Office Automation Tools (OAT) Notes

1. Introduction to Computer
The computer comprises of technologically advanced hardware put together to work at great speed.
To accomplish its various tasks, the computer is made of different parts, each serving a particular
purpose in conjunction with other parts. In other words, a 'computer' is an ensemble of different
machines that you will be using to accomplish your job. A computer is primarily made of the
Central Processing Unit (usually referred to as the computer), the monitor, the keyboard and the
mouse. Other pieces of hardware, commonly referred to as peripherals, can enhance or improve
your experience with the computer.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
Compared to traditional systems, computers offer many noteworthy advantages.
This is one reason that traditional systems are being replaced rapidly by computer-based
systems. The main advantages offered by computers are as follows:
 High Accuracy
 Superior Speed of Operation
 Large Storage Capacity
 User-friendly Features
 Portability
 Platform independence
 Economical in the long term

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified in a variety of ways depending upon the principles of working,
construction, size and applications. Various types of computers are discussed in this section.

DIGITAL AND ANALOG COMPUTERS

ANALOG COMPUTERS
The computers that process analog signals are known as Analog Computers. The analog signal is
a continuous signal. For example, sine wave is an analog signal. The analog quantities are based
on decimal number systems. Examples of Analog computers are the slide rule, ABACUS etc.
The operational amplifiers are widely used in the construction of analog computers when the
analog electrical signal is to be processed. For example, a differentiator is the op amp circuit that
differentiates input signal. If the input signal V sin is given to analog computer, the output
would be V cos . Accordingly, the analog computer that generates the second order differential
equation can be drawn .

DIGITAL COMPUTERS
Computers that process digital signals are known as Digital Computers. The Digital signal is a
discrete signal with two states 0 and 1. In practice, the digital computers are used
and not analog. Examples of digital computers are personal computers, supercomputers,
mainframe computers etc.
Supercomputers Are the most powerful computers in terms of speed of
execution and large storage capacity. NASA uses supercomputers to track and control space
explorations.
Mainframe Computers Are next to supercomputers in terms of capacity. The mainframe
computers are multi terminal computers, which can be shared simultaneously by multiple users.
Unlike personal computers, mainframe computers offer time-sharing. For example, insurance
companies use mainframe computers to process information about millions of its policyholders.

Minicomputers These computers are also known as midrange computers. These are desk-sized
machines and are used in medium scale applications. For example, production departments use
minicomputers to monitor various manufacturing processes and assembly-line operations.

Microcomputers As compared to supercomputers, mainframes and minicomputers,

microcomputers are the least powerful, but these are very widely used and rapidly gaining in
popularity.
Personal Computer PC is the term referred to the computer that is designed for use by a single
person. PCs are also called microcontrollers because these are smaller when compared to
mainframes and minicomputers. The term ‘PC’ is frequently used to refer to desktop computers.
Although PCs are used by individuals, they can also be used in computer networks.

Desktop Computer This is the most commonly used personal computer. computers are available
in two models- horizontal model and tower model.

Laptops are also called notebook computers. These are the portable computers. They have a size
of 8.5 x 11 inch and weigh about three-to-four kilos.

Palmtops Palmtops are also called handheld computers. These are computing devices, which are
small enough to fit into your palm. The size of a palmtop is like an appointment book. The
palmtops are generally kept for personal use such as taking notes, developing a list of friends,
keeping track of dates, agendas etc. The Palmtop can also be connected to a PC for downloading
data. It also provides value-added features such as voice input, Internet, cell phone, camera, movie
player and GPS.
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) – is the palm type computer. It combines pen input, writing
recognition, personal organisational tools and communication capabilities in a small package.

1.3 Basic Elements of Computer System

Basic elements of a computer system are Mouse, Keyboard, monitor, memory, CPU, motherboard,
Hard Disk, Speakers, Modem, power supply and processor.

Mouse: Mouse is used for operating the system. Nowadays, optical mouse is more popular as
compared to simple mouse.

Keyboard: Keyboard is used to input data in to the system so that thesystem gives output to the
user. Therefore, the keyboard is an integral part of the input system. A computer is essentially
incomplete without a keyboard.
Monitor: Monitor, which again is a very essential part of the computer system, displays the actions
that the computer performs on our command.

Motherboard: Motherboard again a necessary element of the computer system contains different
elements as memory, processor, modem, slots for graphic card and LAN card.

Hard Disk: Hard disk is used to store data permanently on computer.

Modem: Modem is used to connecting to the Internet. Two types of modems are widely used. One
is known as software modems and the other is known as hardware modems.

Speakers: Speakers are also included in basic elements of a computer. It is not indispensable,
because a computer can perform its function without speakers. However, we use them to for
multiple purposes.

Basic Computer Functioning

A computer can be defined as an electronic device that accepts data from an input device, processes
it, stores it in a disk and finally displays it on an output device such as a
monitor.

To understand the basic rudiments of the functioning of the computer refer to the basic block
diagram of a computer as shown in Fig. below This flow of information holds true for all types of
computers such as Personal Computers, Laptops, Palmtops etc. In other words, the fundamental
principle of working is the same.
As shown in Fig There are four main building blocks in a computer's functioning input,
processor, output and memory. The data is entered through input devices like the
keyboard, disks or mouse. These input devices help convert data and programs into the
language that the computer can process. The data received from the keyboard is processed by the
CPU, i.e. the Central Processing Unit. The CPU controls and manipulates the data that produce
information. The CPU is usually housed within the protective cartridge. The processed data is
either stored in the memory or sent to the output device, as per the command given by the user.
The memory unit holds data and program instructions for processing data. Output devices translate
the processed information from the computer into a form that we can understand.

Von Neumann architecture

Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design in 1945 which was later known as Von-
Neumann Architecture. It consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and Logical Memory Unit
(ALU), Registers and Inputs/Outputs.

Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where instruction
data and program data are stored in the same memory. This design is still used in most computers
produced today.

Components of Computer System

MOTHERBOARD

The motherboard is the main component inside the case. It is a large rectangular board with
integrated circuitry that connects the various parts of the computer as the CPU, RAM, Disk drives
(CD, DVD, Hard disk or any others) as well as any other peripherals connected via the ports or the
expansion slots.

POWER SUPPLY
A power supply unit (PSU) converts alternating current (AC) electric power to low voltage DC
power for the internal components of the computer. Some power supplies have a switch to change
between 230 V and 115 V. Other models have automatic sensors that switch input voltage
automatically or are able to accept any voltage within these limits. Power supply units used in
computers are generally switch mode power supplies (SMPS). The SMPS provides regulated direct
current power at several voltages as required by the motherboard and accessories such as disk
drives and cooling fans.

Computer Ports
A computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It processes the input
according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output. As we
know that we can connect multiple external devices with the computer system. Now, these devices
are connected with the computer using Ports. The ports are the physical docking points present in
the computer through which the external devices are connected using cables. Or in other words, a
port is an interface between the motherboard and an external device of the computer.
There are different types of ports available out of which these are important ports

 Serial port
 Parallel port
 USB port
 PS/2 port
 VGA port
 Ethernet Port
1. Serial port(COM Port):
A serial port is also called a communication port and they are used for connection of external
devices like a modem, mouse, or keyboard (basically in older PCs). Serial cables are cheaper to
make in comparison to parallel cables and they are easier to shield from interference. There are
two versions of it, which are 9 pin model and 25 pin model. It transmits data at 115 KB/sec.

2. Parallel Port (LPT ports):

Parallel ports are generally used for connecting scanners and printers. It can send several bits at
the same time as it uses parallel communication. Its data transfer speed is much higher in
comparison with the serial port. It is a 25 pin model. It is also known as Printer Port or Line Printer
Port.
3. USB (Universal Serial Bus):
In 1997 USB was first introduced. This can connect all kinds of external USB devices, like external
hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc. There are minimum of two USB Ports provided
in most of the computer systems. It is a kind of new type serial connection Port that is much faster
than the old serial Ports and These USB Ports are much smarter and more versatile, as it allows
the “daisy chaining” of up to 127 USB peripherals connected to one port. The data transfer rate in
this is Data12 megabits per second. It also provides plug & plays communication.
4. PS/2 Port:
PS/2 ports are special ports used for connecting old computer keyboard and mouse. It was invented
by IBM. In old computers, there are minimum of two PS/2 Ports, each for the keyboard and the
mouse. It is a 6 pin mini Din connector.
5. VGA Port:
VGA ports also known as Video Graphic Array connector are those which connect the monitor to
a computer’s video card. VGA port has 15 holes and it is similar to the serial port connector. But
VGA Ports have holes in it and the serial port connector has pins in it.
6. Ethernet Port:
Ethernet Port helps to connect to a network and high-speed Internet(provided by LAN or other
sources). It connects the network cable to a computer and resides in a Ethernet card. It provides a
data travel speed of 10 Mb to 1000 Mb(megabits) per second.
SECONDARY STORAGE
This hardware keeps data inside the computer for later use and retains it even when
the computer has no power.
 Hard disk: A device for medium-term storage of data
 Solid-state drive: A device quite similar to the hard disk, but containing no moving parts
and which stores data in a digital format
CD DRIVE, FLOPPY DISK, PEN DRIVE ETC.

