Applied Mathematics I
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hermelamebirateApplied Mathematics I
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hermelamebirateApplied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
CHAPTER ONE
VECTORS AND VECTOR SPACES
1.1. Scalar and vectors in ℝ𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ℝ𝟑
Definitions: a) A scalar is a physical quantity that is described by its magnitude only.
For example, temperature, length, and speed are scalars because they are completely
described by a number that tells "how much"-say a temperature of 20°C, a length of 5 cm,
or a speed of 10 m/s.
b) A vector is a physical quantity that is described using both magnitude and its direction.
For instance, velocity, displacement, and force are some examples of vectors.
Vectors in ℝ𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ℝ𝟑
A vector in the plane ℝ2 can be described as 𝑢 ⃗ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ), where 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ∈ ℝ.
3
Similarly, a vector in the space ℝ can be described as a triple of numbers 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 )
where 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ∈ ℝ.
EQUAL (OR EQUIVALENT) VECTORS
Definition: Two vectors 𝑢 ⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 in ℝ𝟐 ⁄ℝ3 are said to be equal (or equivalent) if they have
the same magnitude and direction, and is denoted by 𝑢 ⃗ = 𝑣.
𝟐
⃗ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) , 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) 𝑖𝑛 ℝ , 𝑢
That is, if𝑢 ⃗ = 𝑣 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑢1 = 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 .
Definitions:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ defined as an arrow whose initial point is at point A and
1. A located vector is a vector 𝐴𝐵
whose terminal point is at B.
b2 B(b1,b2)
a2
A(a1,a2)
a1 b1 X
2. Position vector is a vector whose initial point is at the origin.
Definition (Parallel / collinear Vectors)
Definition Two non – zero vectors 𝑢
⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 of the same dimension are said to be parallel or,
alternatively, collinear if at least one of the vectors is a scalar multiple of the other. If one of
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
the vectors is a positive scalar multiple of the other, then the vectors are said to have the
same direction, and if one of them is a negative scalar multiple of the other, then the vectors
are said to have opposite directions. In other words, the two vectors 𝑢
⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are said to be
⃗ // 𝑣 if there exists a scalar c such that⃗⃗⃗𝑢 = 𝑐 𝑣.
parallel, denoted by 𝑢
REMARK : 1. The vector 0 is parallel to every vector v in the same dimension , since it can be
expressed as the scalar multiple 0 = 0v.
2. The zero vectors has no natural direction, so we will agree that it can be assigned any
direction that is convenient for the problem at hand.
⃗ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅, we define 𝑐 𝑢
Definition: For any 𝑢 ⃗ = (𝑐𝑢1 , 𝑐𝑢2 ).
⃗ as 𝑐 𝑢
1.2. Vector addition and Scalar multiplication
⃗ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) in ℝ2 , we define their sum to
Definition: For any two vectors 𝑢
be ⃗ + 𝑣 = (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 ).
𝑢
Geometrically, if we represent the two vectors 𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐶
⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 by 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ respectively, then
⃗ + 𝑣 is represented by⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢 𝐴𝐶 , as shown in the diagram below:
C
U+V
V
A
B
U
AB BC AC
a) The Triangular Law
D
C
V U+V = V+U
V
A B
U
b) The Parallelogram Law
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
Addition of vectors on the coordinate plane
Let 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤
⃗⃗ = (𝑤1 , 𝑤2 ) then → + → = (𝑣1 + 𝑤1 , 𝑣2 + 𝑤2 ).
𝑣 𝑤
Vector Subtraction The negative of a vector v, denoted by -v, is the vector that has the
same length as v but is oppositely directed, and the difference of v from w, denoted by w - v,
is taken to be the sum w - v = w+ (-v)
Example: Provided that U =(-1,0,1) and V= (2,-1,5 ) ,find each of the following vectors
a) U + V b) 2U c) V -2U
Solution: a) U+V= (-1,0,1) + (2,-1,5 ) = (1,-1,6)
b) 2U = 2 (-1,0,1) = (-2 , 0 , 2)
c) V -2U = (2,-1,5 )-2(-1,0,1)= (4 ,-1 ,3)
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
Properties of Vector addition & Scalar Multiplication
Let 𝑢 ⃗⃗ be vectors in ℝ2 and 𝑐 & 𝑚 are scalars. Then:
⃗ , 𝑣 and 𝑤
⃗ + 𝑣 ∈ ℝ2
a) 𝑢
b) 𝑢
⃗ +𝑣 =𝑣+𝑢
⃗
⃗ + ⃗0 = ⃗0 + 𝑢
c) 𝑢 ⃗ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 = (0,0) ∈ ℝ2 .
⃗ =𝑢
d) There exists 𝑤 ∈ ℝ2 such that 𝑢 ⃗⃗ = 0 for every 𝑢 ∈ ℝ2 .
⃗ +𝑤
⃗ + (𝑣 + 𝑤
e) 𝑢 ⃗⃗ ) = (𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣) + 𝑤
⃗⃗
f) 𝑐 (𝑚 𝑢
⃗ ) = (𝑐𝑚)𝑢
⃗
g) (𝑐 + 𝑚)𝑢
⃗ = 𝑐𝑢
⃗ + 𝑚𝑢
⃗
h) 1. 𝑢
⃗ =𝑢
⃗
Remark: The properties described above also hold true for vectors in ℝ3 , where 0 =
(0,0,0) ∈ ℝ3 , replaces the zero vector 0 in ℝ2 .
SUMS OF THREE OR MORE VECTORS
1.3. Dot (Scalar) product, Magnitude of a vector, Angle between two Vectors, Orthogonal
Projection, Direction angles and direction cosines.
1.3.1. Dot (Scalar) Product
Definition: Let 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ) be a vector in ℝ3 . Then the magnitude (norm) of 𝑣, denoted
by ‖𝑣‖ is defined by:
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
‖𝑣‖2 = (𝑂𝑅)2 + (𝑃𝑅)2 = (𝑂𝑄)2 + (𝑄𝑅)2 + (𝑃𝑅)2
‖𝑣‖ = √𝑣12 + 𝑣22 + 𝑣32
Similarly, for a vector 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) ∈ ℝ2 , its norm is given by
‖𝑣‖ = √𝑣12 + 𝑣22
Examples: a) If 𝑣 = (−1,4,3), then find ‖𝑣‖.
b) If ‖𝑢
⃗ ‖ = 6, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥 such that 𝑢
⃗ = (−1, 𝑥, 5).
Remarks: (i) ‖𝑣 ‖ ≠ 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑣 ≠ 0
(ii) ‖𝑣‖ = ‖−𝑣‖.
Theorem: If 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, then‖𝑐 𝑣‖ = |𝑐| ‖𝑣‖.
Proof: suppose that 𝑣 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 then
‖𝑐 𝑣 ‖ = √(𝑐𝑣1 )2 + (𝑐𝑣2 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑐𝑣𝑘 )2
= √𝑐 2 [(𝑣1 )2 + (𝑣2 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑣𝑘 )2 ]
= |𝑐| ‖𝑣‖
Definition (Unit Vector)
⃗ satisfying ‖𝑢
Any vector 𝑢 ⃗ ‖ = 1 is called a unit vector.
1 −1
Examples: The vectors (0,1) , (−1,0), ( , ) , (1,0,0) are examples of unit vectors.
√2 √2
N.B: 1. All unit vectors in ℝ2 are of the form (cos 𝜃 , sin 𝜃), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 ∈ ℝ.
2. For any non-zero vector 𝑣, the unit vector 𝑢̂ corresponding to 𝑣 in the direction of 𝑣 can
⃗
𝑉
be obtained as: 𝑢̂ = ‖𝑉⃗‖
3. For two points 𝑃(𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) on the plane ℝ2 , we calculate the distance 𝑑(Ρ, 𝑄)
between the two points, as :
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = √(𝑣1 − 𝑢1 )2 + (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )2 ,
𝑑 (Ρ, 𝑄) = ‖Ρ𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the vector with initial point P and terminal point Q,
where Ρ𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑣1 − 𝑢1 , 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ).
Ρ𝑄
4. Distance between two vectors can be viewed as the length of U -V where 𝑈 =
(𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 )
1.3.2. The Dot Product (or Scalar Product)
⃗ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) are vectors in ℝ2 , and that 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋]
Definition: Suppose that 𝑢
represents the angle between them. We define the dot product of 𝑢 ⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 ⃗ denoted by 𝑢 ⃗ ∙𝑣
by:
𝑢
⃗ ∙ 𝑣 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2
Or alternatively, we write
‖𝑢
⃗ ‖ ‖𝑣‖ cos 𝜃, 𝑖𝑓 𝑢
⃗ ≠0&𝑣 ≠0
𝑢
⃗ ∙𝑣 ={
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑢
⃗ = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 0
Thus ‖𝑢 ⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 𝑖𝑛 ℝ2 .
⃗ ‖ ‖𝑣‖ cos 𝜃 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 , for non – zero vector 𝑢
⃗ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ) are vectors in ℝ3 , we define 𝑢
Similarly, if 𝑢 ⃗ ∙ 𝑣 as bellow:
𝑢
⃗ ∙ 𝑣 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 + 𝑢3 𝑣3
Remark: The dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity, and its value is maximum
when 𝜃 = 0° and minimum if 𝜃 = 180° 𝑜𝑟 𝜋 radians.
Example: If⃗⃗⃗𝑢 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 3𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 〈0,1, −5〉, then find:
a) 𝑢
⃗ ∙𝑣 b) 𝑢
⃗ ∙𝑢
⃗ c) (𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣) ∙ 𝑣
Properties of the dot product
If 𝑢
⃗ , 𝑣, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤
⃗⃗ are vectors in the same dimension, and 𝑐 ∈ ℜ, then:
1. 𝑢
⃗ ∙𝑢 ⃗ ‖2
⃗ = ‖𝑢 4. 0 ∙ 𝑢
⃗ =0
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
2. 𝑢
⃗ ∙𝑣 =𝑣∙𝑢
⃗ 5. (𝑐 𝑢
⃗ ) ∙ 𝑣 = 𝑐 (𝑢
⃗ ∙ 𝑣 ) = 𝑣 ∙ (𝑐 𝑢
⃗ )
⃗ ∙ (𝑣 + 𝑤
3. 𝑢 ⃗⃗ ) = 𝑢
⃗ ∙𝑣+𝑢
⃗ ∙𝑤
⃗⃗ 6. 𝑢
⃗ ∙𝑢
⃗ ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢
⃗ ∙𝑢
⃗ = 0 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑢
⃗ = 0.
1.3.3. Angle between two vectors
If 𝜃 is the angle between two non – zero vectors 𝑢
⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 , then, the angle between the two
vectors can be obtained by:
⃗ ∙𝑣
𝑢 ⃗ ⃗ ∙𝑣
𝑢 ⃗
cos 𝜃 = ‖𝑢⃗‖ ‖𝑣⃗‖ ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (‖𝑢⃗‖ ‖𝑣⃗‖) , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋].
⃗ = 〈1,0, −1〉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = (1,1,0).
Exercise: Find the angle between the vectors 𝑢
Definition: Two non – zero 𝑢
⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are said to be orthogonal (perpendicular) iff 𝑢
⃗ ∙ 𝑣 = 0,
𝜋
i.e, if 𝜃 = 2 .
Example: Find the value (s) of 𝑥 such that the vectors 𝐴 = (1 ,4, 3) and Β = (𝑥, −1, 2) are orthogonal.
Definition: If P and Q are points in 2 or 3 spaces, the distance between P and Q, denoted by
‖Ρ − 𝑄‖ is given by ‖Ρ − 𝑄‖ = √(Ρ − 𝑄). (Ρ − 𝑄)
⃗ & 𝑣 in space, ‖𝑢
Theorem: Given two vectors 𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑣 ‖ = ‖𝑢
⃗ − 𝑣‖ iff 𝑢
⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are orthogonal
vectors. Proof : Exercise.
Pythagoras Theorem: If A and B are orthogonal vectors, then ‖𝐴 + 𝐵‖2 = ‖𝐴‖2 + ‖𝐵‖2
Proof: Exercise.
Note: If A is perpendicular to B, then it is also perpendicular to any scalar multiple of B.
1.3.4. Orthogonal Projection
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , then
Definition: Suppose S is the foot of the perpendicular from R to the line containing 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗ is called the vector projection of B on to A, and is
the vector with representation 𝑃𝑆
denoted by project 𝐴𝐵 .
R R
B
B
A A
Q
Q
S P P S
Proj AB
projAB
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑡𝐴 ⟹ 𝐵 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵 = 𝑆𝑅
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⟹ (𝐵 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵 ).A=0 ⟹ (B- t A).A =0 ⟹ B.A –t A.A =0
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
𝑨∙𝑩 𝑨∙𝑩
⟹ 𝒕= ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒕. 𝑨 =
⟹ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝑆 𝐴
‖𝑨‖𝟐 ‖ 𝑨‖𝟐
The scalar projection of B onto A (also called the component of B a long A) is defined to be
the length of project𝐴𝐵 , which is equal to ‖𝑩‖ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 and is denoted by comp𝐴𝐵 .
𝑨∙𝑩 𝑨 𝑨∙𝑩
Thus: 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝑩
𝑨 = (‖𝑨‖) ‖𝑨‖ = ‖𝑨‖𝟐
𝑨
𝑨∙𝑩 𝑨∙𝑩 𝑨∙𝑩
and 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝑩 𝑩
𝑨 = ‖𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝑨 ‖ = ‖ ‖𝑨‖𝟐 𝑨‖ = ‖ ‖𝑨‖𝟐 ‖ ‖𝑨‖ = ‖𝑨‖
Example: Let 𝐴 = (−1,3,1) = −𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝐵 = (2,4,3) = 2𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 3𝑘
13 13
Then find (i) 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝑨𝑩 [𝑎𝑛𝑠. 29 (2,4,3)] , (ii) 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝑩
𝑨 [𝑎𝑛𝑠. 11 (−1,3,1)] (iii) 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝑩
𝑨
1.3.5. Directional angles and cosines
Let 𝐴 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 be a vector positioned at the origin in ℝ3 , making an angle of
𝛼 , 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 with the positive 𝑥 , 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 axes respectively. Then the angles 𝛼 , 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 are
called the directional angles of A, and the quantities
cos 𝛼 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝛾 are called the directional cosines of A, which can be computed as
follows:
𝐴.𝑖 1 𝑎 2𝐴.𝑗 𝑎 3 𝐴.𝑘 𝑎
cos 𝛼 = ‖𝐴‖‖𝑖‖ = ‖𝐴‖ , cos 𝛽 = ‖𝐴‖‖𝑗‖ = ‖𝐴‖ and cos 𝛾 = ‖𝐴‖‖𝑘‖ = ‖𝐴‖
From this relation we can deduce a unit vector
𝐴 = ‖𝐴‖(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾)
𝐴
‖𝐴‖
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾) is a unit vector.
1𝑎 2 𝑎 3 𝑎
cos 𝛼 = ‖𝐴‖ , 𝛼 ∈ [0, 𝜋] , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = ‖𝐴‖ , 𝛽 ∈ [0, 𝜋] , cos 𝛾 = ‖𝐴‖ , 𝛾 ∈ [0, 𝜋]
𝑍
A = a1 i + a2 j +a3k
𝛾
𝛼 𝛽
𝑌
Remark: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 = 1. (Verify!)
Exercise: Let 𝐴 = (−1,2,2). Then find the directional cosines of A.
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
1.4. The Cross (or Vector) Product and Triple Products
Given two nonzero vectors 𝐴 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 and 𝐵 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) = 𝑏1 𝑖 +
𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑏3 𝑘 , it is very useful to be able to find a nonzero vector C that is perpendicular to both A
and B . If 𝐶 = (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 ) is such a vector, then A.C = 0 and B.C = 0
𝐴. 𝐶 = (𝑎1 𝑐1 + 𝑎2 𝑐2 + 𝑎3 𝑐3 ) = 0 … . . (1)
𝐵. 𝐶 = (𝑏1 𝑐1 + 𝑏2 𝑐2 + 𝑏3 𝑐3 ) = 0 … . . (2)
To eliminate c3 multiply (1) by b3 and multiply (2) by a3 , and subtract
𝑏3 (𝑎1 𝑐1 + 𝑎2 𝑐2 + 𝑎3 𝑐3 ) = 0
𝑎3 (𝑏1 𝑐1 + 𝑏2 𝑐2 + 𝑏3 𝑐3 ) = 0
(𝑏3 𝑎1 − 𝑎3 𝑏1 )𝑐1 + (𝑏3 𝑎2 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )𝑐2 = 0 … … . (3)
Equation (3) has the form pc1 + qc2 =0 .Where the solution for c1 = q and c2 = -p
So the solution of equation (3) is
𝑐1 = (𝑏3 𝑎2 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 ) and 𝑐2 = (𝑎3 𝑏1 − 𝑏3 𝑎1 )
Substituting equations (1) and (2) we get
𝑐3 = 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1
That means a vector perpendicular to both A and B is
𝐶 = (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 ) = ( 𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 𝑏1 − 𝑏3 𝑎1 , 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1)
The resulting vector is called the cross product of A and B denoted by A x B
Definition: Suppose that 𝐴 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 and
𝐵 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) = 𝑏1 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑏3 𝑘 be two vectors inℝ3 . Then the cross product 𝐴 × 𝐵 of
the two vectors is defined as:
𝑨 × 𝑩 = (𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟑 − 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟐 )𝒊 + (𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟏 − 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟑 )𝒋 + (𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 )𝒌
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
Or 𝐴𝑋𝐵 = 𝐷𝑒𝑡 (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 )
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
Example: Let 𝐴 = 4𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 2𝑘
𝐵 = 2𝑖 − 5𝑗 − 𝑘
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
Then find a) 𝐴 × 𝐵 b) 𝐵 × 𝐴
Remarks: For two non – zero vectors A & B,
1. 𝐴 × 𝐵 is a vector which is orthogonal to both A and B.
2. 𝐴 × 𝐵 is not defined for 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ ℝ2 .
3. 𝑖 × 𝑗 = −𝑗 × 𝑖 = 𝑘
𝑗 × 𝑘 = −(𝑘 × 𝑗) = 𝑖
𝑘 × 𝑖 = −(𝑖 × 𝑘) = 𝑗
A XB
-A XB = B XA
Properties of Cross Product
Let A, B and C be vectors in ℝ3 and 𝛼 be any scalar. Then:
(1) 𝐴 × 0 = 0 × 𝐴 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 = 〈0,0,0〉
(2) 𝐴 × 𝐵 = − 𝐵 × 𝐴
(3) 𝐴 × (𝐵 × 𝐶) ≠ (𝐴 × 𝐵) × 𝐶
(4) (𝛼𝐴) × 𝐵 = 𝐴 × (𝛼𝐵) = 𝛼 (𝐴 × 𝐵)
(5) 𝐴 × (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴 × 𝐵 + 𝐴 × 𝐶
(6) 𝐴 ∙ (𝐴 × 𝐵) = Β ∙ (𝐴 × 𝐵) = 0
(7) If A and B are parallel, then 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 0
(8) ‖𝐴 × Β‖2 = ‖𝐴‖2 ‖𝐵‖2 − (𝐴 ∙ Β)2
(9) ‖𝐴 × Β‖ = ‖𝐴‖ ‖Β‖ sin 𝜃 , 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋].
