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Intelligence: AI: Think Humanily: Think Rationaily: Acting Humanily: Acting Rationaily

The document discusses different approaches to artificial intelligence and machine intelligence including thinking humanly, thinking rationally, acting humanly, and acting rationally. It also discusses informed and uninformed search techniques for problem solving such as breadth-first search, depth-first search, uniform-cost search, depth-limited search, iterative deepening search, hill climbing search, and A* search. Key components of search algorithms like heuristics, optimality, completeness, and time/space complexity are also covered.

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34 views6 pages

Intelligence: AI: Think Humanily: Think Rationaily: Acting Humanily: Acting Rationaily

The document discusses different approaches to artificial intelligence and machine intelligence including thinking humanly, thinking rationally, acting humanly, and acting rationally. It also discusses informed and uninformed search techniques for problem solving such as breadth-first search, depth-first search, uniform-cost search, depth-limited search, iterative deepening search, hill climbing search, and A* search. Key components of search algorithms like heuristics, optimality, completeness, and time/space complexity are also covered.

Uploaded by

zzselimahmed
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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INTELLIGENCE : IS THE CAPACITY FOR LOGIC, UNDERSTANDING, SELF AWARENESS, LEARNING,

EMOTIONAL KNOWLEDGE, REASONING, PLANNING, CREATIVITY, AND PROBLEM SOLVING.

AI : A BRANCH OF COMPUTER SCIENCE. EXAMINES HOW WE CAN ACHIEVE INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR


THROUGH COMPUTATION.

THINK HUMANILY : THIS APPROACH BELIEVES TO MAKE WACHINE WHICH THANK LIKE HUMAN
,SO OUR SCIENTISTS MAKE ON EXCITING NEW EFFORT TO MAKE COMPUTERS CAPABLE OF THINK.

THINK RATIONAILY : THIS APPROACH ABOUT THE COMPUTATION THE THAT MAKE IT POSSIBLE
TO PERCEIRE,REASON,ACT OF MACHINE IN A RIGHT MANNER.

ACTING HUMANILY : THE ART CREATING MACHINE THAT PERFORM FUNCTIONS THAT REQUIRES
ITELLIGENCE WHEN PERFORMED BY PEOPLE.

ACTING RATIONAILY : THIS APPROACH SAYS IF WE DESIGN INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR IN


AGENTS,WE WHICH ACT REASONLY AND CORRECTLY.
hypothetical reasoning: An important technique in developing such a schedule.
The state space: is a way or representing in a computer the states of the real problem.

ACTIONS or STATE SPACE Transitions: Formulate actions that allow one to move between
different states.

INITIAL or START STATE and GOAL: Identify the initial state that best represents the
starting conditions, and the goal or condition one wants to achieve.

Heuristics: Formulate various heuristics to help guide the search process.


successor function S(x) = {set of states that can be reached from state x via a single action}.
goal test a function that can be applied to a state and returns true if the state satisfies the goal
condition.

Completeness: will the search always find a solution if a solution exists?


Optimality: will the search always find the least cost solution? (when actions have costs)
Time complexity: what is the maximum number of nodes (paths) than can be expanded or
generated?

Space complexity: what is the maximum number of nodes (paths) that have to be stored in
memory?

UNINFORMED SEARCH (BLIND SEARCH): THE STRATEGIES HAVE NO ADDITIONAL


INFORMATION ABOUT STATES BEYOND THAT PROVIDED IN THE PROBLEM DEFINITION, ALL THEY CAN
DO IS GENERATE SUCCESSORS AND DISTINGUISH A GOAL STATE FROM A NON-GOAL STATE.

INFORMED SEARCH: STRATEGIES THAT KNOW WHETHER ONE NON-GOAL STATE IS “MORE
PROMISING” THAN ANOTHER ARE CALLED INFORMED SEARCH OR HEURISTIC. HEURISTIC SEARCH.

