s +X r )   - 2   
' 2
 2(Rs + r
) - 2  
r
 0
 S  S  S  S  S 

 2 Rr' Rr'2 2  1  1 Rr'  Rr'  

 Rs +2Rs + 2 +jX   - 2   
 2(Rs + ) - 2  
 0
 S S  S  S  S  S 

Rs2 Rr' Rr'2 X2 Rr' Rr'2

- 2  2Rs 3  4 -j 2  2Rs 3  2 4  0
S S S S S S

Rs2 Rr'2 X2 Rr'2

- 2  4 -j 2  2 4  0
S S S S
 Rs2 X 2 Rr'2
- 2 -j 2  4  0
S S S

Rr'2 (Rs2 +jX 2 )

4
=
S S2
'2
R
S 2= 2 r 2
(Rs +jX )

Rr'
S= 
(Rs2 +jX 2 )

Rr'
S max =  ----------------------------------------(12)
Rs2 +j(X s +X r' )2
 Rr'
S max =  ----------------------------------------(12)
2 ' 2
R +j(X s +X )
s r

 The slip for Max. T is depends on the rotor resistance as other

parameters such as stator resistance, and leakage reactances of
stator and rotor are constants (for constant F)
 Substitute S=Smax from (12), in ‘T’ equation (10), gives the
expression for maximum T developed by I.M.

3  V2 
Tmax =  
2 ωms  Rs  Rs 2  (X s +X r' )2 
 

 Max. T is also known as breakdown T. It is independent of rotor

resistance
 3  V2 
Tmax =  
2 ωms  Rs  Rs 2  (X s +X r' )2 
 

 The speed at which motor develops Max. T depends of rotor

resistance
 By varying rotor resistance, maximum ‘T’ is obtained at different
speeds
 ‘T’ reduces after reaching breakdown value, the rotor I continues
to increase, reaching a maximum value at zero speed
 Drop in ωm from no load to full load depends on the rotor
resistance
 When rotor resistance is low, the drop is quite small, and motor
operates essentially at a constant ωm.
 Both rotor I and T are zero at synchronous speed, with decrease in
speed, both increases
STARTING OF INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES:
 Starting of IM Drives arrangement is chosen based on the load
requirements and nature of supply (weak or stiff).

Salient features of starting arrangement:

 Motor should develop enough starting torque to overcome:

friction, load torque and inertia of motor-load system, and
complete the starting process within a prescribed time limit.

 Magnitude of starting ‘I’ should be such that it does not cause the
overheating of the machine

 It does not cause a dip in the source ‘V’ beyond a permissible

value.
 Usually, a motor draws 5 to 7 times rated ‘I’ during starting

 When load T during starting and motor-load-inertia are not large,

the starting of IM drives process is over in a few seconds

 Motor temperature does not exceed the permissible value

 Motor can always be started direct on line, provided the voltage

dip caused by large starting ‘I’ is not beyond a permissible value.

 For small size motors voltage dip in the supply line is usually below
acceptable level.

 For large rating of motor fed from a weak system, some starting
arrangement becomes necessary for reducing the starting ‘I’.
 In these applications it does not matter if the reduction in starting I
is accompanied by a reduction in starting T

 When either the load T during starting is high or load inertia is

large, the Starting of IM drives process takes long time

 If motor carries large I during starting, it will get damaged due to

overheating. Motor cannot be started direct on line.

 Methods of starting which allow a decrease in starting ‘I’ without

a decrease in starting ‘T’ are employed

 In some applications an increase in starting T accompanied by a

decrease in starting I may be required.