(10) 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝑛̂ ‖𝐴‖ ‖𝐵‖ sin 𝜃, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛̂ is the unit vector in the direction of 𝐴 ×
𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋] is the angle between A and B.
Example: If ‖𝐴‖ = 2 , ‖Β‖ = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝜋⁄4 for two vectors A and B then find ‖𝐴 × Β‖.
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
‖𝐴×Β‖
Note: The angle 𝜃 between A and B can be obtained by sin 𝜃 = ‖𝐴‖ ‖Β‖ , for two non – zero
vectors A and B.
Definition (Scalar Triple Product)
Let A, B and C is vectors inℝ3 . Their scalar triple product is given by 𝐴 ∙ (𝐵 × 𝐶), which is a
scalar.
Applications of cross Product:
(i)Area: The area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides coincides with the vectors A
and B is given by ‖𝐴 × Β‖ = ‖𝐴‖ ‖Β‖ |sin 𝜃|
d
b
B
h
O
A a
So, 𝑎(𝑜𝑎𝑏𝑐) = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
= ‖𝐴‖ ‖Β‖ |sin 𝜃|
N.B: The area of the triangle formed by A and B as its adjacent sides is given by
1
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 ‖𝐴 × Β‖.
ii.Volume
The volume V of a parallelepiped with the three vectors A, B and C in ℝ3 as three of its
adjacent edges is given by:
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑
𝑽 = |𝑨 ∙ (𝑩 × 𝑪)| = |𝐝𝐞𝐭 (𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑 )|
𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 𝒄𝟑
BXC
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
𝐴 𝐴 ∙ (𝐵 × 𝐶) |𝐴 ∙ (𝐵 × 𝐶)|
ℎ = ‖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗 ‖=‖ (𝐵 × 𝐶)‖ =
𝐵×𝐶 ‖𝐵 × 𝐶‖2 ‖𝐵 × 𝐶‖
Hence, V =𝐵𝑎 ℎ = |𝐴 ∙ (𝐵 × 𝐶)|
Examples:
1. Find the area of a triangle whose vertices are 𝐴 (1, −1,0), 𝐵 (2,1, −1)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 (−1,1,2).
Solution: The vectors on the sides of the triangle ∆ 𝐴Β𝐶 are⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵 − 𝐴 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−2,2,2) = 𝐶 − 𝐴.
(1,2, −1)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐶
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴𝐶‖ = 3√2 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠.
So, 𝑎 (∆ 𝐴Β𝐶) = 2 ‖𝐴𝐵
2. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with edges
𝑢
⃗ = 𝑖 + 𝑘 , 𝑣 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 + 4𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤
⃗⃗ = 𝑗 + 𝑘.
⃗⃗ )| = 1 𝑢3
⃗ ∙ (𝑣 × 𝑤
Solution: V=|𝑢
N.B: Three vectors 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 are coplanar iff 𝐴 ∙ (𝐵 × 𝐶) = 0.
1.5. Lines and Planes in ℝ𝟑
Definition: A vector 𝑣 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 is said to be parallel to a line ℓ 𝑖𝑓 𝑣 is parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Ρ0 Ρ1 for
any two distinct points Ρ0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ρ1 𝑜𝑛 ℓ.
A line ℓ 𝑖𝑛 ℝ3 is determined by a given point Ρ0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) on ℓ and a parallel vector 𝑣
(directional vector) 𝑣 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 𝑡𝑜 ℓ.
Equations of a line in space:
Let Ρ0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) be a given point on a line ℓ and 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any arbitrary point on ℓ. If
⃗ = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 is the parallel vector to ℓ, then
𝑉
(1) The parametric equation of ℓ is given by
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ ℜ, where t is called the parameter.
(2) The symmetric form of equation of ℓ is given by:
𝒙 − 𝒙 𝟎 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 𝒛 − 𝒛 𝟎
= = , 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎.
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
⃗ −𝒓
(3) The vector equation of ℓ is written as 𝒓 ⃗ 𝟎 = 𝒕𝒗
⃗ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡 ∈ ℜ.
Remarks:
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
1. The above equations of the line can be derived using vector algebra as follows:
Z
p
P0
r0 r
Y
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
From vector addition, we have 𝑟 − 𝑟0 = Ρ 0 Ρ & 𝑟𝑜 = 𝑥0 𝑖 + 𝑦0 𝑗 + 𝑧0 𝑘, ⃗⃗𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Since Ρ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
0 Ρ‖𝑣 , there exists 𝑡 ∈ ℜ such that 𝑟 − 𝑟0 = 𝑡𝑣 = Ρ0 Ρ
〈𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 〉 = 𝑡 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡.
2. If one of 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 0, (say for instance 𝑏 = 0), the symmetric equation of ℓ is given
as:
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
= , 𝑦 = 𝑦0 .
𝑎 𝑐
Equation of a plane:
A plane in space is determined by a point Ρ0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) in the plane and a vector 𝑛⃗ that is
orthogonal to the plane. This orthogonal vector 𝑛⃗ is called a normal vector.
Suppose that 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any arbitrary point in the plane, and let 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟0 be the position
vectors of 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and Ρ0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ). Then we have
𝑛⃗ ∙ (𝑟 − 𝑟0 ) = 0 (Since 𝑛⃗ perpendicular to any vector in the plane).
𝑛⃗ ∙ 𝑟 = 𝑛⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑜 ,which is called the vector equation of the plane.
If we let 𝑛⃗ = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 = 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘, we get
〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 ∙ 〈𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 〉 = 0
𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑏(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0 (point - normal form of equation of a plane)
⟺ 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄𝒛 + 𝒅 = 𝟎, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒅 = −(𝒂𝒙𝟎 + 𝒃𝒚𝟎 + 𝒄𝒛𝟎 )
(general or standard form of the equation of a plane).
Examples:
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
1. Find the equations of a line that contains the point (1,4, −1) and parallel to 𝑣 =
−2𝑖 + 3𝑗.
Solution: let ΡΟ = 〈1 ,4, −1) =(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )
Then the parametric form of the equation of the line is:
𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑡
{𝑦 = 4 + 3𝑡
𝑧 = −1
and its symmetric form is given as:
𝑥−1 𝑦−4
= , 𝑧 = −1.
−2 3
2. Find the equation of the plane through the points Ρ0 (1,1,1) ,
Ρ1 (2,2,0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ρ2 (4, −6,2).
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Solution: The vectors 𝐴 = Ρ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
0 Ρ1 = 〈1,1, −1〉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Β = Ρ1 Ρ2 = 〈3, −7,1〉
are parallel to the plane, and hence, their cross product 𝑛⃗ = 𝐴 × ⃗Β = 〈−6, −4, −10〉 is
normal to the plane. Thus, the equation of the plane is given by: −6 (𝑥 − 1) − 4(𝑦 − 1) −
10 (𝑧 − 1) = 0
3 × +2𝑦 + 5𝑧 − 10 = 0
OR:
The equation of the plane can be obtained by computing:
𝑥−1 𝑦−1 𝑧−1
𝑑𝑒𝑡 (𝑥 − 2 𝑦 − 2 𝑧 − 0) = 0
𝑥−4 𝑦+6 𝑧−2
Distance in Space
a) Distance from a point to a line
The distance D from a point Ρ1 (not on ℓ) to a line ℓ in space is given by:
⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
‖𝒗 𝚸𝚶 𝚸𝟏 ‖
𝑫= , where 𝑣 is the directional vector of ℓ and ΡΟ is any point on ℓ.
‖𝒗
⃗‖
Proof:
Page 14
Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
Z
P1 L
D
𝜃 V
P0
Y
X
𝐷
sin 𝜃 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⟹ 𝐷 = ‖Ρ Ο Ρ1 ‖ sin 𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
‖Ρ Ο 1Ρ ‖
‖𝑣
⃗ ×ΡΟ Ρ1 ‖ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
But since ‖𝑣 × Ρ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Ο Ρ1 ‖ = ‖𝑣 ‖ ‖ΡΟ Ρ1 ‖ |sin 𝜃|, = ‖𝑣 ‖𝐷 , we have: 𝐷 = .
‖𝑣
⃗‖
b) Distance from a point to a plane
The perpendicular distance D of a point Ρ0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) in space to the plane with the
equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 is given by:
|𝑎𝑥0 +𝑏𝑦0 +𝑐𝑧0 +𝑑| |𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗ ∙𝑜Ρ
𝐷= √𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2
= ‖𝑛
⃗‖
, where o is the foot of 𝑛⃗ within the plane.
Proof: Consider the diagram below:
P(x0,y0,z0)
O(x1,y1,z1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗‖
‖𝑜Ρ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗|
|𝑜Ρ
𝐷 = ‖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛0Ρ
⃗ ‖= ‖ 𝑛
⃗ ‖ =
‖ 𝑛⃗‖2 ‖ 𝑛⃗‖
|𝑎𝑥0 +𝑏𝑦0 +𝑐𝑧0 +𝑑|
𝐷= √𝑎2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑 = −(𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐𝑧1 )
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P1(x1,y1,z1)
𝜃 Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
P0(x0,y0,z0)
B.
OP1 D CompB
where
a( x1 x0 ) b( y1 y 0 ) c( z1 z 0 )
B P0 P1 ( x1 x0 , y1 y 0 , z1 z 0 )
a2 b2 c2
|𝑑|
NB: If Ρ = (0,0,0), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐷 = √𝑎2 , w/c is the distance of the plane from the origin.
+𝑏2 +𝑐 2
Examples:
1. Find the distance of the point Ρ1 (−1,3,0) from the line with symmetric equations:
𝑦−1 𝑧+1
ℓ: 𝑥 = 1, = .
3 2
2. How far is the point Ρ (1,2,3) from the plane with equation 𝜋: 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 4𝑧 + 37 = 0.
Solutions:
1. Here, the directional (parallel) vector of ℓ is: 𝑣 = 〈0,3,2〉, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑙𝑒𝑡 Ρ0 (1,1, −1) ∈ ℓ be taken.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Then Ρ Ο Ρ1 = Ρ1 − Ρ0 = 〈−2,2,1〉.
‖ΡΟ Ρ1 ×𝑣
⃗‖ ‖(3−4)𝑖+(4−0)𝑗+(0+6)𝑘‖ √53
Thus, 𝐷 = ‖𝑣
⃗‖
= √32 +22
= units.
√13
2. Here (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = (1,2,3) , 𝑛⃗ = 〈3,5,4〉, 𝑑 = 37.
|𝑎𝑥0 +𝑏𝑦0 +𝑐𝑧0 +𝑑|
Thus , 𝐷 = ‖𝑛
⃗‖
|301+5.2−4.3+37| 19√2
= = units.
√50 5
37
OR: Take 𝑛⃗ = 〈3,5,4〉 & 0 = (0,0, 4 ) ∈ 𝜋. Then
25
|𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗ ∙0Ρ |(3,5,−4) (1,2, )| 19√2
4
𝐷= ‖𝑣
⃗‖
= = .
√50 5
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
Distance between two parallel planes
Given two parallel planes 𝜋1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋2 . Then we can have normal vectors with coefficients
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 to be the same such that:
𝜋1 : 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑1.
𝜋2 : 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑2.
Then the distance between 𝜋1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋2 is the same as the distance from any arbitrary point
𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) has been taken from 𝜋1 to the plane 𝜋2 .
|𝑎𝑥𝑜 +𝑏𝑦𝑜 +𝑐𝑧𝑜 −𝑑2 |
⇒𝐷 = √𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2
. But 𝑎𝑥𝑜 + 𝑏𝑦𝑜 + 𝑐𝑧𝑜 = 𝑑1
|𝑑 −𝑑2 |
Thus, 𝐷 = √𝑎2 1
+𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
Example: Find the distance between the planes
𝜋1 : 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋2 : 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 7
Solution: We first rewrite the equations 𝜋1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋2 so that they have the same 𝑛⃗ = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉.
That is: 𝜋1 : 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 3
𝜋2 : 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 7⁄2 ⟹ 𝑑1 = 3& 𝑑2 = 7⁄2
|𝑑 −𝑑2 |
Thus, 𝐷 = √𝑎2 1 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = −2
+𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
1
|7⁄2−3|
= = 2
= 1⁄6
√1+4+4 3
1.6. Vector Spaces and Subspaces
Definition a Field
Let F be a subset of complex numbers. Then F is said to be a field under the usual
addition’+’ and scalar multiplication ‘.’, usually denoted by (F,+,.) if it satisfies the
following conditions:
i. ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹 & 𝑥. 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹.
ii. ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐹, −𝑥 ∈ 𝐹.
iii. ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 & 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐹.
iv. 0,1 ∈ 𝐹.
Examples:
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
i. The field of real numbers (ℝ),
ii. the field of complex numbers (₵ ),
iii. The field of rational numbers (ℚ).
Definition of a vector space
A non-empty set of objects V is said to be a vector space (or a linear space) over a field F if
it satisfies the following axioms:
1. ∀𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉, 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉.
2. ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑐𝑢 ∈ 𝑉.
3. ∀𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉, 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑢.
4. ∀𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝑉, (𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤 = 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤).
5. ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, ∃0 ∈ 𝑉 ∋ 𝑢 + 0 = 0 + 𝑢 = 𝑢 .
6. ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, ∃ − 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑢 + (−𝑢) = 0.
7. ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑉 & 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐹 , 𝑎(𝑏𝑢) = (𝑎𝑏)𝑢.
8. ∀𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 & 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑎(𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑢.
9. ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐹, (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑢 = 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑢.
10. ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, 1. 𝑢 = 𝑢.
Note:1. The elements of V are called vectors and the elements of F are called scalars.
2. It is important to realize that a vector space consists of four entities: a set of vectors, a
set of scalars, and two operations. When you refer to a vector space be sure all four
entities are clearly stated or understood. Unless stated otherwise, assume that the set of
scalars is the set of real numbers.
Examples:
1.ℝ is a vector space over itself.
The set of all ordered pairs of real numbers with the standard operations is a vector
space.
2.Rn with the Standard Operations Is a Vector Space
The set of all ordered n - tuples of real numbers with the standard operations is a vector
space.
3. The Vector Space of All Polynomials of Degree 2 or Less
4. The Vector Space of All 2 x 3 Matrices
5. 𝑉 = ℝ3 = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧); 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ} is a vector space over the field of real numbers, ℝ.
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6. The set defined by 𝑆 = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧); 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℚ} is not a vector space over ℝ because if we
take𝑐 = √2 ∈ ℝ & 𝑢 = (1,3,0) ∈ 𝑆, then we can see that 𝑐𝑢 is not in 𝑆.
Subspaces
Definition: Let V be a given vector space over a field F. Then a non-empty subset W of V is
said to be a subspace of V if W itself is a vector space over F under the operations of V.
Theorem: Suppose that V is a vector space over a field F.A non-empty subset W of V is a
subspace of V if it satisfies the following conditions:
i. 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊 ⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊.
ii. ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹 ⇒ 𝑐𝑢 ∈ 𝑊.
iii. 0 ∈ 𝑊.
Examples
1. V and {0} are the trivial subspaces of any vector space V.
2. For the vector space 𝑉 = ℝ3 = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧); 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ} over ℝ.Then the set 𝑊 =
{(𝑥, 𝑦, 0); 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ} is a subspace of V. (verify!)
Solution
i) Let 𝑈 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 0) and 𝑉 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 0)
then 𝑈 + 𝑉 = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 0) ∈ 𝑊
ii) Let 𝑈 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 0) and 𝑐𝑈 = {𝑐𝑥1 , 𝑐𝑦1 , 0) ∈ 𝑊}
iii) (0,0,0)W
Therefore W is the subspace of V
3. The set of all lines passing through the origin, 𝐿 = {𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} is a
subspace of the vector space 𝑉 = ℝ2 .
Solution
i) Let 𝐿1 = {𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} and 𝐿2 = {𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑦2 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ
the 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 = {𝑎(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) , 𝑏(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} ∈ 𝐿
ii)Let 𝐿1 = {𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} and 𝑐𝐿1 = {𝑐(𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 ) = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} ∈ 𝐿
iii) 𝐿1 = {𝑎(0) + 𝑏(0) = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} ∈ 𝐿 this implies that line L passes through the
origin. Therefore L is the subspace of V
Exercise: 1.Is the set 𝑊 = {𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 1} a subspace of 𝑉 = ℝ2 ? Justify.
2. Which of the following is the subspace of 𝑉 = ℝ3 ?
a) 𝑊 = {(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 1); 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑅
b) 𝑊 = {(𝑥1 , 𝑥1 + 𝑥3 , 𝑥3 ); 𝑥1 , 𝑥3 ∈ 𝑅
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
7. Linear Dependence and Independence
Definition:
Let 𝑣1 , 𝑣2, … , 𝑣𝑛 be elements of an arbitrary vector space V, and 𝛼1 , 𝛼2, … , 𝛼𝑛 be
scalars. An expression of the form 𝛼1 𝑣1 + 𝛼2 𝑣2 + ⋯ 𝛼𝑛 𝑣𝑛 is called linear combinations
of the vectors 𝑣1 , 𝑣2, … , 𝑣𝑛 .
Examples:
1) For the set of vectors in ℝ3
𝑆 = {(1,3,1), (0,1,2), (1,0,5)} Let 𝑣1 = (1,3,1), 𝑣2 = (0,1,2), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 = (1,0,5)
V1 is a linear combinations of v2 and v3 because
V1= c1 (0,1, 2) +c2 (1,0,5)
(1, 3, 1) = c1 (0, 1, 2) +c2 (1,0,5)
C1 =1 and 2c1 -5c2 =1
C2 =3 V1 =3 V2 + V3
This implies that S is linearly independent .
Exercise:
1) Write the vector W = (1,1,1) as a linear combination of vectors in the set S.
S = { (1,2,3),(0,1,2), (-1,0,1)}.
2) If possible, write the vector W = (1,-2, 2) as a linear combinations of vectors in
the set S ={ (1,2,3),(0,1,2), (-1,0,1)}.
Definition:
Let 𝑣1 , 𝑣2, … , 𝑣𝑛 are vectors in a vector space V over ℝ.Then vectors are called:
1. linearly dependent if there exist scalars 𝛼1 , 𝛼2, … , 𝛼𝑛 not all zero such that
𝛼1 𝑣1 + 𝛼2 𝑣2 + ⋯ 𝛼𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0.