SOUND CARD
This device enables the computer to output sound to audio devices, as well as accept input from a
microphone. Most modern computers have sound cards built-in to the motherboard, though it is
common for a user to install a separate sound card as an upgrade. Most sound cards, either built-
in or added, have surround sound capabilities.

OTHER PERIPHERALS
In addition, hardware devices can include external components of a computer system. The
following are either standard or very common.

WHEEL MOUSE
Includes various input and output devices, usually external to the computer system
INPUT
Text input devices
_ Keyboard: A device to input text and characters by pressing buttons (referred to as keys)
Pointing devices
_ Mouse: A pointing device that detects two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting
surface
_ Optical Mouse: Uses light to determine motion
_ Trackball: A pointing device consisting of an exposed protruding ball housed in a socket
that detects rotation about the two axes
Touch screen: Senses the user pressing directly on the display
Gaming devices
Joystick: A control device that consists of a handheld stick that pivots around one end, to
detect angles in two or three dimensions
Gamepad: A handheld game controller that relies on the digits/ fingers (especially
thumbs) to provide input
Game controller: A specific type of controller specialized for certain gaming purposes
Image, video input devices
Image scanner: A device that provides input by analysing images, printed text,
handwriting or an object
Webcam: A low resolution video camera used to provide visual input that can be easily
transferred over the Internet
Audio input devices
Microphone: An acoustic sensor that provides input by converting sound into electrical
Signals

Define a computer system?

Ans:-Computer is a electronic device which can be programmed to performed a wide variety of
applications. It can quickly store, retrieve and process large amount of data. It can perform complex
and
repetitive procedure quickly.
It has three main components:-
1. C.P.U.(central processing unit)
2. Memory
3. Input & Output device
1. C.P.U.:-It is the brain of the computer. This is the component that actually executes instructions
Organized in programs which tells the computer what to do.
2. Memory:-It enables a computer to store data programs and intermediate results.
3. Input device:-these devices are the medium through which data and instructions are entered into
a Computer. Eg.Keyboard, mouse, scanner etc.
4. Output device:-these devices display the results produced by the computer. Eg. Monitor, printer
etc.

Differentiate between Data and Information?

ans:- Data is facts and figures or programs that we entered as input to computer system. It can be
any object, behavior, condition etc. for example-personal details of employees, Grades of a
student, picture of a person etc. however any application works on data make it more meaningful
EXAMPLE:-If we want to calculate gross salary of an employee than name of the employee,
designation, department, basic salary etc. will be provided to application and they will be treated
as meaningful information on final outcome.
Information can be said the final result achieved after processing the data. the word data and
information sometimes sounds same. they can be same for a layman but for systematic work both
are different.Ex:-if we consider the above example their name, designation, department, basic
salary,HRA,DA,PF of an employee is data but after processing these data item we get pay slip.
these pay slipes referred to as information.

Data can be in the form of numbers, characters, symbols, or even pictures. A collection of these
data which conveys some meaningful idea is information. It may provide answers to questions like
who, which, when, why, what, and how.Information is usually the processed outcome of data.
More specifically speaking, it is derived from data. Information is a concept and can be used in
many domains.

Explain characteristics of computer system ?

Ans:- The characteristics of computer are
1.Speed
2. Accuracy
3. Automatic
4. Endurance
5. Versatility
6. Storage
7. Reduction of cost
8. Intelligent quotient.
1.Celerity (High Speed)
It denotes the speed of a computer. The computer present in the modern world has the speed of
nano and pico second.
2.Authenticity (Accuracy)
It denoted the accuracy of the computer. They are reliable and robust. It ever makes a mistake.
Most probably the error occurs due to the user rather than the computer. There may be certain
hardware mistake but with the advanced technique in hand they are overcome
3.Spontaneous (Automatic)
The computers are automatic. It may execute the process without any intervention of user once
they are assigned to a work. Once the data or instruction are fetched from the secondary devices
such as optical disks, hard disks etc. Immediately they get stored into RAM (primary memory)
and then sequentially they get executed.
4.Pertinacity (Endurance)
This denotes that the computers never get tried as the humans do. If there are surplus amount of
executions to be made then each and every execution will be executed at the same time period.
They can perform their assigned task without taking any refreshment.Example: Computers which
are used for controlling the satellites.
5.Adaptabilty (Versatile)
In our day to day life computers has been a part, with their extended flexibility they are used, all
over the world. They can be used as personal computers, for home uses, for business oriented
tasks, weather forecasting, space explorations, teaching, railways, banking, medicine etc. All
Modern computer can perform different kind of tasks simultaneously.

6.Storehouse (Memory)
Secondary storage devices are the key for the data storage. They store the data for which the user
wants to retrieve these data for future use. The examples for various secondary devices are
Floppy disk, Optical disks (CS and DVD), Zip drives, Thumb drives etc. The data of smaller size
can be easily fetched and they can be copied to the primary memory (RAM).
Example: Data Warehousing made by IBM.
7.Cheaper (Reduction of cost)
Computers are short term investment in order to achieve a long term gain. Though the
investment is high they reduce the cost of each and every transaction. They reduce man power
and leads to an elegant and efficient way for computing various tasks.
8.Needs a User interface
The only draw back of computer is it cannot make the decision of its own. It needs a guidance to
enhance the process. After all computers is a machine.

Explain the different computer and its attributes?

An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-changeable aspects of
physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem
being solved. In contrast digital computers represent varying quantities incrementally, as their
numerical values change. In an
analog computer, quantities represent – they are analogous to – quantities in the problem being
solved. In operation, analog computers contain a mathematical model of the problem.
The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely
versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical
statement of this versatility: any computer with a certain minimum capability is, in principle,
capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore computers
ranging from a mobile phone to a supercomputer are all able to perform the same computational
tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.

Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit features of analog computers and digital
computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical
operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver of differential equations.
In general, analog computers are extraordinarily fast, since they can solve most complex
equations at the rate at which a signal traverses the circuit, which is generally an appreciable
fraction of the speed of light. On the other hand, the precision of analog computers is not good;
they are limited to three, or at most, four digits of precision.

What is CPU? Explain all its parts?

Ans. Central processing unit is called the brain of the computer. It works like an administrator of
the computer c.p.u executes program and instructions that we enter into computer system. In a
human body
all major decisions taken by the brain and all the other parts of the body function directed by brain.
Similarly in a computer system all the major parts are directed by CPU.it interpret, supervises the
instructions and coordinate the function.

CPU has Three parts inside it:

1) Algorithm Logic Unit(ALU)
2) Control Unit (CU)
3) Regsiters

ALU- ALU is responsible for all the calculations,logical comparison and execution of the
instruction,during the processing operation. The data and instruction stored in main memory
before processing are passed as and when need to the ALU,where actual processing takes place.

CU- CONTROL UNIT managed all the computer system. It is a very important part of CPU
control unit understands the instruction and execute them.
Registers—Local memory of cpu madeup of flipflops. Fastest memory

What is Cache memory? Explain.

Ans. A cache, in computer terms, is a place to store information that's faster than the place where
the information is usually stored. Cache memory is fast memory that is used to hold the most
recently accessed data in slower main memory. The idea is that frequently accessed data will stay
in cache, which allows the CPU to access it more quickly, which means it doesn't have to wait for
the data to arrive.
In reference to your processor, the Cache Memory is the Processor's internal quick-hand storage
that it uses for things that it's currently processing at that given time.
As with most things, the more cache memory a processor has, it will usually run smoother and
faster than one with less of about the same operating frequency.
Cache memory is usually "On Die" which means it is in the processor chip, which allows
it to 'talk' with the processor direct at a much higher speed than standard RAM.
cache is a small chip, that's usually placed inside the CPU or sometimes its right next to it
and is responsible for providing direct access to the commonly used programs, rather than
going back to the hard disk and ram again and again .

What is Input devices? Explain different types of input devices.