 In SQIM some measures for improvement of starting performance

may be taken at design stage, as in case of high slip, deep-bar and
double cage squirrel-cage motors.
EQUIVALENT CKT OF IM:

'
V ph
I =
r
Rr'
(Rs + )+j(X s +X r' )
S
At starting, S=1,
V ph V ph
I '
r,SC = ' '

(Rs +R )+j(X s +X )
r r
Z SC

Z SC  (Rs +Rr' )+j(X s +X r' )= (Rs +Rr' )2 +(X s +X r' )2

Methods employed for starting of IMs are:

• Star-delta starter
• Auto-transformer starter
• Reactor starter
• Saturable reactor starter
• Part winding starter
• AC voltage controller starter
• Rotor resistance starter is used for starting of WRIM motor:
STAR-DELTA STARTER:

 In this method, an IM designed to operate normally with delta

connection is connected in star during starting.
 This allows reduction in stator V and I by 1/√3. Since motor T is
proportional to the square of stator V, starting T is reduced to 1/3.
 Circuit breakers CBm and CDs are closed to start the machine with
star connection.
 When steady-state speed is reached CBs is opened and CBr is closed
to connect machine in delta.
 This starting arrangement is used for IM for power rating --------

 E.g. Floor Mill,

AUTO-TRANSFORMER STARTER:

 Reduced voltage for starting can also be obtained from an auto-

transformer.
 For a secondary to primary turns ratio of aT, motor terminal V and
and stator I are reduced by aT.
 This reduces the current drawn from supply by a2T

 Since T is proportional to the square of motor terminal V, it is also

reduced by a2T.
 After the motor has accelerated, it is connected to full supply
voltage
 First, CBs1 is closed followed by CBs2. When motor has accelerated
to full speed, CBs2 is opened and CBm closed.
 Now CBs1 is opened to disconnect auto-transformer from the
supply.
Z SC xV1
Z SC
I SIM = ,
Z SC
Z SC
xV1
I SIM = =xI SC,IM
Z SC

App. Power drawn by motor =xV1 I S,IM

App. Power drawn by Auto. X-mer from supply=V1 I ST,l

 Neglecting magnetizing current of autotransformer, Power drawn

by autotransformer is same as power drawn by motor:
 Z SC xV1
I SIM = ,
Z SC
xV1
I SIM = =xI SC,IM
Z SC

App. Power drawn by motor =xV1 I S,IM

App. Power drawn by Auto. X-mer from supply=V1 I ST,l

 Neglecting magnetizing current of Autox-mer, Power drawn by

Autox-mer is same as power drawn by motor:
V1 I ST,l  xV1 I S,IM
V1 I ST,l  xV1 xI SC,IM  x 2V1 I SC,IM
I ST,l  x 2 I SC,IM
REACTOR STARTER:

 Starting ‘I’ can also be reduced by connecting a three-phase

reactor in series with stator.
 When motor reaches full speed, the reactor is bypassed. CBm is
closed to start the machine
 After full speed is reached CBs is closed to short the reactor. It is
advantageous to connect reactor at the neutral end of stator
winding.
 This minimizes its V rating and also maintains its V and the V of
breaker CBs at neutral potential during normal motor operation.
UNBALANCED STARTING SCHEME FOR SOFT START:
 For soft start, a cheaper alternative consists of a variable
impedance ‘Z’ in one of the phases of machine

 When impedance is very high, machine operates with single

phasing and its speed-torque characteristic is shown in Fig. with a
zero starting torque
 When impedance is completely removed, speed torque curve is
similar to the characteristic B, which is the natural characteristic
of machine
 For intermediate values of impedance, speed-torque curve will lie
in between curves A and B. A smooth start, without a jerk, is
achieved when impedance is controlled steplessly.
 The impedance may be a variable resistor or a single phase
saturable reactor.
Motor operates with unbalanced stator voltages, therefore, copper
losses increase. Thus, this scheme is suitable only for short duty
operation.
PART WINDING STARTING:

 Some squirrel-cage motors have two or more stator windings

which are connected in parallel during normal operation
 During starting, only one winding is connected. This increase
stator impedance and reduces starting current. Such a starting
scheme is called Part Winding Starting

 Machine starts with winding 1 when CBm is closed. After full

speed is reached, CBs is closed to connect winding 2.
ROTOR RESISTANCE STARTER:

 Wound-rotor motors are generally started by connecting external

resistors in the rotor circuit.
 The highest value of resistance is chosen to limit current at zero
speed within the safe value.
 As the motor accelerates, sections in the external resistor are cut
out one-by-one by closing contacts C1, C2 and C3 so as to limit the
rotor current between specified maximum and minimum values.
 Since most of the rotor copper loss occurs in external resistors,
rotor temperature rise during starting is substantially lower
compared to starting methods described earlier.