2. Linearly independent if 𝛼1 𝑣1 + 𝛼2 𝑣2 + ⋯ 𝛼𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0 implies
𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = … = 𝛼𝑛 = 0.
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
Linear dependence in the vector space V = R3 can be described geometrically as follows:
(a) Any two vectors u and v in R3 are linearly dependent if and only if they lie on the same
line through the origin O, as shown in Fig. 4-3(a).
(b) Any three vectors u, v, w in R3 are linearly dependent if and only if they lie on the same
plane through the origin O, as shown in Fig. 4-3(b). Also any four or more vectors in R3 are
automatically linearly dependent.
The following remarks follow directly from the above definition.
Remark 1: Suppose 0 is one of the vectors v1; v2; . . . ; vm, say v1 = 0. Then the vectors must
be linearly dependent, because we have the following linear combination where the
coefficient of v1 0:
1v1 , 0v2 , …, 0vm = 1 . 0+ 0+_ _ +0 = 0
Remark 2: Suppose v is a nonzero vector. Then v, by itself, is linearly independent, because
kv = 0; v 0 implies k = 0
Remark 3: Suppose two of the vectors v1; v2; . . . ; vm are equal or one is a scalar multiple
of the other, say v1 = kv2. Then the vectors must be linearly dependent, because we have
the following linear combination where the coefficient of v1 - kv2 + 0v3 +_ _ _+0vm = 0
Remark 4: Two vectors v1 and v2 are linearly dependent if and only if one of them is a
scalar multiple of the other.
Remark 5: If a set S of vectors is linearly independent, then any subset of S is linearly
independent. Alternatively, if S contains a linearly dependent subset, then S is linearly
dependent.
Examples:
1. Determine whether the following set of vectors in the vector space 𝑉 = ℝ3 are
linearly dependent or independent.
a. {(1, 0,0), (0 , 1, 0), (0, 0,3)}
b. {(2, 6,0), (2 , 4, 1), (1 , 1, 1)}.
c. {(1,2,3),(0,1,2),(-2,0,1)}
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Applied Mathematics I (Math 1014B)
2. Let V be the vector space of all real valued functions of the variable t. Then which of
the following set of functions are LD/LI? Justify!
a. {𝑡, 𝑡 2 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 } b) {𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡, 1 }
3. Determine whether the following set of vectors in the vector space 𝑉 = ℝ2 are
linearly dependent or independent
a) {(1, 2), (2,4)} b) {(1, 0), (0,1),(-2,5)}
4 . Determine whether the set S = {1+ x -2x2 , 2+5x –x2 , x+x2 } in P2 linearly dependent
or independent .
1.8. Basis of a vector space.
Definitions:
Let V be any vector space over a field F, and let the set 𝑆 = {𝑣1, 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 } be a set of vectors
in V.Then:
i) S is said to spans (or generates) V if each element of V is a linear combinations of
elements of S.
ii) S is called a basis for V if S is a linearly independent set and it spans V.
iii) The dimension of V is said to be n (dim V=n) if V has basis consisting of n-
elements.
Examples:
1. Show that the set 𝑆 = {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,5)} form a basis of the vector
space ℜ3 .
Solution
I) we need to show that S is linearly independent
𝛼(1,0,0) + 𝛽(0,1,0), + 𝛾(0,0,5) = (0,0,0)
𝛼=𝛽=𝛾=0
Hence S is linearly independent
ii) we need to show that S spans ℜ3
Let (x, y ,z) ℜ3 then (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝛼(1,0,0) + 𝛽(0,1,0), + 𝛾(0,0,5)
𝑧
𝛼 = 𝑥 , 𝛽 = 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 5
𝑧
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥(1,0,0) + 𝑦(0,1,0), + 5 (0,0,5)
Therefore , S Spans ℜ3 and hence the dimension of ℜ3 is 3, which is the
number of elements in S.
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Matrices, Determinants and Systems of Linear Equations
2.1. Definition of matrix and basic operations
Definition: Let m and n be in . A rectangular array of numbers in
( )
is called a matrix in
Remark: The numbers in the matrix are called the entries of the matrix.
Note:
1. A is an matrix if A has m rows(horizontals) and n columns(verticals).
2. is the element that appears in the row and in the column.
3. is an matrix.
4. is called the size of the matrix.
Example 1: Consider ( ). The size of this matrix is 2 .
Definition: Two matrices and are equal, written as A = B, iff
their corresponding elements are equal.
Example 2: Consider the two matrices given below
( ) ( )
Since , we can say that .
Definition: A 1 matrix is called a row vector (row matrix) and an 1 matrix is called a
column vector (column matrix).
Example 3: ( ) is a 3 1 column matrix.
Example 4: is a1 3 row matrix.
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Example 5: (8) is both a column and row matrix. The number of rows and columns are equal
i.e. an is called a square matrix of order n.
Example 6: ( ) is a square matrix of order 3.
Operation with matrices
Addition (Subtraction) of Matrices.
Definition: Let and be two matrices.
Then and
Definition 3.1.2 If A and B are matrices with the same size, then we define the sum A + B
to be the matrix obtained by adding the entries of B to the corresponding entries of A, and
we define the difference A - B to be the matrix obtained by subtracting the entries of B from
the corresponding entries of A.
If A = [aij ] and B = [bij] have the same size, then this definition states that
(A + B)ij = (A)ij + (B)ij = aij + bij
(A - B)ij = (A)ij - (B)ij = aij - bij
Example 7.
Note: For and and
Definition: A matrix all of whose elements are zero is called a zero matrix and it is denoted by 0.
Example 8: ( )
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Definition: Let be a matrix and , the scalar multiple of A by is
.
Example: If ( ), then ( )
2.2. Product of Matrices and some algebraic properties; transpose of matrix
Let and . We define the product by
Example 10: Let
Example 11: Let ( ) ( )
Then Compute
A.
B.
C. Is ?
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
i) AB BA
ii)
iii)
iv)
Definition: A square matrix in which all but the diagonal elements are zero is called diagonal
matrix.
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Definition: A diagonal matrix whose all of its diagonal elements are equal is called Scalar
matrix.
Definition: A scalar matrix whose all of its diagonal elements are one is called the Identity
matrix.
Definition: Let be a matrix. We define the transpose of A denoted by to be
the matrix where the entry is .
Example 13:
Properties of Matrix Transpose
Let A, B be matrices over and
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
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Special Matrices
1. Symmetric Matrix is a matrix which is equal to its transpose. i.e.
Example 14: ( )
2. Skew Symmetric matrix is a matrix which is equal to -1times its transpose. i.e.
.
Example 14: ( )
Theorem: Let be a square matrix. Then
i. is symetric.
ii. is skew symmetric.
3. A square matrix is said to be an upper triangular matrix if
and strictly upper triangular matrix if .
A square matrix is said to be an upper triangular matrix if
and strictly upper triangular matrix if .
2.3. Elementary Row Operations and Echelon Form
Let A be an matrix. The elementary row operation on A is
i. (Interchanging two rows)
ii. (Multiplication of a row by a non-zero constant )
iii. (Addition of a constant multiple of one row to another row)
Definition: Two matrices are equivalent written as A B if one can be obtained from the other by
a sequence of elementary row operations.
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Example: ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Thus ( ) ( )
Row Echelon Form
Definition: A matrix is in a row echelon form if it satisfies the following conditions
1. Any row (if any) consisting of entirely of zeros appears at the bottom of the matrix.
2. The first non-zero number in any row not consisting of entirely zero is 1 (leading 1).
3. If two successive rows do not consist entirely of zeros, the leading 1 in the lower row
occurs farther to the right than the leading 1 in the higher row.
Example: The following matrices are in row echelon form
( ) ( ) ( )
The following matrices are not in row echelon form
( ) ( ) ( )
Definition: A matrix in a row echelon form is said to be in reduced row echelon form if all
entries in any column containing the leading 1is zero.
Example: From the above matrices, matrix A and C are in reduced row echelon form.
2.4. Rank of a matrix
Definition: Let A be an matrix. Let be the row echelon form of A. The rank is
the number of non-zero rows of the row echelon form of A ( ).
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Example: Find the rank of the following matrices.
( ) ( )
Answer: 3,
2.5. Determinant of a Matrix and its Properties
To every square matrix is associated a number or an expression called the
determinant of A which is denoted by det (A) or| |.
Determinant of order one
Let . Then det (A) .
Determinant of order two
Let ( ). Then det
Determinant of order n
∑ ( )
expansion along the row where is the matrix formed by deleting (crossout) the row
and the column.
Example: Find the determinants of the following matrices
1. ( ) 2. ( )
Solution: 1. Here and we can choose choosing
∑ ( )
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Properties of Determinants
1. If two columns are interchanged, then the determinant changes by sign.
Example: | | | |
2. If one column is a scalar multiple of the other column, then the determinant is zero.
Example: | |
3. If one of the columns is zero, then the determinant is zero.
Example: | |
4. If a scalar multiple of one column is added to another column, then the determinant
doesn’t change.
Example: | | | |
5. The determinant of a diagonal matrix is the product of elements in the diagonal.
Example: | |
6. The determinant of an upper triangular matrix is the product of elements in the diagonal.
Example: | |
7.
8.
9.
10. Suppose that are columns of matrix A. (
) for example,
( ) ( ) ( )
11. Suppose that are columns of matrix A.
( ) ( )
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2.6. Inverse of Matrix and its Properties
Definition: A matrix A is said to be non-singular or invertible if there exists a unique matrix B
such that AB = BA = . We say B is the multiplicative inverse of A. The unique inverse B of A
is denoted by . If such a matrix doesn’t exist, we say matrix A is singular or non-invertible.
One can note that, inverse of a matrix is only defined for square matrices and not all square
matrices are invertible.
Properties of Invertible matrices
Let A, B, and C be invertible matrices of order n. Then
i.
ii.
iii.
Example: Show that
1. ( ) is the inverse of itself.
2. ( ) is the inverse of ( ).
Gausses-Jordan elimination for computing inverse of a matrix
i. Adjoin the identity matrix of order n with matrix A of order n to form the new
matrix | .
ii. Compute the reduced row echelon form of matrix | . If this reduced row echelon
form is of type | , then B is the inverse of A. If the reduced row echelon form is
not of type | , in that the matrix to the right is not , then A is singular.
Example: Find the inverse of the following matrices.
Solution: | ( | ) ( | )
( )
ADJOINT OF A MATRIX
Definition: Let be a matrix which obtained by omitting the row and the column of
the matrix A. det is called the minor of the element of an matrix A.
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Let . Then is called the cofactor of the element of the matrix A.
Then the transpose of the matrix found that is is called adjoint of A which is denoted
by adj(A).
Example: Let ( ) then we have the following:
The minor of is | |
The cofactor of | |
Similarly
Then the matrix found from the cofactors is ( ). Therefore the adjoint of A
,AdjA is ( ) ( )
2.7. Systems of Linear Equations
Definition: Equations of the form
are called systems of
m linear equations in n unknowns. The above system of linear equation can be written as
, where
( ), ( ) ( )
Note: the entries of column of A are the coefficients of the variable in X. Here A is
called the coefficient matrix. If ( ), the system is called homogenous; otherwise it is called
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non-homogenous. A homogenous system has at least one solution, the trivial solution i.e.
. The matrix whose columns are the columns of A
and whose last column is b which is called the augmented matrix denoted by (A│b).
Example: Consider, the following systems of linear equations
Here ( ) and ( ) ( ) Hence the system is non-homogenous. Here A is
the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix is ( | ).
Note:
When a system of linear equation has solution, then it is called consistent otherwise it is
known as inconsistent.
Two systems of linear equations are said to be equivalent if they have the same solution.
Example: { { are equivalent.
Methods of Solving Systems of Linear Equations
1. Gaussian Elimination Method
Let be the system of linear equations then
i. Write down the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations in the form of
| .
ii. Apply the elementary row operations on the matrix B.
A. If rank of A=Rank of B , the system has a unique solution.
B. If Rank A = Rank B , the system has infinitely many solutions.
C. If Rank A Rank B, the system has no solution.
iii. Use back substitution.
Example: Using Gaussian elimination method, solve the following systems of linear equations.
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1.
Solution:
i. , where ( ) ( ) ( )
ii. | ( | )
iii. ( | ) ( | )
( | ) ( | )
Since Rank B = 3 = Rank A = order of A = n, the system has exactly one solution.
iv. Using back substitution
2. {
3. {
2. Cramer’s Rule
a). If a linear system of equations consisting of n equations with the same number of unknowns,
given by
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has a non-zero coefficient determinant D = det A, the system has precisely one solution. This
solution is given by the formula
is the determinant obtained from D by replacing the column in D by the column
with the entries .
b). Hence if the system is homogenous and , it has only the trivial solution
If , the homogenous system also has non-trivial solutions.
Example: Solve each of the following systems of linear equations using Cramer’s rule.
{ ii. {
| | | |
Solution: ( ) | |
and | |
Thus { }
3. Inverse Method
If
Theorem: An matrix A is invertible if and only if
Example: Solve the following systems of linear equations using inverse method.
a). { b). {
Solution: The system of linear equation can be expressed in its equivalent matrix form as
( ) ( ) ( )
Since ( ), ( )( ) ( )
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EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTURES
Matrix Eigen value problems concern on the solution of vector equations
Where A is a given square matrix, X is unknown vector and is unknown scalar. Clearly,
is a solution of equation giving but this has no application, thus we want to find
solution vectors of equation (1) called Eigenvectors (characteristic vectors) of A.
How to find an Eigen value of .
(Cramer’s rule) this means is not invertible.
Note: If is invertible, det(
Definition1: The characteristic polynomial of a square matrix A is
2: The equation is called characteristic equation.
To compute Eigen values and Eigen vectors:
Step1: Solve the characteristic equation and get the
Eigenvalues
Step2: for each Eigen values solve the homogenous system and get the Eigen
vectors ( ) with as Eigen value.
Examples: Find the Eigen values and Eigen vectors for the following matrices.
i) A ( ) ( )
Solution: Characteristic polynomial is| |
. Characteristic equation:
Therefore the Eigen values are
i. The Eigen vector of A corresponding to
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( )( ) ( )
, let
Thus ( ) ( ) ( ) .
Therefore ( )is the Eigen vector corresponding to
ii. Similarly the Eigen vector corresponding to is ( )
Solution ii: Characteristic polynomial | |
The Characteristic equation is
Thus, the Eigen values are and . Hence
i. The Eigen vector corresponding to is
( )( ) ( )
Solving the system we get ( ) ( )
Therefore ( )is the Eigen vector corresponding to
ii. Similarly the Eigen vector corresponding to is ( )
iii. The Eigen vector corresponding to
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Chapter 3
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Chapter 3
LIMIT AND CONTINUITY
3.1 Definition of Limit
Definition :( Formal Definition of Limit)
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing a , with the possible
exception of a itself. Then the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is the number L,
lim f ( x) L
written as xa iff for every > 0 there is a number > 0
such that if 0 < |x-a| < implies |f(x) -L| <
This idea can be represented graphically by the figure below
Note:
- The calculated should be given as a function of known value
- The calculated is not unique i.e. for value, Taking is true
/
1
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Limit and
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University (AASTU) Continuity
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Example 1: Use the formal definition of the limit to prove the following.
lim5x 4 6
x 2
Solution: Let us start by letting 0 be any number then we need to find a
number 0 so that the following will be true.
|(5x-4)-6|< whenever |x-2|
We’ll start by simplifying the left inequality in an attempt to get a guess for .
Doing this gives |(5x-4)-6|< |(5x-10)|=5|x-2|< |x-2|
5
So, if we do enough simplification on the left inequality we get something that
looks like the right inequality and this leads us to choose
5
Let’s now verify this guess. So, again let 0 be any number and then choose
Next, assume that, 0<|x-2| and we get the following,
5 5
|(5x-4)-6|=|(5x-10)|= 5|x-2|5( )=
5
So, we’ve shown that |(5x-4)-6|< whenever|x-2| and so by our
5
definition we have, lim5x 4 6
x 2
Example 2: Use the definition of the limit to prove the following limit.
lim x
2
x 11 9
x 4
Solution: Let 0 be any number then we need to find a number 0 so that
the following will be true.
|( x 2 x 11 )-9|< wherever0|x-4|<
|( x 2 x 11 )-9|| x 2 x 20 |=|(x+5)(x-4)|= |x+5||x-4|<
We have managed to show that |( x 2 x 11 )-9|< |x+5||x-4|<
However, unlike the previous example, we have got an extra term in here that
doesn’t show up in the right inequality above. We are going to find some way to
get rid of the |x 5| .
2
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To do this let’s just note that if, by some chance, we can show that |x 5 |K for
some number K then, we’ll have the following,
|x 5|| x 4 |K |x 4|
If we now assume that what we really want to show is K |x 4| instead of
|x 5|| x 4| we get the following, | x 4 |<
K
All this work however, is based on the assumption that we can show that x 5 K
for some K. We are only concerned with what is happening around the point in
question, x 4 in this case. So, it is safe to assume that whatever x is, it must be
close to x 4 . Or in terms of an inequality, we can assume that, |x 4 |1
Why choose 1 here? There is no reason other than it is a nice number to work
with. We could just have easily chosen 2, or 5, or fraction number.. The only
difference our choice will make is on the actual value of K that we end up with.
So, let’s start with |x 4| 1 then, 1x 4 1 3 x 5
If we now add 5 to all parts of this inequality we get, 8 x 5 10
So, provided |x 4| 1 we can see that x 5 10 which in turn gives us,
|x 4|
K 10
So, to this point we make two assumptions about | x 4|. We’ve assumed that,
|x 4| and | x 4|<1
K
It may not seem like it, but we’re now ready to chose a . In the previous
examples we had only a single assumption and we used that to give us . In this
case we’ve got two and they both need to be true. So, will let be the smaller of
the two assumptions, 1 and Mathematically, this is written as, = min{1, }
10 . 10
By doing this we can guarantee that, and 1
10
Now, we’ve made our choice for we need to verify it. So, 0 be any number
and then choose = min{1, }
10
Assume that, 0<|x-4|< = min{1, }. First, we get that,
10
0<|x-4|< |x 4|
10 10
We also get, 0 |x 4| 1 |x 4| 1 |x 5| 10
Finally, all we need to do is,
3
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|( x 2 x 11 )-9|=| x 2 x 20 |=|(x+5)(x-4)|< 10|x-4|<10.