Ans. Any number of computer peripherals can be classified as input devices. An input device is
simply something that is used to interact with, or provide data to the computer.
Types of Input Devices
Mouse and other Pointing devices
Other than the keyboard, mice are the most common type of input device. Nearly every computer
has one, and they make navigating the screen much easier than trying to use just a keyboard.
Mice usually use a ball, light, or a laser to track movement.
Touch screens are becoming an increasingly popular pointing device, and someday may replace
mice altogether.
Keyboards
The keyboard is the most common input device. It is almost unheard for a computer to be
without some form of keyboard, be it a full QWERTY keyboard or a smaller number pad, such
as those found on a cell phone. It is possible to interact with most computers solely through the
keyboard, without even a mouse, because they are usually the default input device.
Audio/Video Input.
Webcams and digital cameras can also be considered input devices. They provide visual data to
the computer in the form of images and video. Some webcams can even be used as pointing
devices by tracking the location of a person's hands or face.
Bar code reader
Lines of different widths and sizes representing data, that when read will determine what the
scanned object is. Bar codes are often used to help organize and index information or prices about
an object.
Barcodes used by the U.S. postal service that helps speed the delivery of mail.
Digital camera
A camera that stores the pictures or vedio It takes in electronic format instead of to film. There are
several
features that make digital cameras a popular choice when compared to film cameras.
Joystick
An input device that looks similar to a control device you would find on an arcade game at your
local arcades. A joystick allows an individual to easily move an object in a game such as
navigating a plane in a fight simulator.
Scanner
A scanner is commonly connected to a computer USB, FIREWELLS or SSCI port.

What is printer? Explain different types of printers?

Ans. . Printer is an output device which is connected to computer to get permanent output. The
output of printer is also called Hard Copy. There are two types of printers (a) Impact printers (b)
non-impact.
Impact printers include Dot matrix and Line printer. These printers print output by stroking with
pins of hammers. Normally page travels through the printer and pins or hammers storks against
the paper with ribbon and the required output is printed on the paper.
Non-impact printers include ink-jet printer, thermal printer and laser jet printer. The output is
printed on paper by using special ink. In ink-jet printers, the liquid ink is used. The paper is
traveled in the paper and a head sprays the ink on it. In thermal printer no ink is used, instead of
a special paper is used. A fax machine is the example of this. A laser jet printer used dry power
ink placed in a cartridge. The cartridge also has a drum which is charged magnetically. A
charged drum uses the in from cartridge and places it on the paper. Paper then goes through a
heater which dries the ink.

What is memory? Explain different types of memory.

Ans. . Computer memory is the part of the system used to store data and programmes, either
permanently or temporarily. The computer memory relates to the many devices and components
that are responsible for storing data and applications on a temporary or a permanent basis. It
enables a person to retain the information that is stored on the computer

There are two types of memory:

1) RAM (RANDOPM ACCESS MEMORY)

2) ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is a location within the computer system which is responsible for stacking away data on a
temporary basis, so that it can be promptly accessed by the processor. The information stored in
RAM is typically loaded from the computer's hard disk, and includes data related to the operating
system and certain applications. When the system is switched off, RAM loses all the stored
information. The data remains stored and can be retained only when the system is running.

Read only Memory(ROM)

Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage media used in computers and other electronic
devices. Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be modified only slowly or with
difficulty, so it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific
hardware, and unlikely to need frequent updates).

In its strictest sense, ROM refers only to mask ROM (the oldest type of solid state ROM), which
is fabricated with the desired data permanently stored in it, and thus can never be modified.
However, more modern types such as EPROM and flash EEPROM can be erased and
reprogrammed
multiple times.

What is Output devices? Explain al different types of Output devices.

Ans. Any peripheral that receives or displays output from a computer. These devices display the
results produced by the computer. Eg. Monitor, printer etc.There are various types of output
devices:
Monitor: It is also called a video display terminal (VDT) and video display unit (VDU), a
monitor is a video display screen and the hard shell that holds it. Like most TVs, the
computer monitor has a CRT(Cathode Ray Tube) that is found inside the computer monitor
as illustrated in the picture to the right.
Printer : An external hardware device responsible for taking computer data and generating a
hard copy of that data. Printers are one of the most used peripherals on computers and are
commonly used to print text, images, or photos.
Projector: An output device that can take the display of a computer screen and project a
large version of it onto a flat surface. Projectors are often used in meetings and presentations
so that everyone in the room can view the presentation.
Sound card: It is also known as a sound board or an audio card, a sound card is an expension
card and integrated circuit that provides a computer with the ability to produce sound that can
be heard by the user either over speakers or headphones.
Speaker: A term used to describe the user who is giving vocal commands to a software
program. A hardware device connected to a computer's sound card that output sounds
generated by the card.

Q What is Software? Explain System Software and Application Software?

Ans. Computer instructions or data. Anything that can be stored electronically is software. The
storage device and display devices and hardware. The distinction between software and hardware
is sometimes confusing because they are so integrally linked.
Classification of Softwares:
 System Software
 Application Software
System Software: System software is computer software designed to operate the computer
hardware and to provide and maintain a platform for running application Software.System
software helps use the
operating system and computer system. It includes diagnostic tools, compilers, servers, windowing
systems, utilities, language translator, data communication programs, database systems and more.
The purpose of system software is to insulate the applications programmer as much as possible
from the details of the particular computer complex being used, especially memory and other
hardware features,
and such accessory devices as communications, printers, readers, displays, keyboards, etc.
Application Software: Application software is contrasted with system software and middleware
which manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in
the performance of tasks that benefit the user. This should be contrasted with system software
which is involved in integrating a computer's various capabilities, but typically does not directly
apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user. The separate applications in a suite
usually have a user interface that has some commonality making it easier for the user to learn and
use each application. and often they may have some capability to interact with each other in ways
beneficial to the user.

Web Browser
Ans. Web browser is a program that you use to access the Internet. It reads and knows how to
display and download files that are put on servers for people to read.
Internet Explorer and Firefox are two major web browsers. A web browser or Internet browser
is a software application for retrieving, presenting, and traversing information resources on the
World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI)
and may be a web page, image, video, or other piece of content. Although browsers are primarily
intended to access the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access information provided by
Web servers in private networks or files in file systems. Some browsers can also be used to save
information resources to file systems.
Web browser is a software program that interprets the coding language of the World Wide Web
in graphic form, displaying the translation rather than the coding. This allows anyone to “browse
the Web” by simple point and click navigation, bypassing the need to know commands used in
software languages.

What are search engine? Write name of some popular search engines.
Ans. A web search engine is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web and
FTP servers. The search results are generally presented in a list of results and are often called
hits. The information may consist of web pages, images, information and other types of files.
Some search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories. Unlike Web
directories, which are maintained by human editors, search engines operate algorithmically or are
a mixture of algorithmic and human input.
Program that searches documents for specified keywords and returns a list of the documents
where the keywords were found. Although search engine is really a general class of programs,
the term is often used to specifically describe systems like Google, Alta Vista and Excite that
enable users to search for documents on the World Wide Web and USENET newsgroups.
Some of the most common search engines are:
Altavista Webcrawler
Excite Yahoo
Google Opentext
Infoseek Cycos

Difference between Hub, Switch and Router

1. Hub :
A Hub is just a connector that connects the wires coming from different sides. There is no signal
processing or regeneration. It is an electronic device that operates only on physical layers of the
OSI model.
It is also known as a repeater as it transmits signal to every port except the port from where
signal is received. Also, hubs are not that intelligent in communication and processing
information for 2nd and 3rd layer.

2. Switch
Switch is a point to point communication device. It operates at the data link layer of OSI model.
It uses switching table to find out the correct destination.
Basically, it is a kind of bridge that provides better connections. It is a kind of device that set up
and stop the connections according to the requirements needed at that time. It comes up with
many features such as flooding, filtering and frame transmission.
3. Router :
Routers are the multiport devices and more sophisticated as compared to repeaters and bridges. It
contains a routing table that enables it to make decision about the route i.e. to determine which of
several possible paths between the source and destination is the best for a particular transmission.
It works on the network layer 3 and used in LANs, MANs and WANs. It stores IP address and
maintains address on its own.

Sr.
No Hub Switch Router

Hub is a physical
Switch is a data link layer device Router is a network layer
1. layer device i.e.
i.e. layer 2. device i.e. layer 3.
layer 1.

A Hub works on the

Switch works on the basis of A router works on the basis
2. basis of
MAC address. of IP address.
broadcasting.

A Hub is a multiport A Switch is a tele- A router reads the header

repeater in which a communication device which of incoming packet and
signal introduced at receives a message from any forward it to the port for
3. the input of any port device connected to it and then which it is intended there
appears at the output transmits the message only to the by determines the route. It
of the all available device for which the message is can also perform filtering
ports. intended. and encapsulation.