 Important feature of this Starting of Induction Motor Drives

method is that the starting T and T-to-I ratio are high.

 It is, therefore, suitable for applications requiring fast acceleration,

frequent starts and stops, starting with heavy load, and starting
with high inertia load.

 As maximum ‘T ‘is independent of rotor resistance, the speed at

which maximum ‘T’ is produced can be controlled by changing the
value of external resistance.

 As copper loss occurs in external resistors, and is proportional to

the slip. As slip increases the rotor cu loss increases and efficiency
of the motor decreases.
BRAKING OF INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE:
 Methods are employed for Braking of Induction Motor Drive:
Regenerative braking
Plugging or reverse voltage braking
Dynamic (or rheostatic) braking

REGENERATIVE BRAKING:
 The power input to an I.M. is given by:
Pin =3VI s cosφs
 Φs is the phase angle between stator phase V and the stator
phase Is.
 For motoring operation Φs < 90°.

 If the rotor speed becomes greater than Ns, relative speed between
the rotor conductors and air-gap rotating field reverses
 Safe speed range

-Tmax
Regenerative Braking

 This reverses the rotor induced emf, rotor I and component of

stator current which balances the rotor ampere turns.

 Consequently, angle Φs becomes greater than 90° and power flow

reverses, giving regenerative braking.
 Magnetizing ‘I’ required to produce air-gap flux is obtained from
the source. Fig. shows the nature of speed-torque
 When fed from a source of fixed frequency, regenerative braking is
possible only for speeds greater than synchronous speed
 With a variable frequency source it can also be obtained for speeds
below synchronous speed
 When regenerative braking is employed for holding motor-speed
against an active load, stable operation is generally possible
between synchronous speed and the speed for which braking
torque is maximum.

 Main advantage of regenerative braking is that generated power is

usefully employed and main drawback being that when fed from a
constant frequency source, it cannot be employed below
synchronous speed.
PLUGGING OR REVERSE VOLTAGE BRAKING:

 When any two supply terminals of the motor (running at a speed)

is reversed operation shifts from motoring to plugging.
 Reversal of phase sequence reverses the direction of rotating field.
If the slip for plugging, Sn, then
-ωms -ωm -ωms -ωms (1-S)
Sn = =  2-S
-ωms -ωms

 ‘T’ is not zero at zero speed.

 When used for stopping motor, it is necessary that the motor

should be disconnected from supply at or near zero speed

 As motor is already-connected for operation in reverse direction

and T is not zero at zero or any other speed, motor smoothly
decelerates and then accelerates in the reverse direction

 This Braking of IM drive is suitable for REVERSING THE MOTOR

 A special case of plugging occurs when an I.M. connected to
positive sequence voltages is driven by an active load in the
reverse direction (Q-IV).
 Crane hoist is one such application. A large rotor resistance is
employed so that the characteristics have a negative slope, and
thus, drive is steady-state stable
 Mechanical energy supplied to the rotor, either by active load or
from KE stored in motor and load inertia, is converted into
electrical energy and wasted in rotor resistance.
 When braked under no load from synchronous speed, total
amount of energy dissipated in rotor resistance is given by
(3/2)Jω2ms
 which is three times the energy stored in inertia. Thus, an
additional energy equal to Jω2ms is taken from the source.
SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS
 Scalar Control - control of induction machine based on steady-
state model (per phase SS equivalent circuit)