10
We have now managed to show that,
|( x 2 x 11 )-9| whenever0 |x 4|min{1, and so by our definition we
10
have, lim x
2
x 11 9
x 4
Example 3: Using the definition of limit prove that
2 1
lim x 3 3
x 3
Solution: Let > 0 be given. We must find such that
. Consider, | 2 1 |= 1 | x 3 |<
x3 3 3 x3
Take 1, then
|x- 3|< |x- 3| < 1
-1 < x - 3 < 1
2< x < 4 5< |x+3| < 7
1 1 1 1 x3 1
thus x 3 iff |x-3| < 15
7 x3 5 3 x 3 15
Now choose = min(1, 15 )
1 2 1 1 x3 1
Thus, 0 < |x -3| < f ( x) = 15
3 x3 3 3 x 3 15
2 1
Therefore, by definition lim x 3 3
x 3
Example 4. A machinist is required to manufacture a circular metal disk with
area 1000cm 2
a) What radius produces such a disk?
b) If the machinist is allowed error tolerance of 5cm2 in the area of
the disk, how close to the ideal radius in part (a) must the machinist
control the radius
Solution: a) We know that the area of a circle with radius r is given by r 2
r 2 1000
1000
r cm 17.84cm
a) The error tolerance = 5 5
Let A(r) be the area of the circular metal disk for radius r
Consider a 17.84 and A(r) = f(r), L= 1000.
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Hence applying the definition, there should be positive such that
1000 1000 1000
f (r ) 1000 r 2 1000 (r 2 ) (r )( r )
(r 17.84)( r 17.84) to get ride of r 17.84 ,
Let 1 1
0 r 17.84 r 17.84 1
1 r 17.84 1
16.84 r 18.84
16.84 17.84 r 17.84 18.84 17.84 34.68 r 17.84 36.68
f (r ) 1000 (r 17.84)( r 17.84) 36.68 r 17.84 5
5
r 17.84 0.043
36.68
Now choose 2 0.043
choose min 1 , 2 min 1,0.043 0.043
Thus to keep 5 the error tolerance, the machinist should take radius of
0.043 from the radius 17.84 value. That is the machinist should take the
radius of the metal disk within the interval
(17.84-0.043, 17.84+0.043) = (17.797, 17.883)
3.2 Basic Limit Theorems
First we will assume that lim f ( x) and lim g ( x) exist and that c is any constant.
x a x a
Then,
1. lim cf ( x) c
x a
lim f ( x)
x a
2. lim ( f ( x) g ( x)) lim f ( x) lim g ( x)
x a x a x a
3. lim f ( x) g ( x) lim f ( x) . lim g ( x)
x a x a x a
f ( x) lim
f ( x)
4. lim x a
Provided that lim g ( x) 0
x ag ( x) lim g ( x) x a
x a
5. lim[ f ( x) ] [lim f ( x)] where n is any real number. In this property n can be
n n
x a x a
any real number (positive, negative, integer, fraction, irrational, zero, etc.).
In the case that n is an integer this rule can be thought of as an extended case of 3.
Example: Evaluate the following limits
5
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(3 h) 2 h
a) lim (2 x 2 3x 4) b) lim
x 5 h 0 h
t 9 3
2
x 2 2x 1
c) lim d ) lim
t 0 t2 x 1 x4 1
Solution
a) lim(2 x 2 3x 4) 2 lim x 2 3 lim x lim 4 2(25) 3(5) 4 39
x 5 x 5 x 5 x 5
(3 h) h
2
h 6h
2
lim lim lim h lim 6 6
b) h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h 0
t2 9 3 t2 9 3 t2 9 3 1 1
lim 2
lim 2
. lim
c) t 0 t h 0 t t 9 3 h 0 t 9 3 6
2 2
x 2 2x 1 x 1
lim lim 2 0
d) x1 x 1 x 1 ( x 1)( x 1)
4
3.3 One sided Limits
Definition 1. For the right-hand limit we say that, lim f ( x) L if for every
x a
number 0 there is some number 0 such that |f(x) - L| <
whenever 0 x a or a x a
Defnition2. For the left-hand limit we say that, lim f ( x) L if for every number
x a
0 there is some number 0 such that
|f(x) - L| < whenever - x a or a- x
Example. Use the definition of the limit to prove that lim x 0
x 0
Solution: Let 0 be any number then we need to find a number 0 so that
the following will be true. | x 0 | whenever 0 x 0
Or upon a little simplification we need to show, x x 2
So, it looks like we can chose 2
Let’s verify this. Let 0 be any number and chose 2
Next assume that 0 x 2 . This gives,| x 0 |= x < 2 =
We now have shown that, | x 0 | whenever 0 x 0 2
and so by the definition of the right-hand limit we have, lim x 0
x 0
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3.4 Infinite Limits, Limit at infinity and Asymptotes
Definition1. Let f(x) be a function defined on an interval that contains a ,
except possibly at a . Then we say that, lim f ( x) if for every
x a
number M 0 there is some number 0 such that f xM
Whenever 0 x a
Definition2. Let f(x) be a function defined on an interval that contains a ,
Except possibly at a . Then we say that, lim f ( x) if for every
x a
number N<0 there is some number 0 such that f xN
whenever 0 x a
No matter how large we choose M to be we can always find an interval around
x a , given by 0 x a for some number , so that as long as we stay within
that interval the graph of the function will be above the line y M as shown in the
graph.
1
Example Use the definition of the limit to prove the following limit. lim x 2
x 0
Solution: Let M 0 be any number and we will need to choose a 0 so that,
1
M whenever 0<|x-0|<
x2
Now we will start with the left inequality and try to get something in the end that
looks like the right inequality. Recall that x 2 = |x|
1 1
2
M x 2 M |x|<
x M
7
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1
So, it looks like we can chose . All we need to do now is verify this guess.
M
1 1
Let M 0 be any number, choose and assume that 0 <|x|<
M M
2 1 2 1 11
Doing this work gives, |x|< |x| < x < 2 M
M M M x
1 1
So, we have managed to show that, 2
M whenever 0<|x-0|<
x M
1
and so by the definition of the limit we have, lim 2
x 0 x
Definition: The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = f(x) if
any one of the following limits holds true:
lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) , lim f ( x)
x a x a x a
1
Example: x= 0 is the vertical asymptote of f ( x)
x2
Limit at infinity and Horizontal asymptotes
Definition:
lim f ( x) L
i. Let f be defined on an interval (a, ), then x for every
> 0 there is a number M > 0 such that if x > M, then | f(x) -L|<
lim f ( x) L
ii. Let f be defined on an interval ( ,a), then x for every > 0
there is a number M < 0 such that if x < M, then | f(x)-L| <
Definition: The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote if either
lim f ( x) L lim f ( x) L
or x
x
Example: The line y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote of f ( x) 1 x
4x 2 1
Example: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of f ( x)
2x 4
Solution: Here the function is undefined for value where
4x 2 1
lim
x 2 2x 4
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Department of Mathematics
Thus, the line x =2 is the vertical asymptote of
To find the horizontal Asymptote
1 1
x 2 (4 ) x (4 2 )
4x 2 1 x 2
x
lim lim lim 1
x 2x 4 4 4
x
x(2 ) x
x(2 )
x x
1 1
x 2 (4 2 ) x (4 2 )
4x 2 1 x x
Again, find lim lim lim 1
x 2x 4 4 4
x
x(2 ) x
x(2 )
x x
Thus, the lines y = 1 and y = -1 are the horizontal asymptote of f(x).
Example: The increase in stress on a soil element located at a depth z vertically
down due to a point load Q applied at a radial distance r is given by
3Q z2 5
Z [ ] 2
(Muni Budhu page 136) Q
2z 2 r 2 z 2 r
Discuss about the stress effect on a soil particle
a) When the depth increase for constant radial distance z
b) When the radial distance increase at a constant depth Soil particle
Solution:
3Q z2 5 3Q 1 5
z [ ] 2 [ ] 2
2z r z
2 2 2
2z 1 ( r ) 2
2
a) z
3Q 1 5 3Q
lim z lim [ ] 2 lim 0
z 2z z 2z
2 2
r 2
z
1 ( )
z
As it is known, as the depth increases the effect of the stress on a particle
is none.
z
( )2 5
3Q z2 5 3Q 3Q z 5 1 5
z [ 2 ] 2 [ r ] 2 ( ) [ ] 2
2z r z
2 2
2z 1 ( z ) 2
2
2z r 1 ( z ) 2
2
b) r r
3
3Q z 5 1 5 3Qz
lim z lim ( ) [ ] 2
lim 0
r 2z r 2r
2 5
r z
r
1 ( ) 2
r
As we are considering a particle farther from the point load keeping the
depth constant, the effect of the stress is none
9
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Addis Ababa Science and Technology University (AASTU) Continuity
Department of Mathematics
3.5 Continuity of a function; One sided continuity; Intermediate Value Theorem
Continuity of function
Definition
A function f(x)is said to be continuous at x a if lim f ( x) f (a)
x a .
Note: For the above definition one should check the following
a) f (a) is defined
b) lim f ( x) exist
x a
c) lim f ( x) f (a)
x a
If f is not continuous at a , then we say that f is discontinuous at a .
x x 2
Example: f ( x) is continuous at 2 because lim x 3 5 f (2)
x3 x 2
sin 2 x
Example: g(x) = 3 6 x if x 0 is continuous at 0.
1 if x 0
sin 2 x
Because lim3 1 f (0)
x 0 6x
x2 x 2
Example: f(x) = x 2 if x 2 is discontinuous at 2
1 if x 2
x2 x 2
Because lim 3 f (2) 1
x2 x2
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Addis Ababa Science and Technology University (AASTU) Continuity
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One sided continuity
Definition:
(a) A function f is said to be continuous from the right at a if lim f ( x) f (a)
x a
(b) A function f is said to be continuous from the left at a if lim f ( x) f (a)
x a
Example: Discuss about the one sided continuity of f ( x) 1 x 2
lim 1 x 2 f (1) 0 lim 1 x 2 f (1) 0
Solution: x1 and x 1
Hence f is continuous to the right of -1 and to the left of 1
Continuity on Intervals
Definition:
1. A function f is said to be continous on (a,b) if it is continous
c (a, b)
2. Afunction f is said to be continous on [a,b) if
a) c (a, b)
b) lim f ( x) f (a)
x a
3. Afunction f is said to be continous on (a,b] if
a) c (a, b)
b) lim f ( x) f (b)
x b
4. Afunction f is said to be continous on [a,b] if
a) c (a, b)
b) lim f ( x) f (a)
x a
c) lim f ( x) f (b)
x b
11
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Example : The function f ( x) 1 x 2 is continous on [1,1]
The function f ( x) x 3 is continous on [3, )
Theorems on Continuity
lim g ( x) b
1. If f xis continuous at x b and x a then,
lim f ( g ( x))
x a
f (lim g ( x) )
xa
sin x
Example: Evaluate lim e
x 0
Solution: Since we know that exponentials are continuous everywhere
we can use the fact above. lim e sin x lim sin x
x 0
0
e x 0 e 1
2. If f and g are continuous at a , and c is a constant then the following are
also continuous at a .
f
f g , f g , cf , where c R, where g (a) 0
g
3. Polynomial, Rationals, Root functions, Trigonometric functions Inverse
trigonometric functions, exponential functions and Logarithmic
functions are continuous on thier domain.
Example: According to scientific finding, the gravitational force exerted by the
earth on a unit mass at a distance r from the center of the planet is
GMr
3 ,rR r R
F (r ) R
GM
2 , rR
r r >R
Where M and r are the mass and radius of the earth respectively and G is the
gravitational constant. Is F a continuous function of r ?
12
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Addis Ababa Science and Technology University (AASTU) Continuity
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Solution: The function f is clearly continuous for, and . The only
place where discontinuity is suspected is at . The function F is said to be
continues at R if lim f (r ) f ( R) lim f (r )
r R r R
GM GM GMr GM GM
Hence, lim f (r ) lim
r R r R r2
2
R
and lim f (r ) lim
r R r R r 3
lim 2 2
r R r R
Thus the function is continuous. This implies that the gravitational force extremely
closer to the surface beneath is the same as closer to the surface above.
Example: Find the constant a and b so that f can be continuous everywhere
ax 3 , x 1
f ( x) 4 , x 1
x 2 b , x 1
Solution: The function f is suspected to be discontinuous at 1; hence continuity
should be assured at 1.Hence lim f ( x) f (a) lim f ( x) Thus,
x a x a
lim ax 3 f (1) a 3 4 a 1
x 1
lim x
2
b f (1) 1 b 4 b 3
x 1
Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)
Let f be continuous on [a, b] and let M be any number between f(a) and f(b), where
f(a) f(b) then there exists at least one number c in (a,b) such that f(c) = M
Example: Show that p( x) 2 x 3 5 x 2 10 x 5 has a root in the interval [-1, 2]
13
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Solution: To do this all we need to do is to compute, and
. Hence
Therefore M = 0 is between p(-1) and p(2) and since p(x) is a polynomial it is
continuous everywhere and so in particular it is continuous on the interval [-1,2].
So by the Intermediate Value Theorem there must be a number -1< c < 2 so that,
p(c) = 0. Therefore the polynomial does have a root between -1 and 2.
For the sake of completeness here is a graph showing the root that we just proved
existed.
Note that we used a computer program to actually find the root and that the
Intermediate Value Theorem did not tell us what this value was.
Example:
When a camera flash goes off, the batteries immediately begin to recharge the
t
flash’s capacitor, which stores electric charge given by Q(t ) Q0 (1 e )
a
(Maximum charge capacity = Q0 in columb and time t in seconds)
Show that it takes between 3 and 5 seconds to recharge the capacitor to 90% of
capacity if a 2 .
Solution:
14
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t t
Q(t ) Q0 (1 e a ) 90% Q0 Q0 (1 e 2 )
t t
0.9 1 e 2 0.1 e 2 0.
t
Thus, take f (t ) 0.1 e 2
3 5
f (3) 0.1 e 2
0.123 0 and f (5) 0.1 e 2
0.018 0
Thus, by intermediate value theorem the time to charge 90% of its maximum
charge is between 3 and 5 seconds.
t
Note: 0.1 e 0 t 2 ln( 0.1) 4.605 sec
2
15
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University
Department of Mathematics
Lectures for Applied Mathematics
Lecture Title: Derivatives and their applications Academic Year: 2021/22
Course code: Math1014 Semester: Second
Course Title: Applied Mathematics-IB Year of study: Freshman
Enrollment: Regular Target Group: Engineering & Applied
Chapter 4
Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
4.1 Definition, examples & properties of derivatives
4.1.1 Basic Definition of derivative
Definition 4.1.1 — Tangent Line. The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P(a, f (a)) is the
line passing through the point (a, f (a)) having slope
f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)
m = lim = lim (4.1)
h→0 h x→a x−a
provided this limit exists.
We can find an equation of the tangent line at P by using the point-slope form of an equation of aline.
Thus,
y = m(x − a) + f (a)
Definition 4.1.2 The normal line to a curve at a given point is the line perpendicular to the tangent line
at that Point.
■ Example 4.1.1 — Finding a tangent line. Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2
at the point P(1, 1). ■
Solution. To find the slope of the tangent line at the point P(1, 1), we use Equation (4.1) with a = 1,
obtaining
f (1 + h) − f (1)
m = lim
h→0 h
2
(1 + h) − 1 h(2 + h)
= lim = lim =2
h→0 h h→0 h
To find an equation of the tangent line, we use the point-slope form of an equation of a line to obtain
y − f (a) = m(x − a) ⇒ y − 1 = 2(x − 1)
⇒ y = 2x − 1
■ Example 4.1.2 Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = 1x at x = 2. ■
@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB
4.1.1 Basic Definition of derivative 3
Solution. Again we use Equation (4.1) with a = 2
1
f (x) − f (2) −1
m = lim = lim x 2
x→2 x−2 x→2 x − 2
1
x − 12 2x (2 − x)
= lim = lim
x→2 x − 2 2x x→2 (x − 2)(2x)
−1 1
= lim =−
x→2 2x 4
To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a point on the line. We know that f (2) = 12 . Now we use
the point-slope equation of a line to find the equation of the tangent line.
1 1
y − f (a) = m(x − a) ⇒ y − = − (x − 2)
2 4
1 3
⇒ y = − x+
4 4
√
■ Example 4.1.3 Find an equation of the normal line to the curve y = x − 3 which is parallel to the
line 6x + 3y − 4 = 0. ■
Solution. Let ℓ be the given line. To find the slope of ℓ, we write its equation in the slope-intercept form,
which is
4
y = −2x +
3
Therefore, the slope of ℓ is −2 and the slope of the desired normal line is also −2 because the two lines
are parallel. √ √
f (x) − f (a) x−3− a−3
m = lim = lim
x→a x−a x→a x−a
√ √ √ √
x−3− a−3 x−3− a−3
= lim √ √
x→a x−a x−3+ a−3
(x − 3) − (a − 3) 1 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √
x→a (x − a) x−3+ a−3 x→a x − 3 + a − 3 2 a−3
Because the normal line at a point is perpendicular to the tangent line at that
√ point, the product of their
slopes is −1. Hence, the slope of the normal line√at (a, f (a)) is given by −2 a − 3. Since the slope of the
desired line is −2, so we solve the equation −2 a − 3 = −2 ⇒ a = 4. Therefore, the desired line is the
line through point (4, 1) on the curve and has a slope of −2. Using the point-slope form of an equation of
a line we obtain,
y = −2(x − 4) + 1 ⇒ y = −2x + 9
Definition 4.1.3 — Derivative. The derivative of a function f with respect to x is the function f ′
defined by the rule
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim (4.2)
h→0 h
The domain of f ′ consists of all values of x for which the limit exists.
@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB
4.1.1 Basic Definition of derivative 4
R If we let x = a + h, then h = x − a. Hence h → 0 iff x → a. Therefore,
f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (x) = lim . (4.3)
x→a x−a
The following are two interpretations of derivatives:
1. Geometric Interpretation of the Derivative: The derivative f ′ of a function f is a measure of the
slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at any point (x, f (x)), provided that the derivative exists.
2. Physical Interpretation of the Derivative: The derivative f ′ of a function f measures the instanta-
neous rate of change of f at x.
Note:
1. The value of the derivative of f at a is denoted by f ′ (a)
2. The tangent line to y = f (x) at (a, f (a)) is the line through (a, f (a)) whose slope is equal to f ′ (a).
3. A function f (x) is said to be differentiable at a if f ′ (a) exists. More generally, a differentiable
function is one in which f ′ (x) exists on its domain.
Other Notation:
If we denote the dependent variable by y so that y = f (x), then some common alternative notations for
the derivative are as follows:
dy d f d
f ′ (x) = y′ = = = f (x) = D f (x) = Dx f (x).
dx dx dx
df
The value of the derivative at a is denoted by
dx x=a
■ Example 4.1.4 — Finding a Derivative. For f (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 1, find f ′ (2) ■
Solution. We can use either Equation (4.2) or (4.3) to get the same value.