A route is more
sophisticated and
Hub is not an intelligent device as it can
A Switch is an intelligent device
intelligent device read IP address and direct
as it passes on the message to the
4. that may include the packets to another
selective device by inspecting the
amplifier on network with specified IP
address.
repeater. address. Moreover routers
can built address tables that
helps in routing decisions.
 Sr.
No Hub Switch Router

At least single
At least single network is Router needs at least two
5. network is required
required to connect. networks to connect.
to connect.

Hub is cheaper as Router is a relatively much

Switch is an expensive device
6. compared to switch more expensive device
than hub.
and router. than hub and switch.

Speed of original maximum speed for

hub 10Mbps and maximum speed is 10Mbps to wireless is 1-10 Mbps and
7.
modern internet hub 100Mbps. maximum speed for wired
is 100Mbps. connections is 100 Mbps.

Hubs are used in Routers are used in LANs,

8. Switch is used in LANs.
LANs. MANs and WANs.

Firewall & Proxy Servers

1. Firewall :
Firewall is software program that prevents unauthorized access to or from a private network. All
data packets in it are entering or dropping network passes through the firewall and after checking
whether the firewall allows it or not. All traffic must pass through the firewall and only
authorized traffic must pass. It is a system located between two networks where it implements an
access control policy between those networks. It works on network layer of the OSI model and
uses encryption to encrypt the data before transmission.
2. Proxy Server :
Proxy Server is a server that acts as a gateway or intermediary between any device and the rest of
the internet. A proxy accepts and forwards connection requests, then returns data for those
requests. It uses the anonymous network id instead of actual IP address of client (means it hides
the IP address of client), so that the actual IP address of client couldn’t be reveal.

Difference between Firewall and Proxy Server :

 Firewall Proxy Server

Firewall can monitor and filter all the Proxy server connects an external client
1 incoming and outgoing traffic on a given with a server to communicate with each
local network. other.

It blocks connections from unauthorised

2 It facilitates connections over network.
network.

It filters data by monitoring IP packets that It filters the client-side requests that are
3
are traversed. made to connect to the network.

4 It involves network and transport layer data. It work on application layer data.

It exist as an interface between a public and It can exist with public networks on both
5
private network. sides.

It is used to protect an internal network It is used for anonymity and to bypass

6
against attacks . restrictions.

The overhead generated in firewall is more The overhead generated in proxy server is
7
as compared to a proxy server. less as compared to a firewall.

8 It works on the packet level. It works on application protocol level.

Write short notes on the following?

a) Ethernet
b) Token ring
c) Token Bus
Ans. Ethernet: Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local
area networks (LANs). The name came from the physical concept of the ether. It defines a
number of wiring and signaling standards for the Physical Layer of the OSI networking model as
well as a common addressing format and Media Access Control at the Data Link Layer.
Higher level network protocols like Internet Protocol (IP) use Ethernet as their transmission
medium. Data travels over Ethernet inside protocol units called frames.
Token Ring: Token ring local area network (LAN) technology is a local area network protocol
which resides at the data link layer (DLL) of the OSI model. It uses a special three-byte frame
called a token that travels around the ring. Token-possession grants the possessor permission to
transmit on the medium. Token ring frames travel completely around the loop.
A type of computer network in which all the computers are arranged (schematically) in a circle.
A token , which is a special bit pattern, travels around the circle. To send a message, a computer
catches the token, attaches a message to it, and then lets it continue to travel around the network.
Token Bus: A type of local-area network (LAN) that has a bus topology and uses a token -
passing mechanism to regulate traffic on the bus. A token bus network is very similar to a token
ring network, the main difference being that the endpoints of the bus do not meet to form a
physical ring. Token bus networks are defined by the IEEE 802.4 standard.
Token bus is a network implementing the token ring protocol over a "virtual ring" on a coaxial
cable. A token is passed around the network nodes and only the node possessing the token may
transmit. If a node doesn't have anything to send, the token is passed on to the next node on the
virtual ring. Each node must know the address of its neighbour in the ring, so a special protocol
is needed to notify the other nodes of connections to, and disconnections from, the ring.

Q. Define communication and communication process. Write a note on ebanking.

Ans. The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or
behavior. It is the art and technique of using words effectively to impart information or ideas.
data communication system is consisting of different components that are used to work together
to transfer data from one place to another. These are central computer
, control programs, terminals, modem, data communication media ,data transmission modes and
networking. The computers that manages transmission of data between different computers is
called central computer.
The computer that manages transmission of data between different computers called central
computer. It is part of the data communication system. Large computers such as mainframe
computers, mini computers etc are used for central computers. Control programs control the flow
of the data from one computer to the other. These are operating system that control the working
of the computers.
A terminal is the basic communication unit. Many persons can work on a single computer by
connecting many terminals to the large computer. Through telephone line data transfer from one
place to other in form of analog signals. Thus for transform the from one computer to another
computer through telephone line, digital signals must be converted to analog signals. For
receiving digital signals by another computer these analog signal must be converted into digital
signals. Different data transmission modes are used such as cable, microwave etc.
Q. Define a Network? What are different types of Network?
Ans. Network may be defined as interconnection of computing devices in order to share data.
The network infrastructure is built with a combination of computer hardware and software. The
different types of network are Personal Area Network (PAN), Local Area Network (LAN),
Campus Area Network (CAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), Wide Area Network
(WAN), and Global Area Network (GAN).
THE MAIN NETWORKS ARE :
LAN:- Local Area Network
WAN :- Wide Area Network
MAN:- Metropolitan Area Network
LAN:- A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office
building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will
contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of
nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single
IP subnet.

WAN:- A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a

router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and
a WAN address.
A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not
owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and
management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay for larger distance
Different types of Network Topologies
In Computer Network ,there are various ways through which different components are connected
to one another. Network Topology is the way that defines the structure, and how these
components are connected to each other.
Types of Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver
is referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology
 Point to Point Topology
Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and
receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the
other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.
Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature
i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent
known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are

used to connect the computers.

A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash
down.
The cost of installation is high.
Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where
all devices are connected to a wireless access point.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Star Topology.
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because
if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control)
protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted
Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology
A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via drop
lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known.
CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a
single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology.
Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will
have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are
used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having
2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology,
the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to another
node.
Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing the
operations.
To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is
to be released for other stations to use.
When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after
transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is
received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
The data transmission is high-speed.
The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
Cheap to install and expand.
It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
Less secure.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Ring Topology.
Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are
used.
In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the repeater.
This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the devices
or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-
point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that is
traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
We can add new devices to the existing network.
Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
The cost is high because of the cabling.
If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the
tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the
company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams
(grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected
to their respective managers and departments.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Tree Topology.
Hybrid Topology
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these
can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of
topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

This topology is very flexible.
The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and network
devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may have
a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a switch or
router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms
and offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This
hybrid topology allows for efficient communication between different buildings while providing
flexibility and redundancy within each building.
Q Write Short note on:
A) Internet
B) World Wide Web
C) Intranet
D) Extranet
Ans. Internet : The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use
the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network
of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government
networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical
networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services,
such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the
infrastructure to support electronic mail.Most traditional communications media including
telephone, music, film, and television are being reshaped or redefined by the Internet.
Newspaper, book and other print publishing are having to adapt to Web sites and blogging. The
Internet has enabled or accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant messaging,
Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has boomed both for major retail outlets
and small artisans and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect
supply chains across entire industries.
The concept of data communication - transmitting data between two different places, connected
via some kind of electromagnetic medium, such as radio or an electrical wire - actually predates
the introduction of the first computers. Such communication systems were typically limited to
point to point communication between two end devices.
B) World Wide Web: The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and commonly known as
the Web, is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web
browser, one can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia
and navigate between them via hyperlinks. Using concepts from earlier hypertext systems.
System of Internet servers that support specially formatted documents. The documents are
formatted in a markup language called HTML (HyperText Markup Language) that supports
links to other documents, as well as graphics, audio, and video files. This means you can jump
from one document to another simply by clicking on hot spots. Not all Internet servers are part of
the World Wide Web.
C) Intranet: An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet Protocol technologies
to securely share any part of an organization's information or network operating system within
that organization. The term is used in contrast to internet, a network between organizations, and
instead refers to a network within an organization. Sometimes the term refers only to the
organization's internal website, but may be a more extensive part of the organization's
information technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private websites and constitute an
important component and focal point of internal communication and collaboration.