Is Lls Llr’ Ir ’
Rs

+ +
Lm Rr’/s
Vs E1
Im
– –
SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

Te

Pull out
Torque Intersection point
(Tmax) Te (Te=TL) determines the
steady –state speed

TL
Trated

What if the load must

be operated here?

r
sm rated s
s Requires speed
control of motor
41
SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS
 Given a load T– characteristic, the steady-state speed can be
changed by altering the T– curve of the motor

' 2 Varying voltage

3R Vs
Te  r (amplitude)
ss  ' 2
Rr  
 Rs     X ls  X lr  
2

 s  

2 4 Varying line
s    f frequency
P P

Pole Changing
VARIABLE-VOLTAGE (AMPLITUDE), CONSTANT FREQUENCY

CONTROLLED USING:

 Transformer (rarely used)

 Thyristor voltage controller:

Thyristors connected in anti-parallel
Motor can be star or delta connected
 Voltage control by firing angle control
 Only for operations in Q-1 and Q-3 (requires reversal of phase
sequence)

 Also used for soft start of motors

VARIABLE-VOLTAGE (AMP.), CONSTANT FREQUENCY:

 Voltage can only be reduced from rated Vs (i.e. 0 < Vs ≤ Vs,rated)
 From torque equation, Te  Vs2

 When Vs , Te and speed reduces.

 If terminal voltage is reduced to bVs, (i.e. Vs = bVs,rated) :

 Suitable for applications where torque demand reduces with
speed (eg: fan and pump drives where TL  m2)
  
2
3R'
r
bVs
Te =
sωs  Rr' 
2
 Note: b  1
 Rs +  +  X ls +X lr  
2

 S  

 Suitable for NEMA Class D (high-slip, high Rr’) type motors

 High rotor copper loss, low efficiency motors
 Consequently, method is suitable for applications where T
demand reduces with speed, which points towards its suitability
for fan and pump drives.
 If stator copper loss, core loss, and friction and windage loss are
ignored:
 Pin =Pg and Pshaft =Pm

 The efficiency of motor is given by:

Pm
η= =(1-S)
Pg
 The equation shows that the efficiency falls with decrease in
speed.

 The speed control is essentially obtained by dissipating a portion

of rotor input power in rotor resistance.
 DISADVANTAGES:

 limited speed range  when applied to Class B (low-slip)

motors

 Excessive stator currents at low speeds  high copper losses

 Distorted phase current in machine and line (harmonics

introduced by thyristor switching)

 Poor line power factor

(power factor proportional to firing angle)

 Hence, only used on low-power, appliance-type motors where

efficiency is not important

 e.g. small fan or pumps drives

CONTROL BY AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS AND SOFT
START:
 Domestic fan motors, which are always single-phase, are
controlled by a single-phase TRIAC voltage controller
 Speed control is obtained by varying firing angle of the TRIAC.

 Solid state fan regulators, are now preferred over conventional

variable resistance regulators because of higher efficiency.

 Industrial fans and pumps are usually driven by 3-φ motors.

 Motor may be connected in star or delta. In delta connection, third

harmonic voltage produced by motor back emf causes circulating
current through the windings which increases losses and thermal
loading of motor.
 Speed control is obtained by varying conduction period of
thyristors.

 For low power ratings, anti-parallel thyristor pair in each phase can
be replaced by a triac.

 Since Stator Voltage Control of IM, both 1- φ and 3- φ, allow a

stepless control of voltage from its zero value, they are also used
for soft start of motors.
 With increase in firing angle, both distortion factor and displ.ment
factor reduce, giving a low power factor.

 In fan and pump drives, the fluid flow has to be maintained

constant against variations in pressure head and nature of
pumped fluid.

 Therefore, it is always operated with closed-loop speed control.

For closed-loop control, consisting of inner current loop and outer
speed loop is used.

 Braking is not used because fluid pressure provides adequate

braking torque.
VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR
DRIVE:
 Synchronous speed, and hence, the motor speed can be controlled
by varying supply frequency.