Using Equation (4.2), we substitute the two values of the function into the equation to obtain
f (2 + h) − f (2)
f ′ (2) = lim
h→0 h
(3(2 + h)2 − 4(2 + h) + 1) − 5 h(3h + 8)
= lim = lim = 8
h→0 h h→0 h
Again using Equation (4.3), we substitute the given function and value directly into the equation
f (x) − f (2) (3x2 − 4x + 1) − 5
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
(x − 2)(3x + 2)
= lim = lim (3x + 2) = 8
x→2 x−2 x→2
√
■ Example 4.1.5 Find the derivative of f (x) = x ■
Solution. We directly apply the√definition of derivatives
√ given√in equation
√ (4.2) to get
√ √
′ x + h − x x + h − x x + h + x
f (x) = lim = lim ·√ √
h→0 h h→0 h x+h+ x
h 1 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √
h→0 h x+h+ x h→0 x+h+ x 2 x
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4.1.1 Basic Definition of derivative 5
p
■ Example 4.1.6 Let f (x) = 5 − x2 . Then find
′
1. f (x) and determine the domain of the derivative function
2. an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = −1
■
Solution. 1. From the definition for derivatives
p given in Equation
√ (4.2) we have,
f (x + h) − f (x) 5 − (x + h) − 5 − x2
2
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
p √ ! p √ !
2 2
5 − (x + 2xh + h ) − 5 − x 2 5 − (x2 + 2xh + h2 ) + 5 − x2
= lim p √
h→0 h 5 − (x2 + 2xh + h2 ) + 5 − x2
(5 − x2 − 2xh − h2 ) − (5 − x2 )
= lim p √
h→0 h 2 2
5 − (x + 2xh + h ) + 5 − x 2
−2x − h −2x x
= lim p √ =√ √ = −√
h→0 5 − (x2 + 2xh + h2 ) + 5 − x2 5 − x2 + 5 − x2 5 − x2
√ √ √ √
Since f ′ (x) exists for − 5 < x < 5, then the domain of f ′ (x) is (− 5, 5).
2. The slope m of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = −1 is
−(−1) 1
f ′ (−1) = p =
5 − (−1)2 2
x−2 dy
■ Example 4.1.7 Let y = . Find ■
1−x dx
Solution.
(x+h)−2 x−2
dy f (x + h) − f (x) 1−(x+h) − 1−x
= lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
−x + x + h − xh − 2 + 2x − [−x2 + 2x − xh + 2h + x − 2]
2
= lim
h→0 h(1 − x − h)(1 − x)
−h −1
= lim =
h→0 h(1 − x − h)(1 − x) (1 − x)2
■ Example 4.1.8 Calculate the instantaneous velocity at time t = 5 of an automobile whose position at
time t seconds is given by g(t) = t 3 + 4t 2 + 10 feet. ■
Solution. We know that the required instantaneous velocity is g′ (5). So that we calculate
g(5 + h) − g(5)
g′ (5) = lim
h→0 h
(5 + h)3 + 4(5 + h)2 + 10 − [53 + 4(5)2 + 10]
= lim
h→0 h
2
115h + 19h + h 3
= lim = lim 115 + 19h + h2 = 115
h→0 h h→0
We conclude that the instantaneous velocity of the moving body at time t = 5 is g′ (5) = 115 f t/sec.
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4.1.1 Basic Definition of derivative 6
■ Example 4.1.9 A rubber balloon is losing air steadily. At time t minutes the balloon contains
75 − 10t 2 + t cubic inches of air. What is the rate of loss of air in the balloon at time t = 1? ■
Solution. Let f (t) = 75 − 10t 2 + t. We calculate
f (1 + h) − f (1) −19h − 10h2
f ′ (1) = lim = lim = −19
h→0 h h→0 h
In this case, the rate of air loss in the balloon at time t = 1 is f ′ (1) = −19 f t 3 /sec. The negative sign in
this answer indicates that the change is negative, i.e., that the quantity is decreasing.
Theorem 4.1.1 — Differentiability Implies Continuity. Let f be a function and a be in its domain. If f
is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
Proof. If f is differentiable at a, then f ′ (a) exists and, if x is in the domain of f and x ̸= a, we need to
show that f (x) is continuous at a by showing that lim f (x) = f (a). Thus,
x→a
f (x) − f (a)
lim f (x) = lim f (x) − f (a) + f (a) = lim · (x − a) + f (a)
x→a x→a x→a x−a
f (x) − f (a)
= lim · lim (x − a) + lim f (a) = f ′ (a) · 0 + f (a) = f (a)
x→a x−a x→a x→a
and this shows that f is continuous at a, as asserted. ■
We have just proven that differentiability implies continuity, but now let’s consider some situations in
which a continuous function fails to be differentiable.
• The function f (x) = |x| is continuous everywhere; however, f ′ (0) is doesn’t exist.
f (x) − f (0) |x| − |0| |x|
f ′ (0) = lim = lim = lim .
x→0 x−0 x→0 x − 0 x→0 x
This limit does not exist because
|x| |x|
lim = −1 and lim =1
x→0 − x x→0 + x
√
• Consider the function f (x) = 3 x √
′
3
x−0 1
f (0) = lim = lim √3 2
= +∞.
x→0 x − 0 x→0 x
Thus f ′ (0) does not exist.
■ Example 4.1.10 — A Piece-wise Function that is Continuous and Differentiable. A toy company
wants to design a track for a toy car that starts out along a parabolic curve and then converts to a straight
(
1 2
x + bx + c, if x < −10
line. The function that describes the track is to have the form f (x) = 101
− 4 x + 25 , if x ≥ −10
where x and f (x) are in inches. For the car to move smoothly along the track, the function f (x) must be
both continuous and differentiable at −10. Find values of b and c that make f (x) both continuous and
differentiable. ■
Solution. For the function to be continuous at x = −10, lim f (x) = f (−10).
x→10−
1
lim f (x) = (−10)2 − 10b + c = 10 − 10b + c = f (−10) = 5 ⇒ c = 10b − 5.
x→−10− 10
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4.1.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation 7
For the function to be differentiable at −10
f (x) − f (−10)
f ′ (10) = lim
x→−10 x + 10
must exist. Hence,
1 2
f (x) − f (−10) 10 x + bx + c − 5
lim = lim
x→−10− x + 10 x→−10− x + 10
1 2
10 x + bx + (10b − 5) − 5
= lim
x→−10− x + 10
x2 − 100 + 10bx + 100b
= lim
x→−10− 10(x + 10)
(x + 10)(x − 10 + 10b)
= lim = b−2
x→−10− 10(x + 10)
We also have
f (x) − f (−10) − 14 x + 52 − 5
lim = lim
x→−10+ x + 10 x→−10+ x + 10
−(x + 10) 1
= lim = −
x→−10+ 4(x + 10) 4
This gives us, b − 2 = − 14 . Thus b = 7 7 25
4 and c = 10 4 −5 = 2.
4.1.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation
d
Theorem 4.1.2 — Derivative of a Constant Function. If c is a constant, then (c) = 0.
dx
Theorem 4.1.3 — The Power Rule. If n is any real number and f (x) = xn , then
d n
f ′ (x) = (x ) = nxn−1 .
dx
■ Example 4.1.11 — Applying the Power Rule. If
d
1. f (x) = x14 , then f ′ (x) = (x14 ) = 14x14−1 = 14x13
dx
1 d 1 d −6
2. f (x) = 6 , then f (x) = ( 6 ) = (x−6 ) = −6x−6−1 = 7
′
x dx x dx x
■
Theorem 4.1.4 — The Constant Multiple Rule. If f is a differentiable function and c is a constant, then
d d
[c f (x)] = c [ f (x)]
dx dx
Theorem 4.1.5 — The Sum Rule. If f and g are differentiable functions, then
d d d
[ f (x) ± g(x)] = [ f (x)] ± [g(x)] = f ′ (x) ± g′ (x)
dx dx dx
■ Example 4.1.12 Find the derivative of f (x) = 2x6 + 3x4 − 4x3 + x2 − 5x + 9 ■
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4.1.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation 8
Solution.
′ d h 6 4 3 2
i
f (x) = 2x + 3x − 4x + x − 5x + 9
dx
d d d d d d
= 2 (x6 ) + 3 (x4 ) − 4 (x3 ) + (x2 ) − 5 (x) + (9)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
5 3 2
= 12x + 12x − 12x + 2x − 5
Theorem 4.1.6 — The Product Rule. Let f (x) and g(x) be differentiable functions. Then
d d d
[ f (x)g(x)] = g(x) [ f (x)] + f (x) [g(x)] = f ′ (x)g(x) + g′ (x) f (x)
dx dx dx
■ Example 4.1.13 Find the derivative of p(x) = (x2 + 2)(3x3 − 5x) ■
Solution. If we set f (x) = x2 + 2 and g(x) = 3x3 − 5x, then
p′ (x) = f ′ (x)g(x) + g′ (x) f (x) = (2x)(3x3 − 5x) + (9x2 − 5)(x2 + 2)
=2x(3x3 ) − 2x(5x) + 9x2 (x2 ) + 9x2 (2) − 5(x2 ) − 5(2)
=6x4 − 10x2 + 9x4 + 18x2 − 5x2 − 10 = 15x4 + 3x2 − 10
To check, we see that p(x) = 3x5 + x3 − 10x and, consequently, p′ (x) = 15x4 + 3x2 − 10.
√
■ Example 4.1.14 Find the derivative of f (x) = (x2 − 1)( x − 2x). ■
Solution.
√ d d √
f ′ (x) =( x − 2x) (x2 − 1) + (x2 − 1) ( x − 2x)
dx dx
√ √
2 d d
=( x − 2x)(2x) + (x − 1) ( x) − (2x)
dx dx
√ √ x2 − 1
1
=2x x − 4x2 + (x2 − 1) √ −2 = 2 x − 6x2 + √ + 2
2 x 2 x
Theorem 4.1.7 — The Quotient Rule. If f and g are differentiable functions and g(x) ̸= 0, then
f ′ (x)g(x) − g′ (x) f (x)
d f (x)
= 2 .
dx g(x) g(x)
x2 − x
■ Example 4.1.15 Find the derivative of f (x) = 3 ■
x +1
Solution.
d d
d x2 − x (x3 + 1) dx (x2 − x) − (x2 − x) dx (x3 + 1)
′
f (x) = =
dx x3 + 1 (x3 + 1)2
(x3 + 1)(2x − 1) − (x2 − x)(3x2 ) (2x4 − x3 + 2x − 1) − (3x4 − 3x3 )
= =
(x3 + 1)2 (x3 + 1)2
−x4 + 2x3 + 2x − 1
=
(x3 + 1)2
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4.1.3 The Chain Rule 9
4.1.3 The Chain Rule
Theorem 4.1.8 — The Chain Rule. If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x), then the
composite function h(x) = ( f · g)(x) = f g(x) is differentiable at x and h′ is given by the product
h′ (x) = f ′ g(x) · g′ (x).
Also, if we write u = g(x) and y = f (u) = f (g(x)), then
dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx
■ Example 4.1.16 Find the derivative of h(x) = (2x + 1)5 (3x − 2)7 ■
Solution. First apply the product rule, then apply the chain rule to each term of the product.
d d
h′ (x) = (2x + 1)5 · (3x − 2)7 + (3x − 2)7 · (2x + 1)5
dx dx
= 5(2x + 1) · 2(3x − 2) + 7(3x − 2)6 · 3 · (2x + 1)5
4 7
= 10(2x + 1)4 (3x − 2)7 + 21(3x − 2)6 (2x + 1)5
= (2x + 1)4 (3x − 2)6 (10(3x − 2) + 21(2x + 1))
= (2x + 1)4 (3x − 2)6 (72x + 1)
dy
■ Example 4.1.17 Find if y = u3 − u2 + u + 1 and u = x3 + 1 ■
dx
Solution.
dy dy du
= = (3u2 − 2u + 1)(3x2 )
dx du dx
= 3x2 (3x6 + 4x3 + 2)
4.2 Derivatives of; Inverse, Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
4.2.1 Derivatives of Inverse Functions
Theorem 4.2.1 — Inverse Function Theorem. Let f (x) be a function that is both
invertible and
−1 ′ −1
differentiable. Let y = f (x) be the inverse of f (x). For all x satisfying f f (x) ̸= 0
dy d −1 ′ 1
= f (x) = f −1 (x) = ′ −1 .
dx dx f f (x)
1
Alternatively, if y = g(x) is the inverse of f (x), then g′ (x) = ′ .
f g(x)
x+2
■ Example 4.2.1 Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of g(x) = . ■
x
x+2 2
Solution. The inverse of g(x) = is f (x) = . We will use Equation (4.2.1) and begin by finding
x x−1
−2 ′ −2 −2 x2
f ′ (x). Thus, f ′ (x) =
and f g(x) = = 2
= − .
(x − 1)2 (g(x) − 1)2 2
x+2
−1
x
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4.2.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 10
1 2
Finally, g′ (x) = = − 2.
f′ g(x) x
4.2.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Theorem 4.2.2 — Rules for Differentiating Trigonometric Functions.
d d
(sin x) = cos x (csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx dx
d d
(cos x) = − sin x (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx dx
d d
(tan x) = sec2 x (cot x) = − csc2 x
dx dx
Proof.
d sin(x + h) − sin x sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
(sin x) = lim = lim
dx h→0
h h→0
h
sin x cos h − sin x cos x sin h
= lim +
h→0 h h
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x + (cos x)
h→0 h h
cos h − 1 sin h
= (sin x) lim + (cos x) lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= (sin x)(0) + (cos x)(1) = cos x
■
■ Example 4.2.2 Differentiate y = cos4 (7x2 + 1). ■
■ Example 4.2.3 Find the derivative of
4
(a) f (x) = sec(4x5 + 2x)
(c) h(x) = 1 + cos 3x2
sin x
(b) g(x) = (sec x)(x − tan x) (d) k(x) =
1 − 2 cos x
■
Definition 4.2.1 — Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
Inverse function Domain
y = sin−1 x iff x = sin y [−1, 1]
y = cos−1 x iff x = cos y [−1, 1]
−1
y = tan x iff x = tan y (−∞, ∞)
−1
y = csc x iff x = csc y (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
y = sec−1 x iff x = sec y (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
y = cot−1 x iff x = cot y (−∞, ∞)
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4.2.3 Hyperbolic Functions 11
Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
sin(sin−1 x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
π π
sin−1 (sin x) = x for − ≤x≤
2 2
cos(cos−1 x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
−1
cos (cos x) = x for 0≤x≤π
−1
tan(tan x) = x for −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞
π π
tan−1 (tan x) = x for − ≤x≤
2 2
Theorem 4.2.3 — Rules for Differentiating Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
d 1 d 1
sin−1 x = √ csc−1 x = − √
dx 1 − x2 dx |x| x2 − 1
d 1 d 1
cos−1 x = − √ sec−1 x = √
dx 1 − x2 dx |x| x2 − 1
d 1 d 1
tan−1 x = cot−1 x = −
dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + x2
Proof. We
πuseπ the inverse function theorem to find the −1 derivative of g(x) = sin−1 x Since for x in the
interval − 2 , 2 , f (x) = sin x is the inverse of g(x) = sin x begin by finding f ′ (x). Since f ′ (x) = cos x
and p
f ′ g(x) = cos sin−1 x = 1 − x2
we see that
d 1 1
g′ (x) = sin−1 x = ′
=√
dx f g(x) 1 − x2
■
4.2.3 Hyperbolic Functions
Definition 4.2.2 — The Hyperbolic Functions.
ex − e−x 1
sinh x = cschx =
2 sinh x
ex + e−x 1
cosh x = sechx =
2 cosh x
sinh x cosh x
tanh x = coth x =
cosh x sinh x
R The domain of coth x and cschx is x ̸= 0 while the domain of the other hyperbolic functions is all real
numbers.
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4.2.3 Hyperbolic Functions 12
Theorem 4.2.4 — Hyperbolic Identities.
sinh(−x) = − sinh x cosh(−x) = − cosh(x)
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 sech2 x = 1 − tanhx
sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh x sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y cosh2 x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
1 1
cosh2 x = (1 + cosh 2x) sinh2 x = (−1 + cosh 2x)
2 2
Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
Theorem 4.2.5 — Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions.
d d
(sinh x) = cosh x (cschx) = −cschx coth x
dx dx
d d
(cosh x) = sinh x (sechx) = −sechx tanh x
dx dx
d d
(tanh x) = sechx (coth x) = −cschx
dx dx
Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Definition 4.2.3 — Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions Domain
y = sinh−1 x iff x = sinh y [−∞, ∞]
y = cosh−1 x iff x = cosh y [1, ∞]
−1
y = tanh x iff x = tanh y (−1, 1)
−1
y = csch x iff x = cschy (−∞, 0) ∩ (0, ∞)
y = sech−1 x iff x = sechy (0, 1]
y = coth−1 x iff x = coth y (−∞, −1] ∩ [1, ∞)
Representations of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
in Terms
of Logarithmic Functions
p
−1
sinh x = ln x + x2 + 1 (−∞, ∞)
p
cosh−1 x = ln x + x2 − 1 [1, ∞)
1 1+x
tanh−1 x = ln (−1, 1)
2 1−x
We proof the first and left the others as an exercise for the students. Let y = sinh−1 x. Then
ey − e−y
x = sinh y =
2
−y
⇒e − 2x − e = 0 ⇒ e2y − 2xey − 1 = 0
y
p
Using the quadratic formula, we have ey = x ± x2 + 1.
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4.3 Higher-Order Derivatives and Implicit Differentiation 13
√ √
As x < p x2 + 1, only the rootx + px2 + 1 is
admissible. Therefore, we have
y
e = x + x2 + 1.so y = ln x + x2 + 1
p
That is, sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 .
Theorem 4.2.6 — Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.
d 1 d 1
sinh−1 x = √ csch−1 x = − √
dx x2 + 1 dx |x| x2 + 1
d 1 d 1
cosh−1 x = √ sech−1 x = − √
dx x2 − 1 dx x 1 − x2
d 1 d 1
tanh−1 x = coth−1 x =
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − x2
Proof. The derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic functions can be found by using the inverse functions
method or differentiating the logarithmic function directly. Let y = sinh−1 x, so sinh y = x. Then
d
sinh y = cosh(y) · y′ = 1,
dx
1 1 1
and so y′ = =p =√ .
cosh y 2
1 + sinh y 1 + x2
And
d d p
(cosh−1 x) = ln x + x2 − 1
dx dx
1 x
= √ 1+ √
x + x2 − 1 x2 − 1 !