An intranet is a private network that is contained within an enterprise. It may consist of many
interlinked local area networks and also use leased lines in the wide area network. Typically, an
intranet includes connections through one or more gateway computers to the outside Internet.
The main purpose of an intranet is to share company information and computing resources
among employees. An intranet can also be used to facilitate working in groups and for
teleconferences.
An intranet uses TCP/IP, HTTP, and other Internet protocols and in general looks like a private
version of the Internet. With tunneling, companies can send private messages through the public
network, using the public network with special encryption/decryption and other security
safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to another.
D) Extranet: An extranet is a computer network that allows controlled access from the outside,
for specific business or educational purposes. An extranet can be viewed as an extension of a
company's intranet that is extended to users outside the company, usually partners, vendors, and
suppliers. It has also been described as a "state of mind" in which the Internet is perceived as a
way to do business with a selected set of other companies (business-to-business, B2B), in
isolation from all other Internet users. In contrast, business-to-consumer (B2C) models involve
known servers of one or more companies, communicating with previously unknown consumer
users. An intranet is like a DMZ in that it provides access to needed services for channel
partners, without granting access to an organization's entire network.
An extranet provides various levels of accessibility to outsiders. You can access an extranet only
if you have a valid username and password, and your identity determines which parts of the
extranet you can view.
Difference between HTTP and HTTPS
1. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol
using which hypertext is transferred over the Web. Due to its simplicity, http has been the most
widely used protocol for data transfer over the Web but the data (i.e. hypertext) exchanged using
http isn’t as secure as we would like it to be. In fact, hyper-text exchanged using http goes as
plain text i.e. anyone between the browser and server can read it relatively easily if one intercepts
this exchange of data.
2. Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
(HTTPS) is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is used for secure
communication. In HTTPS, the communication protocol is encrypted using Transport Layer
Security.
Difference between HTTP and HTTPs :
S.No. HTTP HTTPS

HTTP stands for HyperText

HTTPS for HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure.
1. Transfer Protocol.

In HTTP, URL begins with

In HTTPs, URL starts with “https://”.
2. “http://”.

HTTP uses port number 80

HTTPs uses 443 port number for communication.
3. for communication.

HTTP is considered to be
HTTPs is considered as secure.
4. unsecure.

HTTP works at Application

HTTPS works at Transport Layer.
5. Layer.

In HTTP, Encryption is
Encryption is present in HTTPS.
6. absent.

HTTP does not require any

HTTPS needs SSL Certificates.
7. certificates.

HTTP does not improve

HTTPS helps to improve search ranking
8. search ranking
S.No. HTTP HTTPS

9. HTTP faster than HTTPS HTTPS slower than HTTP

HTTP does not use data While HTTPS will have the data before sending it
10. hashtags to secure data. and return it to its original state on the receiver side.

In HTTP Data is transfer in

In HTTPS Data transfer in ciphertext.
11. plaintext.

12. HTTP Should be avoided. HTTPS Should be preferred.

Search engines do not favour Improved reputation of the website in search

13. the insecure website. engine.

HTTP Does not require HTTPS Requires SSL/TLS implementation with

14. SSL/TLS or Certificates Certificates.

In HTTP Users ar worried In HTTPS Users are confident about the security of
15. about their data. their data.

URL
Also known as a internet address or web address, a URL ( Uniform Resource Locator) is a form
of URI and standardized naming convention for addressing documents accessible over the Internet
and Intranet. An example of a URL is https://www.computerhope.com, which is the URL for the
Computer Hope website.

What do you mean by data transmission? Explain all layers of OSI Model.
Ans. Data transmission, digital transmission or digital communications is the physical transfer
of data (a digital bit stream) over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel.
Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibers.

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a product of the Open Systems
Interconnection effort at the International Organization for Standardization. It is a way of
subdividing
a communications system into smaller parts called layers. A layer is a collection of
conceptually similar functions that provide services to the layer above it and receives services
from the layer below it. On each layer an instance provides services to the instances at the layer
above and requests service from the layer below.
Layer 1: Physical Layer
The Physical Layer defines the electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it
defines the relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or optical
cable.
The major functions and services performed by the Physical Layer are:
Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.
Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared
among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control.

Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment

and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are
signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a
radio link.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between
network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical Layer.
Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint media.
Layer 3: Network Layer
The Network Layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length
data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks, while maintaining the
quality of service requested by the Transport Layer. The Network Layer performs network
routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery
errors. Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the extended network and making
the Internet possible..
Layer 4: Transport Layer
The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable
data transfer services to the upper layers. The Transport Layer controls the reliability of a given
link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are
state and connection oriented. This means that the Transport Layer can keep track of the
segments and retransmit those that fail. The Transport layer also provides the acknowledgement
of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred.
Layer 5: Session Layer
The Session Layer controls the connections between computers. It establishes, manages and
terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex,
half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes check pointing, adjournment, termination, and
restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The Presentation Layer establishes context between Application Layer entities, in which the
higher-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a
mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are
encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating
between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form
that the application accepts.
Layer 7: Application Layer
The Application Layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI
application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts
with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application
programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application layer functions typically include
identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing
communication.
IP Addressing

IP addressing is a hardware-independent convention which in principle allows every computer

attached to the Internet to be given a unique logical address (though we will see later on that there
are some important exceptions to this).

IP4 addresses are 32-bit binary strings which are normally seen by humans (e.g., network
administrators, in dotted decimal as in the example:

223.58.1.10

The decimal numbers here have no meaning in isolation; this is simply a convenient way of
encoding the numbers so that administrators and others find it easier to recognize them. What
happens is that the 32-bit address is broken up into four 8-bit sequences each of which is converted
to decimal. So the above address is in binary:

11011111 00111010 00000001 00001010

IP Address Formats

Originally IP addresses were divided into five classes as shown below. Classes A, B and C are the
most important: the initial bits determine which class an address belongs to, and the classes differ
 in how much of the address is taken up with the network address and how much with the host
address.

Offsets
0 8 16 24
Class A
0 Network Host
Addresses 1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Class B
10 Network Host
Addresses 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
Class C
110 Network Host
Addresses 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
Class D
1110 Multicast address
Addresses 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Class E
11110 Reserved for future use
Addresses 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255

Exclusions

Some address ranges are excluded from the above classes. All addresses of the
form 127.xx.yy.xx are used for diagnostics. The following address ranges are designated as
"private": meaning thay can only be used on networks which are not connected to the global
Internet:

10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

Examples

Find the class, network and host addresses for:

a. 4.23.145.90
b. 227.34.78.7
c. 246.7.3.8
d. 129.6.8.4
 e. 198.76.9.23

MAC ADDRESS
MAC Addresses are unique 48-bit hardware Address of a computer that are embedded into
a network card (known as a Network Interface Card) during manufacturing. The MAC
Address is also known as the Physical Addressof a network device.
Difference between MAC Address and IP Address
Both MAC Address and IP Address are used to uniquely define a device on the internet. NIC
Card’s Manufacturer provides the MAC Address, on the other hand, Internet Service Provider
provides IP Address.
The main difference between MAC and IP address is that MAC Address is used to ensure the
physical address of the computer. It uniquely identifies the devices on a network. While IP
addresses are used to uniquely identifies the connection of the network with that device takes
part in a network.

S.NO MAC Address IP Address

MAC Address stands for Media IP Address stands for Internet Protocol
1.
Access Control Address. Address.

MAC Address is a six byte IP Address is either a four-byte (IPv4) or a

2.
hexadecimal address. sixteen-byte (IPv6) address.

A device attached with MAC Address A device attached with IP Address can
3.
can retrieve by ARP protocol. retrieve by RARP protocol.

NIC Card’s Manufacturer provides the Internet Service Provider provides IP

4.
MAC Address. Address.

MAC Address is used to ensure the IP Address is the logical address of the
5.
physical address of a computer. computer.
S.NO MAC Address IP Address

MAC Address operates in the data link

6. IP Address operates in the network layer.
layer.

MAC Address helps in simply IP Address identifies the connection of the

7.
identifying the device. device on the network.

MAC Address of computer cannot be IP Address modifies with the time and
8.
changed with time and environment. environment.

MAC Addresses can’t be found easily

9. IP Addresses can be found by a third party.
by a third party.

It is a 48-bit address that contains 6

groups of 2 hexadecimal digits, IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses in dotted
separated by either hyphens (-) or notations, whereas IPv6 uses 128-bit
colons(.). addresses in hexadecimal notations.
10. Example: Example:
00:FF:FF:AB:BB:AA IPv4 192.168.1.1
or IPv6 FFFF:F200:3204:0B00
00-FF-FF-AB-BB-AA

No classes are used for MAC IPv4 uses A, B, C, D, and E classes for IP
11.
addressing. addressing.