 Voltage induced in stator is proportional to the product of supply

frequency and air-gap flux.

 If stator drop is neglected, terminal voltage can be considered

proportional to the product of frequency and flux.
 Any reduction in the supply frequency, without a change in the
terminal voltage, causes an increase in the air-gap flux.
 Induction motors are designed to operate at the knee point of the
magnetization characteristic to make full use of the magnetic
material
 Therefore, the increase in flux will saturate the motor.
This will increase the magnetizing current, distort the line current
and voltage, increase the core loss and the stator copper loss, and
produce a high-pitch acoustic noise.

While an increase in flux beyond the rated value is undesirable from

the consideration of saturation effects, a decrease in flux is also
avoided to retain the torque capability of the motor.

Therefore, the Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive

below the rated frequency is generally carried out at rated air-gap
flux by varying terminal voltage with frequency so as to maintain (V/f)
ratio constant at the rated value. From Eq. (6.13)
VARIABLE FREQUENCY
 Speed control above rated (base) speed

 Requires the use of PWM inverters to control ‘F’ motor

 Frequency increased (i.e. s increased)

 Stator voltage held constant at rated value

 Airgap flux and rotor current decreases

 Developed torque decreases Te  (1/s)

 For control below base speed –

use Constant Volts/Hz method
 Frequency increased (i.e. s increased)
 Stator voltage held constant at rated value
 Airgap flux and rotor current decreases?
 Developed torque decreases Te  (1/s)
CONSTANT VOLTS/HZ (V/F) CONTROL:
 ‘Airgap flux’ in the motor is given by :

E1 Vs Assuming small voltage drop

ag   across Rs and Lls
f f

 For below base speed operation:

 Frequency reduced at rated Vs - airgap flux
saturates
 (f  ,ag  and enters saturation region of B-H
curve):
 - excessive stator currents flow
 - distortion of flux wave
 - increase in core losses and stator copper loss
  Hence, keep ag = rated flux
 Stator voltage Vs must be reduced proportional to reduction
in f (i.e. maintaining Vs / f ratio)
 Max. torque remains almost constant

 For low speed operation:

 can’t ignore voltage drop across Rs and Lls (i.e. E1  Vs)
 poor torque capability
(i.e. torque decreased at low speeds shown by dotted lines)
(E1  Vs)

E1 Vs
ag  
f f
2
Vs
Tmax 
s
  Stator voltage must be boosted – to compensate for voltage
drop at Rs and Lls and maintain constant ag
 For above base speed operation (f > frated):
 stator voltage maintained at rated value
 And only Frequency increased

Vs vs. f relation in Constant Volts/Hz drives

Vrated

Linear offset

Non-linear offset – varies with Is

Boost

frated
 Vs
Vs vs. f relation in Constant Volts/Hz drives
Vrated

Linear offset

Non-linear offset – varies with Is

Boost
f
frated

 Boost - to compensate for voltage drop at Rs and Lls

 Linear offset curve – for high-starting torque loads
employed for most applications
 Non-linear offset curve – for low-starting torque loads
CONSTANT VOLTS/HZ (V/F) CONTROL
 For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:
 Hence, the torque produced by the motor:

3Rr' Vs 2
Te =
sωs  ' 2
Rr   (4)
 Rs +  +K  X ls +X lr  
2 2

 s  

 where s and Vs are calculated from (1) and (2) respectively.

 For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:

 The slip for maximum torque is:

Rr'
smax =±
Rs 2 +K 2  X ls +X lr 
2
 The maximum torque is then given by:
3 Vs2
Tmax =
2ωs  2 
 Rs ± Rs +K  X ls +X lr  
2 2

 where s and Vs are calculated from (1) and (2) respectively.