√
1 x2 − 1 + x
= √ √
x + x2 − 1 x2 − 1
1
=√
x2 − 1
■
4.3 Higher-Order Derivatives and Implicit Differentiation
4.3.1 Higher order derivatives
The derivative f ′ of a function f is itself a function. As such, we may consider differentiating the function
f ′ . The derivative of f ′ , if it exists, is denoted by f ′′ and is called the second derivative of f . Continuing
in this fashion, we are led to the third, fourth, fifth, and higher-order derivatives of f , whenever they exist.
Notations for the first, second, third, and in general, the nth derivative of f are
f ′ , f ′′ , f ′′′ , · · · , f (n)
or
d d2 d3 dn
[ f (x)], 2 [ f (x)], 3 [ f (x)], · · · , n [(x)]
dx dx dx dx
respectively.
■ Example 4.3.1 For f (x) = 2x2 − 3x + 1, f ′ (x) = 4x − 3 and f ′′ (x) = 4 ■
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4.3.2 Implicit Differentiation 14
■ Example 4.3.2 If f (x) = 1x , then
1 ′′ 2 6 24
f ′ (x) = − 2
, f (x) = 3 , f ′′′ (x) = − 4 , f (4) (x) = 5
x x x x
■
■ Example 4.3.3 The position of a particle moving along a straight line is given by
s = f (t) = 2t 3 − 15t 2 + 24t, t ≥ 0
where t is measured in seconds and s in feet.
(a) Find an expression giving the velocity of the particle at any time t. What are the velocity and
speed of the particle when t = 2?
(b) Determine the position of the particle when it is stationary.
(c) Find the acceleration function of the particle. What is the acceleration of the particle when t = 2?
(d) When is the acceleration zero? Positive? Negative?
■
Solution. (a) The required velocity of the particle is given by
ds
v(t) = = f ′ (t) = 6t 2 − 30t + 24 = 6(t − 1)(t − 4)
dt
The velocity of the particle when t = 2 is
v(2) = 6(2 − 1)(2 − 4) = −12
The speed of the particle when t = 2 is |v(2)| = 12 ft/sec. In short, the particle is moving in the
negative direction at a speed of 12 ft/sec.
(b) The particle is stationary when its velocity is equal to zero. Setting v(t) = 0 gives
v(t) = 6(t − 1)(t − 4) = 0
and we see that the particle is stationary at t = 1 and t = 4. Its position at t = 1 is given by
f (1) = 2(1)3 − 15(1)2 + 24(1) = 11
Its position at t = 4 is given by
f (4) = 2(4)3 − 15(4)2 + 24(4) = −16
dv
(c) a(t) = = f ′′ (t) = 12t − 30
dt
In particular, the acceleration of the particle when t = 2 is
a(2) = 12(2) − 30 = −6
The particle is decelerating at 6 f t/sec2 when t = 2.
(d) The acceleration of the particle is zero when a(t) = 0, or
5
12t − 30 = 0 ⇒ t = .
2
Since 2t − 5 < 0 when t < 25 and 2t − 5 > 0 when t > 52 , we also conclude that the acceleration is
negative for 0 < t < 52 and positive for t > 25 .
4.3.2 Implicit Differentiation
dy
Suppose that a function y = f (x) is defined implicitly via an equation in x and y. To compute use the
dx
following steps:
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x. Make sure that the derivative of any term
dy
involving y includes the factor
dx
dy
2. Solve the resulting equation for in terms of x and y.
dx
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4.4 Applications of Derivatives 15
dy
■ Example 4.3.4 If 2x2 y2 − 3x3 + 5y3 + 6xy2 = 5, find . ■
dx
Solution. Follow the steps in the problem-solving strategy above to get
dy 9x2 − 6y2 − 4xy2
=
dx 4xy2 + 15y2 + 12xy
dy π
■ Example 4.3.5 Find at ( , π), if x sin y − y cos 2x = 2x ■
dx 2
dy 4
Solution. =
dx 2 − π
■ Example 4.3.6 Find an equation of the tangent line to the bifolium 4x4 + 8x2 y2 − 25x2 y + 4y4 = 0 at
the point (2, 1). ■
dy dy
Solution. The slope of the tangent line to the bifolium at any point (x, y) is given by . To compute ,
dx dx
we differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x to obtain
d d
4x4 + 8x2 y2 − 25x2 y + 4y4 =
0
dx dx
dy dy dy
⇒ 16x3 + 16x2 y + 16xy2 − 25x2 − 50xy + 16y3 = 0
dx dx dx
dy
By substituting x = 2 and y = 1 into the last equation, we obtain = 3. Using the slope-intercept form
dx
for an equation of a line, we see that an equation of the tangent line is y = 3x − 5
■ Example 4.3.7 Find y′ implicitly for y4 + x4 = 16. Then find the value of y′′ at the point (−2, 0). ■
x3
Solution. 4y3 y′ + 4x3 = 0 ⇒ y′
= − 3 .To find y′′ we differentiate this expression for y′ using the Quotient
y
Rule and remembering that y is a function of x:
3 2 3 3 2 ′ 3x 2 y3 − 3x2 y3 − x3
d x 3x y − 3x y y y3
y′′ = − 3 =− 6
=− 6
dy y y y
2 4
3x (x + y )4 2
3x (16) 48x 2
=− 7
=− 7
=− 7
y y y
4.4 Applications of Derivatives
4.4.1 Related Rate
In a related rates problem the idea is to compute the rate of change of one quantity in terms of the rate of
change of another quantity (which may be more easily measured). The procedure is to find an equation
that relates the two quantities and then use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides with respect to time.
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4.4.1 Related Rate 16
Guidelines for Solving a Related Rates Problem
1. Label the variable quantities involved in the problem and draw a figure if applicable.
2. Write down the given values of the variables and their rates of change with respect to t.
3. Find an equation that relates the variables.
4. Differentiate both sides of this equation implicitly with respect to t.
5. Replace the variables and derivative in the resulting equation by the values found in Step 2,
and solve this equation for the required rate of change.
■ Example 4.4.1 A rocket is launched so that it rises vertically. A camera is positioned 5000ft from
the launch pad. When the rocket is 1000 f t above the launch pad, its velocity is 600 f t/sec. Find the
necessary rate of change of the camera’s angle as a function of time so that it stays focused on the rocket.
■
Solution. Step 1. Draw a picture introducing the variables.
Figure 4.1: A camera is positioned 5000 ft from the launch pad of the rocket.
Let h denote the height of the rocket above the launch pad and θ be the angle between the camera lens
and the ground.
Step 2. We are trying to find the rate of change in the angle of the camera with respect to time when
the rocket is 1000 ft off the ground. That is, we need to find dθdt when h = 1000 f t. At that time, we know
dh
the velocity of the rocket is dt = 600 f t/sec.
Step 3. Now we need to find an equation relating the two quantities that are changing with respect to
time: h and θ . How can we create such an equation? Using the fact that we have drawn a right triangle, it
is natural to think about trigonometric functions. Recall that tan θ is the ratio of the length of the opposite
side of the triangle to the length of the adjacent side. Thus, we have
h
tan θ = .
5000
This gives us the equation
h = 5000 tan θ .
Step 4. Differentiating this equation with respect to time t, we obtain
dh dθ
= 5000 sec2 θ .
dt dt
Step 5. We want to find dθ dh
dt when h = 1000 f t. At this time, we know that dt = 600 f t/sec. We need to
determine sec2 θ . Recall that sec θ is the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the adjacent
side. We know the length of the adjacent side is 5000 f t. To determine the length of the hypotenuse, we use
the Pythagorean theorem, where the length of one leg is 5000 f t, the length of the other leg is h = 1000 f t,
and the length of the hypotenuse is c feet as shown in the following figure.
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4.4.1 Related Rate 17
We see that
10002 + 50002 = c2
and we conclude that the hypotenuse is √
c = 1000 26 ft.
Therefore, when h = 1000, we have
√ !2
1000 26 26
sec2 θ = = .
5000 25
Recall from step 4 that the equation relating dθ
dt to our known values is
dh dθ
= 5000 sec2 θ .
dt dt
26
When h = 1000 f t, we know that dh 2
dt = 600 and sec θ = 25 . Substituting these values into the previous
equation, we arrive at the equation
26 dθ
600 = 5000 .
25 dt
dθ 3
Therefore, = rad/sec.
dt 26
■ Example 4.4.2 Water is draining from the bottom of a cone-shaped funnel at the rate of 0.03 ft3 /sec.
The height of the funnel is 2 ft and the radius at the top of the funnel is 1 ft. At what rate is the height of
the water in the funnel changing when the height of the water is 12 ft? ■
Solution. Step 1: Draw a picture introducing the variables.
Let h denote the height of the water in the funnel, r denote the radius of the water at its surface, and V
denote the volume of the water.
1
Step 2: We need to determine dh dV
dt when h = 2 ft. We know that dt = −0.03 ft/sec.
Step 3: The volume of water in the cone is
1
V = πr2 h.
3
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4.4.2 Extrema of a Function 18
From the figure, we see that we have similar triangles. Therefore, the ratio of the sides in the two triangles
is the same. Therefore, hr = 21 or r = h2 . Using this fact, the equation for volume can be simplified to
2
1 h π
V= π h = h3 .
3 2 12
Step 4: Applying the chain rule while differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to time t, we
obtain
dV π dh
= h2 .
dt 4 dt
1
Step 5: We want to find dh
dt when h = 2 ft. Since water is leaving at the rate of 0.03 ft3 /sec, we know that
dV 3
dt = −0.03 ft /sec. Therefore, 2
π 1 dh
−0.03 = ,
4 2 dt
which implies
π dh
−0.03 = .
16 dt
It follows that
dh 0.48
=− = −0.153 ft/sec.
dt π
4.4.2 Extrema of a Function
Definition 4.4.1 — Extrema of a function. A function f has an absolute maximum at c if f (x) ≤ f (c)
for all x in the domain D of f . The number f (c) is called the maximum value of f on D. Similarly, f
has an absolute minimum at c if f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x in D. The number f (c) is called the minimum
value of f on D. The absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f on D are called the
extreme values, or extrema, of f on D.
Definition 4.4.2 — Relative Extrema of a Function. A function f has a relative (or local) maximum at
c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all values of x in some open interval containing c. Similarly, f has a relative (or
local) minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all values of x in some open interval containing c.
Figure 4.2: Abs min f (a), abs max f (d), loc min f (c) , f (e), loc max f (b), f (d)
Theorem 4.4.1 — Fermath’s Theorem. If f has a relative extremum at c, then either f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c)
does not exist.
Definition 4.4.3 — Critical Number of a function. A critical number of a function f is any number c
in the domain of f at which f (c) = 0 or f ′ does not exist.
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4.4.2 Extrema of a Function 19
√
■ Example 4.4.3 — Locating critical points. Find the critical numbers of f (x) = x − 3 3 x ■
2
′ x3 − 1
Solution. f = 2 . Then the critical numbers are −1, 0, and 1.
x3
Theorem 4.4.2 — The Extreme Value Theorem. Let f be continuous on a closed, bounded interval
[a, b]. Then f has a maximum and a minimum value on [a, b].
Guidelines for Finding the Extrema of a Continuous Function f on [a, b]
1. Find the critical numbers of f that lie in (a, b).
2. Compute the value of f at each of these critical numbers, and also compute f (a) and f (b).
3. The absolute maximum value of f and the absolute minimum value of f are precisely the
largest and the smallest numbers found in Step 2.
■Example 4.4.4 For each of the following functions, find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum
over the specified interval and state where those values occur.
(a) f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 8 on [−1, 2]
(b) f (x) = x2 − 3x2/3 on [0, 2]
(c) f (x) = 2 cos x − x on [0, 2π]
■
Solution. (a) Since f is a polynomial function, it is continuous everywhere; in particular, it is continu-
ous on the closed interval [−1, 2]. Therefore, we can use the Extreme Value Theorem. First, we find
the critical numbers of f in (−1, 2):
f ′ (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 = 12x2 (x − 1)
Observe that f ′ (x) is continuous on (−1, 2). Next, setting f ′ (x) = 0 gives x = 0 or x = 1. Therefore,
0 and 1 are the only critical numbers of f in (−1, 2). Next, we compute f (x) at these critical numbers
as well as at the endpoints −1 and 2. These values are f (0) = −8, f (1) = −9, f (−1) = −1 and
f (2) = 8 Thus, f attains the absolute maximum value of 8 at 2 and the absolute minimum value of
−9 at 1.
(b) Evaluate f at the endpoints x = 0 and x = 2.
f (0) = 0 and f (2) = 4 − 3 (2)2/3 ≈ −0.762
The derivative of f is given by
2 2x4/3 − 2
f ′ (x) = 2x − 1/3 =
x x1/3
4
for x ̸= 0. The derivative is zero when 2x 3 −2 = 0, which implies x = ±1. The derivative is undefined
at x = 0. Therefore, the critical points of f are x = 0, 1, −1. The point x = 0 is an endpoint, so we
already evaluated f (0). The point x = −1 is not in the interval of interest, so we need only evaluate
f (1). We find that
f (1) = −2.
We conclude that the absolute maximum of f over the interval [0, 2] is zero, and it occurs at x = 0.
The absolute minimum is −2, and it occurs at x = 1.
(c) The function f is continuous everywhere; in particular, it is continuous on the closed interval [0, 2π].
Therefore, the Extreme Value Theorem is applicable. First, we find the critical numbers of f in
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4.4.3 The Mean Value Theorem 20
(0, 2π). We have f ′ (x) = −2 sin x − 1 = 0 Observe that f ′ (x)is continuous on (0, 2π). Next, setting
f ′ (x) = 0gives
1
−2 sin x − 1 = 0 ⇒ sin x = −
2
Thus, x = 7π 11π 7π 11π
6 or 6 .(Remember x lies in (0, 2π).) So 6 or 6 are the only critical numbers of f in
(0, 2π).
Next, we compute the values of f at these critical numbers as well as at the endpoints 0 and 2π.
These values are
7π √ 7π
f (0) =2, f (2π) = 2 − 2π = −4.28, f ( ) = − 3 − = −5.40,
6 6
11π √ 7π
f( ) = 3− = −4.03.
6 6
Thus, f attains the absolute maximum value of 2 at 0 and the absolute minimum value of approxi-
mately −5.4 at 7π6 .
4.4.3 The Mean Value Theorem
The Mean Value Theorem has powerful consequences for derivatives and integrals, and enters into solutions
of applied problems.
We begin with a special case of the Mean Value Theorem called Rolle’s Theorem, which is named
after the seventeenth-century French mathematician Michel Rolle(Pronounced "Role.").
Theorem 4.4.3 — Rolle’s Theorem. Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If
f (a) = f (b), then there exists at least one number c in (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.
Figure 4.3: Rolle’s Theorem says that a differentiable curve has at least one horizontal tangent between
any two points where it crosses a horizontal line. It may have just one (a), or it may have more (b).
■ Example 4.4.5 Let f (x) = x3 − x
(a) Show that f satisfies the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem on [−1, 1].
(b) Find the number(s) c in (−1, 1) such that f ′ (c) = 0 as guaranteed by Rolle’s Theorem.
■
Solution. (a) The polynomial function f is continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞) . In particular, it
is continuous on [−1, 1] and differentiable on (−1, 1) . Furthermore, f (−1) = (−1)3 − (−1) = 0
and f (1) = 13 − 1 = 0 and the hypotheses of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied.
(b) Rolle’s Theorem guarantees that there exists at least one number c in (−1, 1) such that f ′ (c) = 0.
But f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 1, so to find c , we solve √
2 3
3c − 1 = 0 ⇒ c = ±
3
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4.4.4 The First and Second Derivative Tests 21
Theorem 4.4.4 — The Mean Value Theorem. Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b).
Then there exists at least one number c in (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = (4.4)
b−a
■ Example 4.4.6 Let f (x) = x3 − 5x2 − 3x
(a) Show that f satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on [1, 3].
(b) Find the number(s) c in (1, 3) such that f ′ (c) = f (3)−
3−1
f (1)
as guaranteed by the Mean Value
Theorem.
■
Solution. (a) f is a polynomial function, so it is continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞).In particular,
it is continuous on [−1, 1] and differentiable on (−1, 1). So the hypotheses of the Mean Value
Theorem are satisfied.
(b) f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 10x − 3, so f ′ (c) = 3c2 − 10c − 3. With a = 1 and b = 3 , Equation (4.4) gives
f (3) − f (1)
f ′ (c) =
3−1
−27 − (−7)
3c2 − 10c − 3 =
3−1
2
3c − 10c − 3 = − 10 ⇒ (3c − 7)(c − 1)
7 7
c = 1 or c = So there are two numbers, c1 = 1 and c2 = in (1, 3) that satisfy Equation (4.4).
3 3
■ Example 4.4.7 Suppose a ball is dropped from a height of 200 ft. Its position at time t is s(t) =
−16t 2 + 200. Find the time t when the instantaneous velocity of the ball equals its average velocity. ■
4.4.4 The First and Second Derivative Tests
Definition 4.4.4 — Increasing and Decreasing Functions. A function f is increasing on an interval
I, if for every pair of numbers x1 and x2 in I,
x1 < x2 implies that f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
f is decreasing on I if, for every pair of numbers x1 and x2 in I, x1 < x2 implies that f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
f is monotonic on I if it is either increasing or decreasing on I.
Theorem 4.4.5 Suppose f is differentiable on an open interval (a, b).
1. If f ′ (x) > 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is increasing on (a, b).
2. If f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is decreasing on (a, b).
3. If f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b).
■ Example 4.4.8 Determine the intervals where the function f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 12x − 3 is increasing
and where it is decreasing. ■
Solution. First we find the derivative of f f ′ (x) = 6x2 + 6x − 12 = 6(x + 2)(x − 1) from which we see that
f ′ is continuous everywhere and has zeros at −2 and 1. These zeros of f partition the domain of f into
the intervals (−∞, −2), (−2, 1) and (1, ∞). To determine the sign of f ′ (x) on each of these intervals, we
use sign chart
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4.4.4 The First and Second Derivative Tests 22
It follows that f ′ (x) > 0 for x in (−∞, −2) and (1, ∞), and f ′ (x) < 0 for x in (−2, 1). Therefore the
Theorem above implies that f is increasing on (−∞, −2] and [1, ∞) and is decreasing on [−2, 1].
■ Example 4.4.9 Let f (x) = x2 ex . Determine the intervals on which f is increasing and those on which
it is decreasing. ■
Solution. We begin by taking the derivative of f :
f ′ (x) = 2xex + x2 ex = x(2 + x)ex .
Again we assemble a sign chart to determine the sign of f ′ (x):
Since ex > 0 for all x, the table needs no separate entry for ex . It follows from the table that f is
increasing on (−∞, −2] and [0, ∞), and is decreasing on [−2, 0].