In IP address multiple client devices can

12. MAC Address sharing is not allowed.
share the IP address.
S.NO MAC Address IP Address

MAC address help to solve IP address IP addresses never able to solve MAC
13.
issue. address issues.

MAC addresses can be used for The IP address can be used for broadcasting
14.
broadcasting. or multicasting.

15. MAC address is hardware oriented. IP address is software oriented.

While communication, Switch needs While communication, Router need IP

16.
MAC address to forward data. address to forward data.

Q. What is an operating System? Explain all function of Operating System.

Ans. The operating system (sometimes referred to by its abbreviation OS), is responsible for
creating the link between the material resources, the user and the applications (word processor,
video game, etc.). When a programme wants to access a material resource, it does not need to
send specific information to the peripheral device but it simply sends the information to the
operating system, which conveys it to the relevant peripheral via its driver. If there are no
drivers, each programme has to recognise and take into account the communication with each
type of peripheral.
The operating system provides for several other functions including:
Management of the processor: the operating system is responsible for managing
allocation of the processor between the different programmes using a scheduling
algorithm. The type of scheduler is totally dependent on the operating system, according
to the desired objective.
Management of the random access memory: the operating system is responsible for
managing the memory space allocated to each application and, where relevant, to each
user. If there is insufficient physical memory, the operating system can create a memory
zone on the hard drive, known as "virtual memory". The virtual memory lets you run
applications requiring more memory than there is available RAM on the system.
However, this memory is a great deal slower.
Management of input/output: the operating system allows unification and control of
access of programmes to material resources via drivers (also known as peripheral
administrators or input/output administrators).
Management of execution of applications: the operating system is responsible for
smooth execution of applications by allocating the resources required for them to operate.
This means an application that is not responding correctly can be "killed".
Management of authorisations: the operating system is responsible for security relating
to execution of programmes by guaranteeing that the resources are used only by
programmes and users with the relevent authorisations.
File management: the operating system manages reading and writing in the file system
and the user and application file access authorisations.
Information management: the operating system provides a certain number of indicators
that can be used to diagnose the correct operation of the machine.

Features of Operating System

Here is a list commonly found important features of an Operating System:
Protected and supervisor mode
Allows disk access and file systems Device drivers Networking Security
Program Execution
Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking
Handling I/O operations
Manipulation of the file system
Error Detection and handling
Resource allocation
Information and Resource Protection
Function of an Operating System
In an operating system software performs each of the function:
Process management:- Process management helps OS to create and delete processes. It also
provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication among processes.
Memory management:- Memory management module performs the task of allocation and de-
allocation of memory space to programs in need of this resources.
File management:- It manages all the file-related activities such as organization storage, retrieval,
naming, sharing, and protection of files.
Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This module also
responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. It also performs the task of allocation and
de-allocation of the devices.
I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the peculiarities of that
hardware devices from the user.
Secondary-Storage Management: Systems have several levels of storage which includes primary
storage, secondary storage, and cache storage. Instructions and data must be stored in primary
storage or cache so that a running program can reference it.
Security:- Security module protects the data and information of a computer system against
malware threat and authorized access.
Command interpretation: This module is interpreting commands given by the and acting system
resources to process that commands.
Networking: A distributed system is a group of processors which do not share memory, hardware
devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one another through the network.
Job accounting: Keeping track of time & resource used by various job and users.
Communication management: Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, and
another software resource of the various users of the computer systems.

Types of Operating system

Batch Operating System
Multitasking/Time Sharing OS
Multiprocessing OS
Real Time OS
Distributed OS
Network OS
Mobile OS
Batch Operating System

Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To speed the same process, a job
with a similar type of needs are batched together and run as a group.
The user of a batch operating system never directly interacts with the computer. In this type of OS,
every user prepares his or her job on an offline device like a punch card and submit it to the
computer operator.
Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems
Time-sharing operating system enables people located at a different terminal(shell) to use a single
computer system at the same time. The processor time (CPU) which is shared among multiple
users is termed as time sharing.

6 Steps In Booting Process Of A Computer

Booting is a process of switching on a computer. Two types of booting are cold booting and warm
booting. Six steps of the booting process are BIOS and Setup Program, The Power-On-Self-Test
(POST), The Operating System Loads, System Configuration, System Utility Loads, and Users
Authentication.

Types of Booting

Booting is a process of switching on the computer and starting the operating system. When a
computer is switched on, The boot process loads the operating system into main memory (RAM)
installed inside it. Types of computer booting are Cold Booting and Warm Booting.

 Cold Boot: when the user switches on a computer after it has been power off completely,
 Warm Boot: when the user restarts the computer.

When the booting process takes place, it copies kernel and important instructions of an operating
system from hard disk to main memory (RAM). The kernel is the most important part of the
operating system that manages memory and devices, maintains computer clock, starts applications.
It assigns compute resources like devices, programs, data, and information also. The kernel also
remains in memory permanently when the computer starts.

Steps in the Booting Process

Booting is a process of switching on the computer and starting the operating system. Six steps of
the booting process are BIOS and Setup Program, The Power-On-Self-Test (POST),
The Operating System Loads, System Configuration, System Utility Loads and Users
Authentication.

Step 1: BIOS and Setup Program

 ROM (read-only memory): it is a permanent and unchanging memory also
 BIOS (basic input/output system ): the part of the system software that includes the
instructions that the computer uses to accept input and output
 Load: to transfer from a storage device to memory. The ROM loads BIOS into the computer’s
memory
 Setup program: a special program containing settings to control
hardware. Furthermore, the program can only be accessed while the BIOS information is
visible
Step 2: The Power-On-Self-Test (POST)
 POST (Power-On Self-Test): a series of tests conducted on the computer’s main
memory, input/output devices, disk drives, and the hard disk.
 BIOS conducts Power-On-Self-Test to check the input/ output system for operability.
 The computer will produce a beeping sound if any problem occurs. An error message will also
appear on the monitor
Step 3: The Operating System (OS) Loads
BIOS searches for the operating system.
 Setting in CMOS: complementary metal oxide semiconductor determines where to look for
the operating system.
 In this step, the operating system’s kernel is also loaded into the computer’s memory.
 The operating system takes control of the computer and begins loading system configuration
information.
Step 4: System Configuration
 Registry: a database to store information about peripherals and software
 Peripheral: a device connected to a computer
 Drive: a utility program that makes peripheral devices function properly
 The operating system’s registry configures the system.
 In this step, drivers are also loaded into memory.
Step 5: System Utility Loads
 System utilities are loaded into memory.
 Volume control
 Antivirus software
 PC card unplugging utility
Step 6: Users Authentication
 Authentication or user login occurs
 Username
 Password

After all this process, the user interface starts, enabling user interaction with the computer and its
programs also.

OS UTILITY PROGRAMS
A utility program, also called a utility, is a type of system software that performs a specific task,
usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs. Most operating systems
include several utility programs. You also can buy stand-alone utilities that offer improvements
over those included with the operating system.
Popular utility programs offer these functions: viewing files, compressing files, diagnosing
problems, scanning disks, defragmenting disks, uninstalling software, backing up files and disks,
checking for viruses, and displaying screen savers. The following paragraphs briefly discuss each
of these utilities.

File Viewer

A file viewer is a utility that allows you to display and copy the contents of a file. An operating
system’s file manager often includes a file viewer. For example, Windows Explorer has two
viewers: one called Quick View to display the contents of text files and another called Imaging
Preview for graphics files. The title bar of the file viewer window displays the name of the file
being viewed.

File Compression

A file compression utility shrinks the size of a file. A compressed file takes up less storage space.
Compressing files frees up room on the storage media and improves system performance.
Attaching a compressed file to an e-mail message reduces the time needed for file transmission.
Uploading and downloading compressed files to and from the Internet reduces the file transmission
time.
Compressed files, sometimes called zipped files, usually have a .zip extension. When you
receive or download a compressed file, you must uncompress it. To uncompress, or unzip, a file,
you restore it to its original form. Two popular stand-alone file compression utilities are PKZIP™
and WinZip® .

Diagnostic Utility

A diagnostic utility compiles technical information about your computer’s hardware and certain
system software programs and then prepares a report outlining any identified problems. For
example, Windows includes the diagnostic utility, Dr. Watson, which diagnoses problems as well
as suggests courses of action.
Disk Scanner

A disk scanner is a utility that (1) detects and corrects both physical and logical problems on a
hard disk or floppy disk and (2) searches for and removes unwanted files. A physical problem is
one with the media such as a scratch on the surface of the disk. A logical problem is one with the
data, such as a corrupted file allocation table (FAT). Windows includes two disk scanner utilities:
ScanDisk and Disk Cleanup. ScanDisk detects and corrects problems. Disk Cleanup searches for
and removes unnecessary files such as temporary files .