 Constant Torque
Area
Rated (Base) (below base speed) Field Weakening Mode (f >
frated)
frequency • Reduced flux (since Vs is constant)
• Torque reduces
Constant Power Area
(above base speed)

Note:
Operation restricted between synchronous speed and Tmax for
motoring and braking regions, i.e. in the linear region of the torque-
speed curve.
CONSTANT VOLTS/HZ (V/F) CONTROL

Constant Torque Area

Constant Power Area

CONSTANT VOLTS/HZ (V/F) CONTROL – OPEN-LOOP
IMPLEMENTATION

PWM
Voltage-Source
Inverter
(VSI)

Note: e= s = synchronous speed

CONSTANT VOLTS/HZ (V/F)
CONTROL – OPEN-LOOP IMPLEMENTATION

r  m 
P
2
 s   sl 
P
 Problems in open-loop drive operation:
2
 Motor speed not controlled precisely
 primary control variable is synchronous speed s

 actual motor speed r is less than s due to sl

 sl depends on load connected to motor

 sl cannot be maintained since r not measured

 can lead to operation in unstable region of T-
characteristic
 stator currents can exceed rated value – endangering
inverter-converter combination
 Problems (to an extent) can be overcome by:
 Open-loop Constant Volts/Hz Drive with Slip Compensation
 Closed-loop implementation - having outer speed loop with
slip regulation
CONSTANT VOLTS/HZ (V/F) CONTROL – CLOSED-LOOP
IMPLEMENTATION
Open-loop system
(as in slide shown)

Slip Controller

Note: e= s = synchronous speed

CONSTANT VOLTS/HZ (V/F) CONTROL – CLOSED-LOOP
IMPLEMENTATION
 Reference motor speed r* is compared to the actual speed r to
obtain the speed loop error
 Speed loop error generates slip command sl* from PI controller and
limiter
 Limiter ensures that the sl* is kept within the allowable slip speed of the
motor (i.e. sl*  slip speed for maximum torque)
 sl* is then added to the actual motor speed r to generate
synchronous speed command s* (or frequency command)
 s* generates voltage command Vs* from V/f relation
 Boost voltage is added at low speeds
 Constant voltage applied above base speed
 Scheme can be considered open loop torque control (since
T  s) within speed control loop
ROTOR RESISTANCE CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR:
 T-ω curves for Rotor Resistance Control of IM are given:

 Max. T is independent of rotor resistance, ω at which the max. T

produced changes with rotor resistance.
 For the same T, ω falls with an increase in Rotor Resistance Control
of IM.
 In rotor resistance control of IM, motor T capability remains
unaltered even at low speeds.
 Only other method which has this advantage is variable frequency
control..
 However, cost of Rotor Resistance Control of IM is very low
compared to variable frequency control.

 Because of low cost and high torque capability at low speeds, rotor
resistance control is employed in Cranes, Ward Leonard Drives,
and other intermittent load applications

 Major disadvantage is low efficiency due to additional losses in

resistor connected in the rotor circuit.
 As the losses mainly take place in the external resistor they do not-
heat the motor.
CONVENTIONAL METHODS:
 A number of methods are used for obtaining variable resistance. In
drum controllers, resistance is varied by using rotary switches and a
resistance divided in few steps.

 Variable resistance can also be obtained by using contactors and

resistors in series.
 High power applications use a slip-regulator, which consists of
three electrodes submerged in an electrolyte, consisting of saline
water.
 Resistance is varied by changing the distance between electrodes
and earth electrode.
 When the power is high, electrodes are driven by a small motor.

 Advantage of this method is that resistance can be changed

steplessly.
STATIC ROTOR RESISTANCE CONTROL:

 The ac output V of rotor is rectified by a diode bridge and fed to a

parallel combination of a fixed resistance R and a transistor Tr
 Effective value of resistance across terminals A and B, RAB, is varied
by varying duty ratio of transistor Tr, which in turn varies rotor
circuit resistance.
 Inductance Ld is added to reduce ripple and discontinuity in the dc
link current Id.
 when the ripple is neglected. Thus rms rotor current:
2
Ir= Id
3
 Resistance between terminals A and B will be zero when transistor
is on and it will be R when it is off. Therefore, average value of
resistance between the terminals is given by
RAB =(1-δ)R
 δ is the duty ratio of the transistor
 Power consumed by RAB is:

PAB =I d2 RAB =I d2 (1-δ)R

 Power consumed by RAB per phase is
PAB
=0.5R(1-δ)I r2
3
 The rotor circuit resistance per phase is increased by 0.5 R(1 – δ).
Thus, total rotor circuit resistance per phase will now be:
RrT =Rr +0.5R(1-δ)
 RrT can be varied from Rr to (Rr + 0.5R) as δ is changed from 1 to 0.
CLOSED LOOP SPEED CONTROL WITH STATIC RESISTANCE
CONTROL:

 Rotor current Ir and therefore, Id has a const. value at the max.T

point, both during motoring and plugging
 If the I limiter is made to saturate at this I, the drive will accelerate
and decelerate at the max. T, giving very fast transient response.

 For plugging to occur, arrangement will have to be made for

reversal of phase sequence.
 Compared to conventional Rotor Resistance Control of IM, static
rotor resistance control has several advantages:
Smooth and stepless control
fast response
less maintenance
compact size
simple closed-loop control and
rotor resistance remains balanced between the
three phases for all operating points.
SLIP POWER RECOVERY SCHEME USED IN IM:

 Eq. circuit of a WRIM with voltage Vr injected into its rotor,

assuming stator-to-rotor turns ratio unity.
 When rotor copper loss is neglected:
Pm =Pg  Pr
 where Pr is the power absorbed by the source Vr.
 The magnitude and sign of Pr can be controlled by controlling the
magnitude and phase of Vr.
 When Pr is zero, motor runs on its natural T- ωm characteristic.
 A positive Pr will reduce Pm, and therefore, motor will run at a
lower speed for the same torque.
 When Pr is made equal to Pg, then Pm and consequently speed will
be zero.

 Thus, variation of Pr from 0 to Pg will allow speed control from

synchronous to zero speed.
 Polarity of Vr for this operation is shown in Fig. by a continuous
line.
 When Pr is negative, i.e. Vr acts as a source of power, Pm will be
larger than Pg and motor will run at a speed higher than
synchronous speed.
 Polarity of Vr for speed control above synchronous speed is shown
by a dotted line in Fig.
 When rotor copper loss is neglected, Pr is equal to Slip Power
Recovery Scheme used in Induction Motor, sPg.
 Speed control below synchronous speed is obtained by controlling
the slip-power. the same approach was adopted in rotor resistance
control.
 However, instead of wasting power in external resistors, it is
usefully employed here.
 Therefore, these methods of speed control are classified as:
Slip Power Recovery Scheme used in IM
SLIP POWER RECOVERY SCHEME -1: STATIC SCHERBIUS
DRIVES

 It provides the speed control of WRIM below synchronous speed.

 A portion of rotor ac power is converted into dc by a diode bridge.
 The controlled rectifier working as an inverter converts it back to
ac and feeds it back to the ac source.
 Power fed back (i.e. Pr) can be controlled by controlling inverter
counter emf Vd2, which in turn is controller by controlling the
inverter firing angle.
 DC link inductor is provided to reduce ripple in dc link current Id.
 Since Slip Power Recovery Scheme used in IM is fed back to the
source, unlike rotor resistance control where it is wasted in
resistors, drive has a high efficiency.
 The drive has higher efficiency than stator voltage control by ac
voltage controllers because of the same reasons.
 Drive input power is the difference between motor input power
and the power fed back.
 Reactive input power is the sum of motor and inverter reactive
powers.
 Therefore, drive has a poor power factor throughout the range of
its operation.
 Neglecting stator and rotor drops:

3 6 SV
Vd1=
π n
3 6 V
Vd2 = cosα
π m
 α is the inverter firing angle

 n and m are, the stator to rotor turns ratio of motor and source
side to converter side turns ratio of the transformer.