Caution: Theorem 4.4.5 says that if f (x) > 0 ( f (x) < 0) for all x in an interval I, then f is increasing
(decreasing) on I. The fact that I is an interval is critical. In the following example, f has a negative
derivative throughout its domain, but is not decreasing on its domain-which is not an interval.
1
■ Example 4.4.10 Let f (x) = . Show that f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in the domain of f . Then determine
x
whether f is decreasing on its domain. ■
Solution. Since f ′ (x) = − x12 , it follows that f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in the domain of f . However, f is not
decreasing on its domain because for each x in (−∞, 0) and each z in (0, ∞), the inequality f (x) < f (z)
holds. However, f is decreasing on each of the intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞) separately
Theorem 4.4.6 — The First Derivative Test. Let f be differentiable on an open interval about the number
c except possibly at c, where f is continuous.
1. If f ′ changes sign from positive to negative at c, then f has a relative maximum value at c.
2. If f ′ changes sign from negative to positive at c, then f has a relative minimum value at c.
■ Example 4.4.11 Let f (x) = 4x3 + 9x2 − 12x + 3. Show that f has a relative maximum value at −2
and a relative minimum value a 12 . ■
Solution. First we find the derivative of f : f ′ (x) = 12x3 + 18x − 12 = 6(2x3 + 3x − 2) = 6(2x − 1)(x + 2).
To determine where f changes sign, we assemble the chart below.
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4.4.4 The First and Second Derivative Tests 23
Consequently f changes from positive to negative at −2 and from negative to positive at 12 . Thus the
First Derivative Test implies that f has a relative maximum value at −2 and f has a relative minimum
value at 21 .
1 3
■ Example 4.4.12 Let f (x) = x − 3x. Find the relative extreme values of f . ■
4
3 3 3
Solution. The derivative is given by f ′ (x) = x2 − 3 = (x2 − 4) = (x + 2)(x − 2). The pertinent
4 4 4
information about the sign of f ′ (x) is summarized in the chart below.
1
Consequently f changes from positive to negative at −2 and from negative to positive at . Thus the
2
First Derivative Test implies that f has a relative maximum value at −2 and f has a relative minimum
1
value at . We conclude that f is increasing on (−∞, −2] and on [2, ∞) and is decreasing on [−2, 2].
2
Furthermore, f changes from positive to negative at −2 and from negative to positive at 2. Therefore by
the First Derivative Test, f (−2) = 4 is a relative maximum value and f (2) = −4 is a relative minimum
value of f .
Theorem 4.4.7 — The Second Derivative Test. Assume that f ′ (c) = 0 and that f ′′ (c) exists
a. If f ′′ (c) < 0, then f (c) is a relative maximum value of f .
b. If f ′′ (c) > 0, then f (c) is a relative minimum value of f .
If f ′′ (c) = 0, then from this test alone we cannot draw any conclusions about a relative extreme
value of f at c.
■ Example 4.4.13 Let f (x) = x3 − 3x − 2. Using the Second Derivative Test, find the relative extreme
values of f . ■
Solution. By differentiation we obtain
f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 = 3(x − 1)(x + 1) and f ′′ (x) = 6x.
Therefore f ′ (x) = 0 when x = −1 or x = 1. Since
f ′′ (−1) = −6 < 0 and f ′′ (1) = 6 > 0
we know from the Second Derivative Test that f (−1) = 0 is a relative maximum value of f , whereas
f (1) = −4 is a relative minimum value of f . These are the only relative extreme values of f .
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4.4.5 Concavity and Inflection Point 24
■ Example 4.4.14 Let f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 . Find the relative extreme values of f . ■
Solution. Differentiating, we have
f ′ (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 = 12x2 (x − 1) (4.5)
and
f ′′ (x) = 36x2 − 24x
Consequently f ′ (x) = 0 for x = 0 or x = 1. Since f ′′ (1) = 12, the Second Derivative Test tells us that
f (1) = −1 is a relative minimum value of f . However, since f ′′ (0) = 0, the Second Derivative Test cannot
be applied to f at 0. But we observe from (4.5) that f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in (−∞, 1) except 0, so that f is
decreasing on (−∞, 1). Therefore f cannot have an extreme value at 0.
4.4.5 Concavity and Inflection Point
Definition 4.4.5 — Concavity of the Graph of a Function. Let f be differentiable on an open interval
I. The graph of f is concave upward on I provided that f is increasing on I. The graph of f is concave
downward on I provided that f is decreasing on I.
Theorem 4.4.8 Assume that f exists on an open interval I.
1. If f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.
2. If f ′′ < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I
■ Example 4.4.15 Let f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 . Find the intervals on which the graph of f is concave upward
and those on which it is concave downward. ■
Solution. From Example 4.4.14 we know that
f ′ (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 = 12x2 (x − 1)
f ′′ (x) = 36x2 − 24x = 12x(3x − 2)
and that f (1) = −1 is a relative minimum value of f . Now we determine the sign of f (x) from the
following sign chart
Using the sign of f (x) along with Theorem 4.4.8, we deduce that the graph of f is concave upward on
(−∞, 0) and on ( 23 , ∞) and is concave downward on (0, 23 ).
■ Example 4.4.16 Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 − 9x. Find the intervals on which the graph of f is concave
upward and those on which it is concave downward. ■
Solution. Differentiating f , we have
f ′ (x) = 12x2 − 12x − 9 = 3(4x2 − 4x − 3)
3 1
= 3(2x − 3)(2x + 1) = 12 x − x+
2 2
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4.4.6 Curve Sketching 25
Next we find that
′′ 1
f = 24x − 12 = 24 x −
2
By Theorem 4.4.8 the graph of f is concave downward on (−∞, 12 ) and concave upward on ( 12 , ∞). From
the first derivative we know that the critical numbers are − 12 and 32 . Since f ′′ (− 12 ) = −24, it follows from
the Second Derivative Test that f (− 21 ) = 52 is a relative maximum value of f and f ( 23 ) = − 27 2 is a relative
minimum value of f .
Definition 4.4.6 — Inflection Point. Let the function f be continuous on an open interval containing
the point c, and suppose the graph of f has a tangent line at P(c, f (c)). If the graph of f changes from
concave upward to concave downward (or vice versa) at P, then the point P is called an inflection point
of the graph of f .
■ Example 4.4.17 Let f (x) = x4 − 6x2 + 8x + 10. Find the inflection points of the graph of f . ■
Solution. The derivatives of f are
f ′ (x) = 4x3 − 12x + 8
f ′′ (x) = 12x2 − 12 = 12(x + 1)(x − 1)
Now we determine the signs of f ′′ (x)
Observe that f ′′ (1) = f ′′ (−1) = 0 and that f ′′ changes sign at both 1 and −1. It follows that
(1, f (1)) = (1, 13) and (−1, f (−1)) = (−1, −3) are inflection points.
■ Example 4.4.18 Let f (x) = sin x for −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π. Find the inflection points of the graph of f and
discuss its concavity. ■
Solution. The derivatives are
f ′ (x) = cos x and f ′′ (x) = − sin x.
Now f ′′ (x) = 0 for x = −π, 0, and π. Since f ′′ changes sign at each of these values of x, it follows
that (−π, 0), (0, 0), and (π, 0) are inflection points. Moreover, the graph of f is concave downward on
(−2π, −π) and (0, π) and concave upward on (−π, 0) and (π, 2π).
4.4.6 Curve Sketching
Strategy for Graphing y = f (x)
1. Identify the domain of f and any symmetries the curve may have.
2. Find f ′ and f ′′
3. Find the critical points of f , and identify the function’s behavior at each one.
4. Find where the curve is increasing and where it is decreasing.
5. Find the points of inflection, if any occur, and determine the concavity of the curve.
6. Identify any asymptotes.
7. Plot key points, such as the intercepts and the points found in Steps 3–5, and sketch the curve.
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4.4.6 Curve Sketching 26
(x + 1)2
■ Example 4.4.19 Using the Graphing Strategy, Sketch the graph of f (x) = . ■
1 + x2
Solution. 1. The domain of f is −∞, ∞ and there are no symmetries about either axis or the origin.
2. find f and f ′′
′
(x + 1)2
f (x) = x intercept (−1, 0), y intercept (0, 1)
1 + x2
(x + 1)2 · 2(x + 1) − (x + 1)2 · 2x
f ′ (x) = 2
(1 + x2 )
2(1 − x)2
= 2
critical points : x = −1, x = 1
(1 + x2 )
(x2 + 1)2 · 2(−2x) − 2(1 − x2 )[2(1 + x2 ) · 2x]
f ′′ (x) = 4
(1 + x2 )
4x x2 − 3
= 3
(1 + x2 )
3. Behavior at critical points. The critical points occur only at x = ±1 where f ′ (x) = 0 (Step 2) since
f ′ exists everywhere over the domain of f . At x = −1, f ′′ (−1) = 1 > 0 yielding a relative minimum
by the Second Derivative Test. At yielding a relative maximum by the Second Derivative Test.
4. Increasing and decreasing. We see that on the interval (−∞, −1) the derivative f ′ (x) < 0 and the
curve is decreasing. On the interval (−1, 1), f ′ (x) > 0 and the curve is increasing; it is decreasing
on (1, ∞) where f ′ (x) < 0 again.
5. Inflection points. Notice that the denominator√of the second √ derivative (Step 2) is always positive.
The second derivative f ′′ is zero when x = −√ 3, 0 and 3. The√second derivative changes √ sign
at each of these points: √ negative on (−∞, − 3), positive on (− 3, 0), negative on (0, 3), and
positive again on ( √3, ∞). Thus each point√is a point of inflection. The√curve is concave down on
the interval
√ (−∞, − 3), concave up on (− 3, 0), concave down on (0, 3), and concave up again
on ( 3, ∞).
6. Asymptotes. We see that f (x) → 1+ as x → ∞ and that f (x) → 1− as x → −∞ Thus, the line
y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. Since f decreases on (−∞, −1) and then increases on (−1, 1),
we know that f (−1) = 0 is a local minimum. Although f decreases on (1, ∞) it never crosses the
horizontal asymptote y = 1 on that interval (it approaches the asymptote from above). So the graph
never becomes negative, and f (−1) = 0 is an absolute minimum as well. Likewise, f (1) = 2 is an
absolute maximum because the graph never crosses the asymptote y = 1 on the interval (−∞, −1)
approaching it from below. Therefore, there are no vertical asymptotes (the range of f is 0 ≤ y ≤ 2)
7. The graph of f is sketched in Figure 4.4. Notice how the graph is concave down as it approaches
the horizontal asymptote y = 1 as x → −∞ and concave up in its approach to y = 1 as x → ∞.
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4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôspital’s Rule 27
(x + 1)2
Figure 4.4: The graph of f (x) =
1 + x2
x2
■ Example 4.4.20 Sketch the graph of y = 2 ■
x −1
4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôspital’s Rule
4.5.1 The Indeterminate Form 0/0 and ∞/∞
f (x)
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim , is called an indeterminate form of the type 0/0. As the
x→a x→a x→a g(x)
name implies, the undefined expression 0/0 does not provide us with a definitive answer concerning the
existence of the limit or its value, if the limit exists.
f (x)
If lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim , is called an indeterminate form of the type
x→a x→a x→a g(x)
∞/∞.
To see why this limit is an indeterminate form, we simply write
1
g(x)
lim
x→a 1
f (x)
which has the form 0/0 and, therefore, is indeterminate.
Theorem 4.5.1 — L’Hôpital’s Rule. Suppose f and g are differentiable functions over an open interval
f (x)
containing a, except possibly at a and g′ (a) ̸= 0 for all x in the interval. If lim is indeterminate
x→a g(x)
f (x) f ′ (x)
form of the type 0/0 or ∞/∞, then lim = lim ′ , assuming the limit on the right exists or is ∞
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
or −∞. This result also holds if we are considering one-sided limits, or if a = ∞ or a = −∞.
■ Example 4.5.1 Evaluate each of the following limits by applying L’Hôpital’s rule.
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4.5.1 The Indeterminate Form 0/0 and ∞/∞ 28
1 − cos x ln x
(a) lim (c) lim
x→0 x x→0+ cot x
sin(πx) sin x − x
(b) lim (d) lim ■
x→1 ln x x→0 x2
x3
(e) lim 2x
x→∞ e
Solution. (a) Since the numerator 1 − cos x → 0 and the denominator x → 0, we can apply L’Hôpital’s
rule to evaluate this limit. We have
d
1 − cos x 1 − cos x lim sin x 0
sin x x→0
lim = lim dx = lim = = = 0.
x→0 x x→0 d x→0 1 lim 1 1
x x→0
dx
(b) As x → 1, the numerator sin(πx) → 0 and the denominator ln(x) → 0. Therefore, we can apply
L’Hôpital’s rule. We obtain
sin(πx) π cos(πx)
lim = lim
x→1 ln x x→1 1/x
= lim (πx) cos(πx) .
x→1
= (π · 1)(−1) = −π
(c) Here lim ln x = −∞ and lim cot x = ∞. Therefore, we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule and obtain
x→0+ x→0+
ln x 1/x 1 sin2 x
lim = lim = lim = lim .
x→0+ cot x x→0+ − csc2 x x→0+ −x csc2 x x→0+ −x
Now lim sin2 x = 0 and lim −x = 0 so apply L’Hôpital’s rule again. We find
x→0+ x→0+
sin2 x 2 sin x cos x 0
lim = lim = = 0.
x→0+ −x x→0+ −1 −1
We conclude that
ln x
lim = 0.
x→0+ cot x
(d) As x → 0, both the numerator and denominator approach zero. Therefore, we can apply L’Hôpital’s
rule. We obtain
sin x − x cos x − 1
lim 2
= lim .
x→0 x x→0 2x
Since the numerator and denominator of this new quotient both approach zero as x → 0, we apply
L’Hôpital’s rule again.
cos x − 1 − sin x
lim = lim = 0.
x→0 2x x→0 2
Therefore, we conclude that
sin x − x
lim = 0.
x→0 x2
(e) lim (x3 ) = ∞ and lim (e2x ) = ∞. Then it is an indeterminate form of the type ∞/∞ and we apply
x→∞ x→∞
L’Hôpital’s rule.
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4.5.2 The Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞ and 0 · ∞ 29
d 3
x3 x 3x2
lim 2x = lim dx = lim
x→∞ 2e2x
x→∞ e x→∞ d
e2x
dx
d
3x2
dx 6x x3
= lim = x→∞
lim 2x Hence, lim 2x = 0.
x→∞ d 4e x→∞ e
2e2x
dx
d
6x 6
= lim dx lim 2x = 0
= x→∞
x→∞ d 8e
4e2x
dx
4.5.2 The Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞ and 0 · ∞
If lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ∞ then the limit lim ( f (x) − g(x)) is said to be an indeterminate form of
x→a x→a x→a
the type ∞ − ∞. An indeterminate form of this type can often be expressed as one of the type 0/0 or ∞/∞
by algebraic manipulation.
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ±∞ then the limit lim ( f (x)g(x)) is said to be an indeterminate form
x→a x→a x→a
of the type 0 · ∞. An indeterminate form of this type can often be expressed as one of the type 0/0 or ∞/∞
by algebraic manipulation.
1 1
■ Example 4.5.2 Evaluate lim − . ■
x→0+ x2 tan x
1 1 (tan x) − x2
Solution. We have − = . As x → 0+ , tan x−x2 → 0 and x2 tan x → 0. Therefore, we can
x2 tan x x2 tan x
(tan x) − x2 (sec2 x) − 2x
apply L’Hôpital’s rule to obtain lim = lim . As x → 0+ , (sec2 x)−2x → 1
x→0+ x2 tan x x→0+ x2 sec2 x + 2x tan x
and x2 sec2 x + 2x tan x → 0. Since the denominator is positive as x approaches zero from the right, we
(sec2 x) − 2x
conclude that lim 2 2 = ∞.
x→0+ x sec x + 2xtan x
1 1
Therefore, lim 2
− = ∞.
x→0+ x tan x
■ Example 4.5.3 Evaluate lim x ln x. ■
x→0+
Solution. First, rewrite the function x ln x as a quotient to apply L’Hôpital’s rule. If we write
ln x
x ln x =
1/x
1
we see that ln x → −∞ as x → 0+ and → ∞ as x → 0+ . Therefore, we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule and
x
obtain
d
ln x ln x 1/x
lim = lim dx = lim = lim (−x) = 0.
x→0+ 1/x x→0+ d x→0+ −1/x2 x→0+
1/x
dx
We conclude that lim x ln x = 0.
x→0+
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4.5.3 Indeterminate forms of ∞0 , 00 30
4.5.3 Indeterminate forms of ∞0 , 00
The limit lim [ f (x)]g(x) is said to be an indeterminate form of the type
x→a
00 if lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0
x→a x→a
∞0 if lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0
x→a x→a
1∞ if lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0.
x→a x→a
These indeterminate forms can usually be converted to indeterminate forms of the type 0 · ∞ by taking
logarithms or by using the identity [ f (x)]g(x) = eg(x) ln f (x)
■ Example 4.5.4 — Indeterminate Form of Type ∞0 . Evaluate lim x1/x . ■
x→∞
1 ln x
Solution. Let y = x1/x . Then,ln(x1/x ) = ln x = .
x x
ln x
We need to evaluate lim
x→∞ x
Applying L’Hôpital’s rule, we obtain
ln x 1/x
lim ln y = lim = lim = 0.
x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ 1
Therefore, lim ln y = 0. Since the natural logarithm function is continuous, we conclude that
x→∞
ln lim y = 0,
x→∞
which leads to
lim x1/x = lim y = eln(limx→∞ y) = e0 = 1.
x→∞ x→∞
Hence, lim x1/x = 1.
x→∞
1 x
sin x x
■ Example 4.5.5 Evaluate (a) lim x (b) lim x (c) lim 1 + ■
x→0+ x→0+ x→∞ x
References
1. Ellis R, Gulick D. Calculus with Analytic Geometry: Sixth Edition, Cengage Learning, 2006.
2. Stewart J. Caculus: Early Transcendentals, Senventh Edition. Cengage Learning. 2012.
3. Thomas GB, Weir MD, Hass J, Heil C, Behn A. Thomas’ calculus: Early transcendentals. Boston:
Pearson; 2010.
4. https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Calculus/
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Applied MathI: Integrations 2022
Chapter
INTEGRATIONS
5.1. Indefinite Integrals
Definition: Let be a function whose domain is an open interval . Then any function such
that F x f x for each in is called an anti-derivative of . (Note that is the derivative
of on .)
Example: 1. for constant c is the anti-derivative of .