COMPONENTS OF THE UNINFORMED SEARCH:


• OPEN A DATA STRUCTURE THAT HOLDS ALL THE STATES THAT WE WANT TO EXPLORE
• EXPANDING THE STATE IS THE PROCESS OF APPLYING OPERATORS ON THIS STATE TO GENERATE
NEW STATES
• THE OPEN WILL CONTAIN PATHS FROM THE START STATE TO THE CURRENT STATE.
• ALL SEARCH STRATEGIES ARE DISTINGUISHED BY THE ORDER IN WHICH NODES ARE EXPANDED.
BREADTH-FIRST SEARCH:
• ADDS THE CHILDREN TO THE END OF THE OPEN LIST
• LEVEL-BY-LEVEL SEARCH
• ORDER IN WHICH CHILDREN ARE INSERTED ON OPEN LIST IS ARBITRARY
• IN TREE, ASSUME CHILDREN ARE CONSIDERED LEFT-TO-RIGHT UNLESS SPECIFIED DIFFERENTLY.
• IS A FIFO QUEUE
• TIME COMPLEXITY= O(𝐵𝐷+1 )
• SPACE COMPLEXITY= O(𝐵𝐷+1 )
• EXPONENTIAL TIME AND SPACE
• SIMPLE TO IMPLEMENT
• COMPLETE
• FINDS SHORTEST SOLUTION (NOT NECESSARILY LEAST-COST UNLESS ALL OPERATORS HAVE
EQUAL COST)
• Advantages of BFS:
1. The solution will definitely found out by BFS If there is some solution.
2. BFS will never get trapped in a blind alley, which means unwanted nodes.
3. If there is more than one solution then it will find a solution with minimal steps.

• Disadvantages Of BFS:

1. Memory Constraints As it stores all the nodes of the present level to go for the next level.
2. If a solution is far away then it consumes time.

DEPTH-FIRST SEARCH:
• ADDS THE CHILDREN TO THE FRONT OF THE OPEN LIST
• EMULATES LIFO STACK
• FOLLOW LEFTMOST PATH TO BOTTOM, THEN BACKTRACK
• EXPAND DEEPEST NODE FIRST
• TIME COMPLEXITY= O(𝐵𝑀 ) ,WHERE M IS THE LEVEL OF TREE
• SPACE COMPLEXITY= O(BM)
• MAY NOT ALWAYS FIND SOLUTION
• SOLUTION IS NOT NECESSARILY SHORTEST OR LEAST COST
• IF MANY SOLUTIONS, MAY FIND ONE QUICKLY (QUICKLY MOVES TO DEPTH D)
• SIMPLE TO IMPLEMENT
• SPACE OFTEN BIGGER CONSTRAINT, SO MORE USABLE THAN BFS FOR LARGE PROBLEMS
• THE MAXIMUM DEPTH HAD THE MAXIMUM PRIORITY

• Advantages Of DFS:

1. The memory requirement is Linear WRT Nodes.


2. Less time and space complexity rather than BFS.
3. The solution can be found out without much more search.
• The disadvantage of DFS:

1. Not Guaranteed that it will give you a solution.


2. Cut-off depth is smaller so time complexity is more.
3. Determination of depth until the search has proceeded.

UNIFORM-COST SEARCH :
• IS THE BEST ALGORITHM FOR A SEARCH PROBLEM
• EXPAND THE CHEAPEST UNEXPANDED NODE
• PRIORITY QUEUE ORDERED BY PATH COST G(N)
• EQUIVALENT TO BREADTH-FIRST SEARCH, IF ALL STEP COSTS ARE EQUAL
• THE MINIMUM CUMULATIVE COST THE MAXIMUM PRIORITY.

DEPTH-LIMITED SEARCH:
• PERFORM DEPTH FIRST SEARCH BUT ONLY TO A PRE‐SPECIFIED DEPTH LIMIT D
• NO NODE REPRESENTING A PATH OF LENGTH MORE THAN D+1 IS PLACED ON OPEN.
• WE “TRUNCATE” THE SEARCH BY LOOKING ONLY AT PATHS OF LENGTH D+1 OR LESS.
• NOW INFINITE LENGTH PATHS ARE NOT A PROBLEM
• BUT WILL ONLY FIND A SOLUTION IF A SOLUTION OF DEPTH ≤ D EXISTS.