Disk Defragment Utility

A disk defragment utility reorganizes the files and unused space on a computer’s hard disk so the
operating system can access data more quickly and programs can run faster. When an operating
system stores data on a disk, it places the data in the first available sector on the disk. Although it
attempts to place data in sectors that are contiguous (next to each other), this is not always possible.
When the contents of a file are scattered across two or more noncontiguous sectors, the file is
fragmented. Fragmentation slows down disk access and thus the performance of the entire
computer. Defragmenting the disk, or reorganizing it so the files are stored in contiguous sectors,
solves this problem. Windows includes a disk defragmenter, called Disk Defragmenter.

Uninstall Utility

An uninstall utility removes an application, as well as any associated entries in the system files.
When you install an application, the operating system records the information it uses to run the
software in the system files. The system file entries will remain if you attempt to remove the
application from your computer by deleting the files and folders associated with the program
without running the uninstaller. Most operating systems include an uninstaller. You also can
purchase a stand-alone program, such as McAfee’s UnInstaller.

Backup Utility

A backup utility allows you to copy, or backup, selected files or your entire hard disk onto another
disk or tape. During the backup process, the backup utility monitors progress and alerts you if it
needs additional disks or tapes. Many backup programs will compress files during this process, so
the backup files require less storage space than the original files.
For this reason, you usually cannot use backup files in their backed up form. In the event you need
to use one of these files, a restore program reverses the process and returns backed up files to their
original form. Backup utilities include restore programs.
You should back up files and disks regularly in the event your originals are lost, damaged, or
destroyed. Windows includes a backup utility. Some users opt to back up their files to an Internet
hard drive. An Internet hard drive, sometimes called online storage, is a service on the Web that
provides storage to computer users. A separate paper discusses backup strategies in more depth.

Antivirus Program
An antivirus program is a utility that prevents, detects, and removes viruses from a computer’s
memory or storage devices. A virus is a program that copies itself into other programs and spreads
through multiple computers. Some malicious programmers intentionally write virus programs that
destroy or corrupt data on a computer. A separate paper discusses antivirus programs and viruses
in more depth.

Screen Saver

A screen saver is a utility that causes a monitor’s screen to display a moving image or blank screen
if no keyboard or mouse activity occurs for a specified time period . When you press a key on the
keyboard or move the mouse, the screen returns to the previously displayed image.
Screen savers originally were developed to prevent a problem called ghosting, in which images
could be permanently etched on a monitor’s screen. Ghosting is not a problem with today’s
monitors. Still, screen savers are popular for security, business, or entertainment purposes. To
secure a computer, you can configure your screen saver so a user must enter a password to stop
the screen saver and redisplay the previous image. Some screen savers use push technology, which
enables you to receive updated and new information each time the screen saver displays. Push
technology occurs when Web-based content downloads automatically to your computer at a
regular interval or whenever the Web site updates.
An operating system often includes several screen savers. You also can purchase screen savers or
download them from the Web.

Introduction to Microsoft Office 2016:

Word
Microsoft Word is a word processing software. You can use it to type letters, reports, and other
documents. This class introduces users to Microsoft Word 2016.

NOTE: Experienced users may benefit from this tutorial, as 2016 is different from previous
versions.

Opening Word 2016

First, we will need to open Word 2016. This can be done by double-clicking on the Word 2016
icon on the desktop or,

In Windows 10, In Windows 7,

1. Open the Start Menu. 1. Click the Start Menu.

2. Clicking All Apps. 2. Click All Programs.
3. Choose Microsoft Office.
4. Click Word 2016.

Understanding the Backstage

All of Microsoft Office 2016 contains the Backstage area. The Backstage is where you manage,
save, and open your files. Here you can also print, select templates, and complete other useful
tasks.

File tab (found at

the top left corner of the window).

Backstage

The first page you see is the Info Page. Info

can also see when the last AutoSave occurred. AutoSaves
your computer will automatically save your file as a temporary file. If you experience a computer
shut down, you can recover some of your work from the AutoSaves.

WARNING: Please do not

rely on AutoSave. Save
your work often!

2
 New: You can create a new, blank document or select
library. Word provides resume, calendar, and flyer templates to help you get
started.

Open: Click this option to open a previously saved file and continue editing it.

Save: Save your file frequently. You can also click the in the upper left
corner. Or, press CTRL + S on your keyboard at the same time.

Save As: The first time you save your file you will see the Save As menu. See
below for more information.

Save as Adobe PDF: Lets you save the document as an Adobe PDF file.

Print: Print your document using this screen. We will go into more details about
this later in the class.

Share: This is new to Office 2016. This allows you to email your file, upload it to
a blog site or present your document online. You will need additional accounts to
use these features, such as a Microsoft Account (to present) or a WordPress
account (to blog). For this introduction we will not cover these features in-depth,
but be aware that these capabilities exist.

Export: Allows you to export (or save) your document as a different document
type.

Account: Allows you to change the colors of your Office Background and sign in
with a different Microsoft Account if needed.

Options: Gives you access to the advanced features in Word. This feature also
allows you to rearrange the ribbon or other settings in this application.

To return to the Word window, click the arrow at the top.

Lesson 1: Creating New Documents

Once you open Word 2016, you have actually started a new
document. You will see a blank page and a blinking cursor.

NOTE: Either before you start or shortly after, you should save your document. Saving a
document frequently prevents a loss of file if your computer unexpectedly shuts down.

At this point, you can start entering text. You may need several sessions in Word to complete
final versions of lengthy or complex documents.

3
When you type text into a Word document, each character appears to the left of the blinking
insertion point (the cursor) in the document window. The text you enter into a document can
include letters, spaces, numbers, and symbols. As you type, the insertion point moves across
the screen from right to left.

NOW YOU TRY: Try typing: The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.

Lesson 2: Save As
The Save As menu appears the first time you save your file. You can also use the Save As
menu to save different copies of the same file by giving each copy a slightly different file name.
This can be done at any time.

Example: myfile.docx and myfile2.docx.

save our file

now so you can learn about the Saving screen.

Open the Save As screen. Remember, you have to be in the backstage area.

NOTE: The file paths

are blocked out.

By default, you have two places that you can save your file: (1) directly on your computer, or (2)
in a OneDrive Account.

4
OneDrive

Your OneDrive account is a cloud storage

servers instead of your computer. This option allows you to access your files from any
computer, anywhere that has Internet access. For this course we will not be going over
OneDrive, only saving our file to the computer. For more information, including pricing, please
visit onedrive.live.com/about.

Unless you want to use an OneDrive account, you will save most of your files onto a computer.
From the Save As screen:

1. Select This Computer.

2. Click Browse.

The Browse button opens the Save As dialog box menu (see below).

NOTE: A dialog box is a pop-up menu that displays additional options.

You can also use the Save As dialog box to save different copies of the same file by giving each
copy a slightly different file name.

5
 1. File Name box Word will automatically insert a default filename when you first save a
document. This default is always the first phrase in the document, but you have the
ability to modify it. Word can handle filenames of up to 255 characters. These filenames
can include uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and even spaces. However,
they cannot contain the following symbols: < > : * | \

2. File Path At the top of the box, you can see the file path of the document. The File Path
shows which folders the document is saved under.

3. File Location The default location where the document will be saved is My Documents.
To store the document in a different location (including flash drives), you can click on the
folder or drive on the left side of the Save As dialog box.

4. Similar Files When you are saving a document, files of similar types will be displayed.
For example, if you are saving a Word 2016 Document, you will see other Word 2016
(.docx) documents listed.

5. New Folder You might consider creating a new folder before saving your file. This step
will help you organize and find them later.

6. File Type When you save a file, you can also change its format type. For example, you
can save your file as a PDF (protected document format) or as a Word Document. Click
the drop down box to save your preferred type. The file type is denoted by the file

NOTE: You can also save files as older Word Documents (such as Word 2003).

NOW YOU TRY:

o Save your document to the Desktop.
o Change the name of your document. Use something simple, like the title of the
document or your last name.
o Make sure that the file type of the document is a Word Document.

What happens when you exit out of Word before

saving a document?

the
pop-up to the right.

You have three options:

1. Save to open the Save as dialog box.

2. to discard the document.
3. Cancel causes Word to return to the document.

6
Lesson 3: Opening Existing Documents

Documents previously stored on your computer or OneDrive can be opened for revision.
Choose Open from the backstage.

If the file you that you want to open is on OneDrive, then select OneDrive to download and edit
files stored in your OneDrive account (see page 5 for more information).