Theorem: Let be a function whose domain is an open interval .
i) If is an anti-derivative of , then is an anti-derivative of for every
real number .
ii) If and are two anti-derivatives of then – is constant for all
in I. That is, for some real number
Definition: Let the domain of be an open interval and suppose has anti-derivative. The
family of all anti-derivatives of is called the indefinite integral of and is denoted by.
f ( x)dx
1 2 1 3
xdx x C x dx x C
2
Example: 1. 2.
2 3
Basic Rules of Indefinite Integrals
Theorem: Let f and g be a function of x whose domains are an open interval I and suppose f and
g are differentiable for every x in l.
1) dx x C
2) cdx c dx .
3) ( f ( x) g ( x))dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx .
x r 1
4) x dx C , where r is rational, r -1,and x 0 on I
r
r 1
1
5) x dx ln x C (u 0)
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6) sin x dx cos x C , cos x dx sin x C and sec x dx tan x C
2
ax
7) e dx e C and a dx C
x x x
ln a
8) sinh xdx cosh x C , coshxdx sinhx C and sech2 xdx tanh x C
dx dx dx
sin 1 x C , 1 x 2 tan x C and
1
9) sinh 1 x C
1 x 2
1 x 2
(2 x
1
Example: 1. 3 sin x)dx 2 ln x 3 cos x C
(4 x 6 x 2 2 x 1)dx x 4 2 x 3 x 2 x C.
3
2.
3
3
3 2
3. x 2 x dx x 2 C
x 3
5.2 Techniques (or rules) of Integration
Unlike differentiation there is no set of rules which you can follow to find the indefinite integral
of any given function. These are integrals of a certain form for which we have an answer. If we
are given an integral which doesn't correspond to one of the "standard integrals" then there are
certain techniques we can use to try to convert its form into one or more of the standard integrals.
Hence we discuss different Techniques of Integration like
Integration by substitution.
Integration by parts
Integration by partial Fractions
Integration by trigonometric substitution
A. Integration by substitution
A smart idea consists in ``cleaning'' them through an algebraic substitution which transforms the
given integrals into easier ones. Let us first explain how the substitution technique works.
Theorem: Suppose and are open intervals, f has domain , maps in to , and
is differentiable on . Assume that we take as independent variable.
f g xg xdx f (u)du F (u) C , where is the independent variable and u g (x)
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Example: Evaluate the following integrals
1
x
3x x 1 2 dx
2 3
a) dx b)
x 1
2
x 1 2x 1 du u x2 1
Solution a) x 2
1
dx 2
2 x 1
dx
2 u
,
du 2 xdx
1
2
1
ln u C ln x 2 1 C
2
1 1
u x3 1
3x x 1 dx u du
2 3 2 2
b) ,
du 3 x 2 dx
u C x 12 C
3 3
2 2 2 3
3 3
B. Integration by parts
The General Method
Suppose we have two functions multiplied by each other and differentiate
according to the product rule:
h x f x g x f x g x f x g x
f x g x dx f x g x f x g x dx
/
/ /
Then integrating both sides
f x g / x dx f x g x dx f x g x dx
/
/
and rearranging gives
f xg xdx f xg x f xg xdx
/ /
or as the formula is better known
This relationship is what we call Integration by Parts. Let us look at it more carefully and then
see some examples. First, it asks us to break the integrand up into two pieces and identify one of
the pieces, g’(x), as the derivative of another function. In other words, we
anti-differentiate a "part" of the integrand. The other part(x) is differentiated. The hope is that
when you apply this, the new integral f ' xg xdx is simpler to anti-differentiate.
Theorem: Let and be differentiable functions, then
f xg xdx f xg x f xg xdx
/ /
The u - v Method:
The u - v Method is given by udv uv vdu which is identical to the canonical method.
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u f x , du f' x dx
Set
v g x , dv g' x dx
Many find this a lot easier to remember: udv uv vdu
Note: Sometimes it is necessary to integrate by parts more than once.
xe
3x
Example Integrate dx
Solution: We use integration by parts. Notice that we need to use substitution to find the
x
integral of e . Now let u = x and dv= e3x dx , so that du = dx and v = 1/3 ex
1 xe3 x 1 3 x
Hence we have xe dx = x e 3 x e 3 x dx =
3x 1
e C
3 3 3 9
Reduction formulas:
1 n 1 n -1
sin xdx sin x cosx sin n 2 xdx for n 2
n
a)
n n
1 n -1
cos xdx cos n 1 x sinx
n
cos n 2 xdx for n 2
n
b)
n
Example Evaluate the following integrals.
1 2
sin xdx sin 2 x cos x sin xdx
3
3 3
1 2
sin 2 x cos x cos x C
3 3
sin
m
Note: Integrals of the form x cosn xdx
a) If n is odd, substitute u = sin x and use the identify cos x 1 sin x
2 2
b) if m is odd, substitute u = cos x and use the identify sin x 1 cos x
2 2
c) if m and n are even, reduce to smaller power of m or n and use the identities
1 1 cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x
sin x cos x sin 2 x , sin 2 x , cos2 x
2 2 2
sin
5
Example Evaluate cos4 xdx
sin cos4 xdx sin 4 x cos4 x sin xdx (sin2 x) 2 cos4 x sin xdx
5
Let u cosx
(1 cos2 x) 2 cos4 x sin xdx ,
du -sinxdx
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(1 u 2 ) 2 u 4 du (u 4 2u 6 u 8 )du
1 5 2 7 1 9
u u u C
5 7 9
1 2 1
cos5 x cos7 x cos9 x C
5 7 9
C. Integration by Partial Fractions
In algebra we learn how to find the common denominator of two expressions and then combine
like terms. Partial fractions are all about going backwards.
N ( x)
Objective: To integrate rational functions f ( x)
D( x )
1. If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator perfume long
division.
2. Factor the numerator and the denominator of the remainder in to linear and quadratic factors.
3. Rewrite the transformed rational functions as a sum of expressions of the types.
A1 A2 Ar
ax b (ax b) 2 (ax b) r
4x 2
Example Evaluate the integral x 2
x6
dx
Solution: First we find the partial fraction decomposition of the integrand.
4x 2 4x 2 A B
We factor to get
x x 6 x 2x 3 x 2 x 3
2
Multiply by the common denominator to get: A(x + 3) + B(x - 2) = 4x + 2
Let x = 2, then, 5A = 10 and A = 2, Let x = -3, then, -5B = -10 and B = 2
4x 2 2 2
Now we can integrate x 2
x6
dx
x 2 x 3
dx
2 ln x 2 2 ln x 3 C
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D. Integration by trigonometric substitution
An integrand which contains one of the forms a 2 b 2 x 2 , a 2 b 2 x 2 , or b 2 x 2 a 2 may
be transformed into another involving a trigonometric function of a new variable as
follows:
Form in Integrand Substitution New Form in Integrand
a2 b2 x2 a a 1 sin 2 u a cosu
x sin u
b
a2 b2 x2 a a 1 tan 2 u a secu
x tan u
b
b2 x2 a2 a a sec2 u 1 a tan u
x sec u
b
dx
Example Evaluate x 2
4 x2
Solution: Let x=2tanu so that dx 2 sec2 udu and hence 4 x 2 2 sec u .
dx 2 sec2 udu
x
1 sec udu 1 cos u
Hence, = = du
2
4 x2 4 tan u 2 sec u 4 tan 2 u
2
4 sin 2 u
1
= C
4 sin u
x x
Note that tan u and thus sin u . (See the following figure)
2 4 x2
x
u
dx 4 x2
Therefore, x 2
4 x2
=
4x
+C
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9 4x 2
Example Evaluate x
dx
3 3
Solution: Let x sin u , so that dx cos u du and 9 4 x 2 3 cosu .
2 2
9 4x 2 3 cos u 3
Hence, x
dx =
3
cos udu
2
sin u
2
9 4 x2 3cos u 3 cos 2 u 1 sin 2 u
dx
3
cos u du 3 du 3 du
x 2 sin u sin u
sin u
2
3 cs cudu 3 sin udu 3ln cs cu cot u 3cos u c
9 4 x2 9 4 x2 3
Note that Cosu , Cotu and Cscu
3 2x 2x
2x
9 4x 2 3 9 4x 2
Hence x
dx 3 ln
x
9 4x 2 c
5.3. Integration of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
sin
1
1. xdx
Using integration by parts ,let u sin 1 x and dv=dx.
1
Then du dx and v=x .
1 x2
x
So, sin 1 xdx x sin 1 x dx
1 x2
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= x sin 1 x 1 x 2 C --------------by substitution
tan
1
2. xdx
Using integration by parts, let u tan 1 x and dv=dx.
1
Then du dx and v=x .
1 x2
x
So, tan
1
xdx x tan 1 x dx
1 x2
1
= x tan 1 x ln x 2 1 C --------------by substitution
2
Exercise:
cos 2. cot 1 xdx
1
1. xdx
sec 4. csc1 xdx
1
3. xdx
5.4 The Definite Integral and its Properties
Theorem
Let f continuous on [a, b]. For any 0 , there is a number 0 such that the
following statements holds:
If P x 0 , x1 , , x n is any partition of [a, b] each of whose subintervals has length
less than and if x k 1 t h x k for each k 1,2, , n , then the associated Riemann Sum
n b
n
k 1
f (t k )x k satisfies f ( x)dx f (t
a k 1
k )x k i.e.
b n
f ( x)dx lim f (t
a P 0 k 1
k )xk
b n
i.e. f ( x)dx lim f (t
P 0 k 1
k )xk where P denotes the largest of the lengths
a
of the subintervals associated with P and is called the normal of P.
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5.4.2 Properties of the Definite Integral
Definition Let f be continuous on [a, b]. Then
a a b
f ( x)dx 0 and b f ( x)dx a f ( x)dx
b
[A line segment has area zero]
1 4
1 3 3
4 1 4 1 21
2 2
Example : x dx x dx
3
b
Theorem (Rectangle Property) : For any number a, b and k, kdx k (b a)
a
Theorem (Addition Property)
Let f be continuous on an interval containing a, b and c.
c b c
Then, f ( x)dx f ( x)dx f ( x)dx
a a b
Example .Evaluate
5
2x - 1, for 1 x 3
f ( x)dx, where
1
f(x)
5, for 3 x 5
5 3 5 3 5
Solutions: f ( x)dx f ( x)dx f ( x)dx (2 x 1)dx 5dx = -4
1 1 3 1 3
Corollary Let f be non – negative and continuous on [a, b]. Then f ( x)dx 0
a
5.4.3 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Theorem 5.5.1 (Fundamental theorem of calculus I)
The first fundamental theorem of calculus states that, if f is continuous on the closed interval [a,
b] and F is the anti-derivative (indefinite integral) of f on [a, b], then
f x dx F b F a
b
(1)
a
Remark. The number F (b) - F (a) is also denoted by [F(x)] ab (or F(x) b
a ).
f x dx [F(x)]
b
b
So a = F (b) - F (a)
a
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Theorem (Fundamental theorem of calculus II)
The second fundamental theorem of calculus holds for f a continuous function on an open
interval I and a any point in I, and states that if F is defined by
x
F x f t dt, then F / x f x at each point in I. (2)
a
3
Example Evaluate 1
xdx
3 x2
xdx
3 9 1
Solution: 1 = 4
1 2 2 2
If F x t 2 1dt, find F / x
2x
Example 3
Solution: F x 2 x 2 1 2 = 2 4x 2 1
Example Evaluate 2 cos tdt
0
x
Solution: We have 0
cos tdt = [sin (t)]0x = sin(x) - sin(0) = sin(x)
So
0
2 cos tdt sin
2
1
Combining the Chain Rule with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we can generate
some nice results. Indeed, let f (x) be continuous on [a, b] and u(x) be differentiable on
ux
[a, b]. Define the function F x f t dt
a
Then the Chain Rule implies that F(x) is differentiable and F '(x) = f ux u' x
We can generalize this a little bit more to find the derivative of a function of the form
v x
H(x) = f t dt where u(x) and v(x) are both differentiable on [a, b].
ux
We have H '(x) = f vx v' x - f ux u' x
Example Find the derivative of 0
x2
cos t 2 dt
Solution: Set F x 0
x2
cos t 2 dt
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From the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we know that F(x) is an anti-derivative of cos(x2).
We have 0
x2
cos t 2 dt F x 2
cost dt =F '(x )2x = 2x cos( (x ) ) = 2x cos(x ).
d x2
dx 0
2 2 2 2 4
The Chain Rule then implies that
Note that F(x) does not have an explicit form. So it is quite amazing that even if F(x) is defined
via some theoretical result, we are still able to find the derivative of the given function.
x2
e t dt
2
Example Find the derivative of x
x x2
t 2
e t dt =
2
Solution let F x e dt F(x2) - F(x)
0 x
d
e t dt = F '(x2)2x - F '(x) = 2 xe
x4
ex
x2 2
2
.
dx x
5.5 Improper Integrals
Up until now, all the integrals that we have performed have had finite limits and integrands
with no asymptotes. Now we will investigate integrals with infinite limits and integrands with
f x dx
b
vertical asymptotes. Recall that the definition of an integral requires the function f(x)
a
to be bounded on the bounded interval [a,b] (where a and b are two real numbers). It is natural
what happens if the function f is unbounded.
Definition
Let the function f (x) becomes unbounded on the interval [a,b] and the interval [a,b] becomes
f x dx
b
unbounded (that is a or b ).then we say that the integral is improper
a
Type I: (Discontinuous Integrands )
Consider the function f (x) defined on the interval [a,b] (where a and b are real numbers). We
have two cases f(x) becomes unbounded around a or unbounded around b
f x dx = lim f x dx
b b
unbounded around a
a t
t a
f x dx = lim f x dx
b t
unbounded around b
a a
t b
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University Page 11
Applied MathI: Integrations 2022
Remark What happened if the function f(x) is unbounded at more than one point on the
interval [a,b]? Very easy, first you need to study f(x) on [a,b] and find out where the function is
unbounded. Let us say that f(x) is unbounded at c1 and c2 for example, with
a c1 c2 b . Then you must choose a number between c1 and c2 (that is
c1 c2 ) and then write
f x dx = f x dx + f x dx + f x dx + f x dx
b c1 c2 b
a a c1 c
2
Example evaluate the following improper integral
3 1
dx
a)
0
x 1
b. ln xdx
0
Type II: Consider the function f (x) defined on the interval a, or , a . In other words,
the domain is unbounded not the function.
f x dx = lim f x dx
a a
t
t
and
f x dx = lim f x dx
t
a a
t
1
Example Evaluate x
1
2
dx
Solution We use the definition to find
m
1
m
1 1
m
lim
m 1 x 2
dx = lim
m
x
1
lim 1 1
m m 1
1
1
Example Evaluate 0 x
dx
Solution The integrand has a vertical asymptote at x = 0, so we must use part (ii) in the
definition.
1 1
12
1
1
We have lim x dx =2
lim 2 x lim
m0
2 2 m 2
2
m 0 m m0 m
5.5.2 Convergence and Divergence of Improper Integrals
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University Page 12
Applied MathI: Integrations 2022
Consider a function f(x) which exhibits a Type I or Type II behavior on the interval [a,b] (in
other words, the integral f x dx is improper). We saw before that the integral is defined as a
b
limit. Therefore we have two cases:
f x dx be improper integral.
b
Definition Let a
1. If the limit exists (and is a number), we say that the improper integral is Convergent;
2. If the limit does not exist or it is infinite, then we say that the improper integral is
Divergent.
If the improper integral f x dx is split into a sum of improper integrals (because f(x) presents
b
more than one improper behavior on [a,b]), then the integral converges if and only if any single
improper integral is convergent.
5.6 Applications of Integrals
5.6.1 Area
Definition if f is continuous and f x 0 on a, b, the area of the region below the curve y=
f x from a to b is defined as the definite integral:
b
Area = f x dx
a
Theorem (Area of a region between two curves)
If f and g are continuous on [a, b] and f ( x) g ( x) x (a, b), then the area of he region
bounded by the graphs of f and g and the vertical lines x = a and x = b in given by
b
A g ( x) f ( x)dx
a
Example
Find the area of the region that is enclosed between the curve y x 2 and y x 6 .
Solution To find the end point, we solve the equations
y x 2 and y x 6
x 2 x 6 ( x 3)( x 2) 0
x 3 x 2
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University Page 13
Applied MathI: Integrations 2022
y 9 for x 3 and y 4 for x 2
Hence, the two graphs intersect at the points (3; 9) and (-2, 4)
Moreover, if f(x) = x + 6 and g(x) = x2, then
x 6 x
3
1 1
3
125
A 2
dx x 2 6 x x 3
2 2 3 2 6
5.6.2 Volume
Integrals are used in this section to find the volume of solid revolution. A solid of revolution is
generated by taking a region in the first quadrant of the plane and rotating it in space about the x-
axis or y-axis.
Solids of revolution
Rotating about the x-axis Rotating about the x-axis
Theorem Let S be a solid region obtained by revolving the graph of a continuous non – negative
function f and has a cross – sectional area A.
i) If A is given by A(x), which is perpendicular to the x – axis for a x b , then the volume V of
b b
V A( x)dx f ( x) dx -------Horizontal axis of revolution
2
S is given by
a a
ii) If A is given by A(y), which is perpendicular to the y – axis for c y d, then the volume V
d d
of S is given by V A( y )dx f ( y ) dy ---- Vertical axis of revolution
2
c c
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University Page 14
Applied MathI: Integrations 2022
Theorem
If the solid is generated by revolving the region between the graphs of f and g
i) on [a, b] with g ( x) f ( x) x (a, b) , Then
b
V f ( x) g ( x) dx --- Horizontal axis of revolution
2 2
ii) on [c, d] with g ( y ) f ( y )y (c, d ) , then
d
V f ( y ) g ( y ) dy ---- Vertical axis of revolution
2 2
Example Let R be the region between the graphs of f ( x) x 1 and g ( x) x 1 on the
interval [1, 3].Find the volume V of the solid obtained by revolving R about the x – axis.
Solution: Clearly f ( x) f ( x)x [1,3] , and
f ( x)2 x 1 and g ( x)2 x 1 . Moreover f ( x)2 g ( x)2 x 1 x 1 2
3 3
V 2dx (2 x) 6 2 4 Cu. Units
1 1
5.6.3 Arc length
Theorem Let f be continuous on [a, b] and the curve of the graph of f on [a, b] given by y = f(x)
in a plane. Then the length L of the curve between a, f (a) and b, f (b) is
b
L 1 f ( x ) dx
2
3
Example: Find the length of the curve y 3x 1 from x = 0 to x = 1
2
Exercise
1. Find the length of the curve y = 2x
a) (-1, -2) and (4, 8) b) (2, 6) and (-2, 4)
3
1
2. Find the length of the curve x ( y 2 2) 2 from y = 0 to y = 1.
3
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University Page 15
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