 Neglecting drop across inductor:

Vd1+Vd2 =0
 Substituting from Eqs. (a) and (b) gives:
n n
S=- cosα=-a cosα where a=
m m
 Max. value of α is restricted to 165° for safe commutation of
inverter thyristors..
 Slip can be controlled from 0 to 0.966a when α is changed from 90
to 165°.
 By appropriate choice of ‘a’, required speed range can be obtained

 X-mer is used to match the voltages Vd1 and Vd2. At the lowest
speed required from the drive, Vd1 will have the max. value
Vd1m given by:
V S max
Vd1m =
n
 where smax, is the value of slip at the lowest speed
 If α is restricted to 165°, m is chosen such that the inverter
voltage has a value Vd1m when α is 165° i.e.

V 0 Vsmax
cos165 + =0
m n

-n cos1650 n
m= = -0.966
S max S max

 This ‘m’ ensures inverter operation at the highest firing angle at

the lowest ωm, giving highest P.F. (Eqn. ) and lowest Q at the
lowest ωm

 This improves the drive P.F. and reduces Q at all speeds in the
speed range of the drive.
 Eq. ckt. of motor ref. to rotor, neglecting mag. branch.
 If losses in converter is neglected AC power and DC power:
AC power = DC power:
3 I r2 Rr =I d2 RDC
2
Ir= Id
3
2 2
3 I d Rr =I d2 RDC
3
RDC  2Rr
 Derivation of Eq. shows that when referred to dc link, resistance
(sR′s + Rr) will be 2(sR′s + Rr).

 This gives approx. dc eq. ckt. of the drive, where Vd1 and Vd2 are
given in Eqs. and .
 Rd is the resistance of dc link inductor. Eq. ckt. ignores the
commutation overlap in the diode bridge.
 3  S cosα 
6V  + 
Vd1+Vd2 π  n m 
Id = '
=
2(SRs +Rr )+Rd 2(SRs' +Rr )+Rd

SPg = Vd2 I d

Vd2 I d
Pg =
S

Pg Vd2 I d
T= =
ωms S ωms
 The nature of speed torque curves is shown in Fig.

 The drive is used in fan and pump drives which require speed
control in a narrow range only.
 ‘P’ ratings of diode bridge, inverter and transformer can be just
smax (max. slip) times the motor ‘P’ rating
 For 20% variation of speed below Ns, ‘P’ ratings of diode bridge,
inverter and X-mer will be 20% of motor ‘P’ rating.
 Consequently, drive has a low cost.
 Drive is started by resistance control with S1 closed and S2 open.
 When speed reaches within control range of the drive, S2 is closed
to connect diode bridge and inverter is activated.
 Now S1 is opened to remove the resistances.

 In fan and pump drives braking is not required, because the fluid
pressure provides adequate braking T.
 To maintain const. fluid flow with variations in pressure head and
the nature of pumped fluid, the drive is operated with a closed
loop speed control
 A close loop speed control scheme with inner current control is
shown in Fig.

 This drive is widely used in medium and high power (up to around
10 MW) fan and pump drives, because of high efficiency and low
cost
STATIC KRAMER DRIVE:

 Rotor slip power is converted into dc by a diode bridge.

 The dc power is now fed to dc motor mechanically coupled to

induction motor.

 Torque supplied to load is sum of torque produced by induction

motor and dc motors.

 Speed control is obtained by controlling field current of dc motor.

 Fig. (b) shows variations of Vd1 and Vd2 with speed for two values
of dc motor field current.
 The steady state operation is obtained when Vd1 = Vd2, i.e. at A and
B for field currents If1 and If2.
 Speed control is possible from synchronous speed to around half
of synchronous speed.
 When larger speed range is required, diode bridge is replaced by a
thyristor bridge.

 Now relationship between Vd1 and speed can be altered by

controlling firing angle of thyristor rectifier Fig.(c). Speed can now
be controlled up to standstill.