ITERATIVE DEEPENING SEARCH:


• DFS WITH DEPTH BOUND
• DEPTH LIMITED SEARCH WITH A SMALL DEPTH LIMIT, IF NO SOLUTION IS FOUND, INCREMENT
THRESHOLD AND REPEAT
• FIRST THRESHOLD IS 1
INFORMED SEARCHES
NEW TERMS
➢ HEURISTICS

➢ OPTIMAL SOLUTION

➢ HILL CLIMBING PROBLEMS

NEW PARAMETERS
➢ F(N) = ESTIMATED COST FROM INITIAL STATE TO STATE N

➢ H(N) = ESTIMATED COST (DISTANCE) FROM STATE N TO CLOSEST GOAL

• SEARCH ALGORITHMS WHICH USE H(N) TO GUIDE SEARCH ARE HEURISTIC SEARCH
ALGORITHMS.
• HEURISTIC MEANS A WAY TO EMBED THE KNOWLEDGE WE HAVE IN OUR PROBLEM-SOLVING
SYSTEM

BEST-FIRST SEARCH :
• A NODE IS SELECTED FOR EXPANSION BASED ON AN EVALUATION FUNCTION INFORMED
SEARCH , F(N).
• THE LOWEST EVALUATION IS EXPANDED FIRST
• GIVEN A HEURISTIC FUNCTION, WE CAN USE IT TO SELECT THE MOST PROMISING PARTIALS
ROUTES TO THE GOAL.
• THE IMPLEMENTATION OF BEST-FIRST GRAPH SEARCH IS IDENTICAL TO THAT FOR UNIFORM-
COST SEARCH EXCEPT FOR THE USE OF F INSTEAD OF G TO ORDER THE PRIORITY QUEUE.
• Complete = Optimal = N , Heuristic= Y , Space = Time = 𝑏 𝑚

HILL CLIMBING SEARCH :


• ONLY KEEP LOWEST-H STATE ON OPEN LIST
• BEST-FIRST SEARCH IS TENTATIVE (NOT CERTAIN OR FIXED)
• HILL CLIMBING IS IRREVOCABLE (NOT ABLE TO BE CHANGED; FINAL)
• MUCH FASTER , LESS MEMORY , DEPENDENT UPON H(N) , IF BAD H(N), MAY PRUNE AWAY ALL
GOALS , NOT COMPLETE
• H -> is the number of incorrect positions

Advantages of Hill Climbing Algorithm:


1. Hill climbing technique is useful in job shop scheduling, automatic programming, circuit
designing, and vehicle routing and portfolio management.
2. It is also helpful to solve pure optimization problems where the objective is to find the
best state according to the objective function.
3. It requires much fewer conditions than other search techniques.

Disadvantages of Hill Climbing Algorithm:


1. The question that remains on the hill-climbing search is whether this hill is the highest
hill possible. Unfortunately without further extensive exploration, this question cannot
be answered. This technique works but as it uses local information that’s why it can be
fooled. The algorithm doesn’t maintain a search tree, so the current node data structure
need only record the state and its objective function value. It assumes that local
improvement will lead to global improvement.

2. There are some reasons by which hill-climbing often gets suck which is: Local Maxima,
Ridges and Plateau

INFORMED SEARCH – A* :
• IDEA: AVOID EXPANDING PATHS THAT ARE ALREADY EXPENSIVE
• EVALUATION FUNCTION F(N) = G(N) + H(N)
• G(N) = COST SO FAR TO REACH N
• H(N) = ESTIMATED COST FROM N TO GOAL
• F(N) = ESTIMATED TOTAL COST OF PATH THROUGH N TO GOAL
• BEST FIRST SEARCH HAS F(N)=H(N)
• UNIFORM COST SEARCH HAS F(N)=G(N)
• QUEUEINGFN IS SORT-BY-F ( F(N) = G(N) + H(N) )
NOTE THAT UCS AND BEST-FIRST BOTH IMPROVE SEARCH
• UCS KEEPS SOLUTION COST LOW
• BEST-FIRST HELPS FIND SOLUTION QUICKLY
• A* COMBINES THESE APPROACHES
• the advantages of the A* algorithm include simplicity and effectiveness in path planning.
• The disadvantages are the difficulty in determining the heuristic function and the need
for optimization

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