Notice that recently saved documents are listed on the right side. You can open these by
clicking on the folder or file name.

If , choose Browse. This will cause the Open dialog box to

pop up. It is very similar to the Save As dialog box. Use this tool to search for and open your file.

7
Open Dialog Box

If you see your file in the current location, select it and click Open (4).

A file saved in a specific folder is opened by double-clicking the folder to view the files in the
folder (2).

For a file saved on a flash drive, select the flash drive on the left (1) to view folders and files on
it.

If you do not remember where you saved the file, you can type the file name in the Search Box
(3) and click the magnifying glass symbol to search for it.

NOTE: Search will only look through one drive at a time. To search your flash drive, you need
to click the icon located on the left side

NOW YOU TRY: Opening a file

o Click on the File tab in the upper-left corner.
o Click Open.
o Find the file that you saved in the last lesson and open it.

Lesson 4: Print Preview

You can preview your document before you

print it. This ensures the document will have
your preferred look/layout.

To access the print preview:

1. Click the File tab.
2. Click Print.

8
The Print Preview in Word 2016 is automatically displayed with the print menu. To return to the
Word window without printing, click the arrow at the top-left corner.

Lesson 5: Printing
After you create a new document, you can print it. You do not have to save the document
beforehand.

Click the File tab and click Print

You can use this menu to adjust your current print settings. For example, you can specify how
many copies you need or the portion of
the document you would like to print
(e.g. single page or paragraph). 1
Before we go any furth
other Printing Options including
selecting a range (set of pages you want
to print) and choosing a printer.

1. Determine how many copies to 2

print.
2. Select which printer to use. You
should verify that the correct 4
printer is selected if you have
access to more than one printer.
3. If your printer is capable, you can
print on both sides of the paper
(called duplex printing).
3
4. Select the print range (all,
specific pages, or selection). To
print specific pages, type the
page numbers in the Pages: box.
5. Select paper size. Typically, you 5
8.5 x 11 .
6. You can opt to print multiple
pages per sheet. This will
decrease the size of your text.
6

Now that you understand the backstage

view, it is time to return to the Word
window for the rest of the class.

WARNING: If your printer is wifi enabled, make sure it is your printer you are printing to!

9
Lesson 6: Parts of the Word Window

The Quick Access Toolbar

At the top left is a list of your most used commands. The default buttons are Save, Undo, and
Redo. However, you can change your default buttons to other commands.

Save: Saves your document in its current location

Undo: Lets you undo your most recent action (this command is your best friend).

Redo: Undo an undo. In other words, if you undid your most recent action, you can
click redo if you decide to go back and keep it.

Customize Quick Access Toolbar: You can add more commands to the tool bar by
selecting this option.

Search/Help

In 2016, Microsoft introduced the Search Box feature. The box

is located next to the ribbon tabs. If you wanted to complete a
specific task but did not want to browse for it on the ribbons,
you can type a keyword to find it.

10
The Title Bar

Next to the Quick Access toolbar is the Title Bar. The Title Bar displays the title of the
document on which you are currently working. Word names the first new document you open
Document1 until you save it and give it a new name.

The Ribbon

In Microsoft Word 2016, you use the ribbon to issue commands. The ribbon is located near the
top of the screen and below the Quick Access toolbar.

At the top of the ribbon are several tabs; clicking a tab displays several related command
groups.

Home: This tab contains the most commonly used commands in word. Some of these include
commands to change how the text looks and is displayed on the page. The Cut, Copy, and
Paste commands are also here.

Insert: This tab contains commands that allows you to insert various objects such as pictures,
tables, and shapes into the document.

Design: In this tab you can change the way the document looks and add visual features.

Page Layout: Here you can change the position of the text on the page and the document
formatting.

References: You can manage your sources and citations. You can also add a table of contents
and footnotes here.

Mailings: This tab lets you set up and use the Mail Merge feature of Microsoft Word.

Review: This tab allows you to use spell and grammar check, insert comments, track changes
that you have made to the document, and use a thesaurus.

View: In this tab you can change how the Word window looks.

11
NOTE: Changing how the Word window look will not affect how the document looks when
printed, just how it looks when you view it on the computer.

You will notice the faint lines that divide the ribbon.

Command Group

This is a Command Group. A command group is where similar commands are stored together
in the ribbon. For example, in the picture above, all of the commands that allow you to edit the
font are stored in the Font command group. There are several command groups located in each
tab.

To locate a command, you will need to click on a tab and open that ribbon.

NOW YOU TRY: Open the Insert tab, for example, to open the Insert ribbon. What
command group contains the command to insert:
o a table? o wordart?
o header? o a picture?
Dialog Box Menus

Some of the command groups have commands that are not shown. These additional options
are indicated by a dialog box launcher button Paragraph Dialog Box
launcher. The Paragraph command group is found under the Home ribbon.

How to launch a Dialog Box

Click the small arrow found in the lower-right corner of the

command group.

A pop-up menu will appear (see right). In this case, the

Paragraph dialog box lets you adjust the line spacing and
alignment of the document. (You will be using this dialog box
later in the class.)

NOTE: Word 2016 is automatically set to space multiple lines

in between paragraphs. You may need to adjust the line
spacing before you begin your document.

12
The Text Area

Just below the ruler is a large area for your work. The blinking vertical line in the upper-left
corner of the text area is the cursor. It marks the insertion point. As you type, your text displays
at the cursor location.

The Ruler

The ruler is found below the ribbon. Using the ruler, you can efficiently adjust your page margins
and paragraph indents.

To view your ruler:

1. Click the View tab.

2. Click the check box next to Ruler in the Show group. When
the box is checked, the ruler is visible.

The Horizontal and Vertical Scroll Bars

The vertical and horizontal scroll bars enable you to move up, down, and across your
window simply by dragging the white square located on the scroll bar. On the right is
an example of the vertical scroll bar.

The vertical scroll bar is located along the right side of the screen. To move up and
down your document, click and drag the vertical scroll bar up and down.

The horizontal scroll bar is located just above the status bar. To move back and forth
across your document, click and drag the horizontal scroll bar back and forth.

NOTE: You won't see a horizontal scroll bar if the width of your document fits on your
screen.

The Status Bar

The Status Bar appears at the bottom-left corner of Word. The status bar
displays the current page and the word count (the number of words) of
your document. You can customize what displays on the Status Bar.

To customize the status bar:

1. Right-click the status bar.

2. Select the options you want displayed from the menu that appears.
3. Click an item to select it or deselect it. A check mark next to an
item means it is displayed in the status bar.

NOW YOU TRY: Add the Line Number option to the status bar.

13
Lesson 7: Understanding Document Views
In Word 2016, you can display
your document with one of the
following five views: Draft, Web
Layout, Print Layout, Full Screen
Reading, or Online Layout. These
settings are found in the View tab.

1. Draft View: Draft view eliminates excess space. You will not be able to see margins or
the page layout.

2. Web Layout: View your document as it would appear in a web browser such as Internet
Explorer.

3. Print Layout: Shows everything from margins to page layout. It is the most common
document view, as it shows how the document will look when printed

4. Read Mode: You can view how your document looks as a two-page spread. This is a
great way to test how your document may look on tablet devices. You cannot edit while
in this mode.

5. Outline View: Displays the document in outline form. You can display headings without
the text. If you move a heading, the accompanying text moves with it.

NOTE: You cannot edit while in Read Mode. However, you can make some setting
adjustments such as changing the background to Sepia. You still have full access to the
Backstage. To get out of Read Mode, hit the Esc key on the keyboard.

NOW YOU TRY:

o Change the document view to Read Mode
o Change the document view back to Print Layout.

14
Lesson 8: Highlighting

How to Highlight

1. Position the cursor in front of the first letter of your sentence.

2. Click the mouse button once, so that the blinking insertion point is present.
3. Click on the left mouse button and hold the button down; then drag the mouse over the
entire sentence.
4. Release the mouse button.
5. Notice that your sentence now appears in a different color. This is called highlighting.

To remove the highlighting, click anywhere outside the highlighted text.

Select with the Shift and Arrow Keys

1. Position the cursor in front of the first letter of your text. Click the mouse button once so that
the blinking insertion point is present.
2. Hold down the Shift key on the keyboard.
3. As you hold the Shift key, press the right arrow key. This will highlight one letter at a time.
4. Press the down arrow key until the first paragraph is highlighted.
5. Click anywhere outside the highlighted area to remove the highlighting.

Tip: If you need to highlight the entire document, press the Ctrl and A keys at the same time.

Lesson 9: Changing the Font

A font is the style, or typeface, of the text. Some of the most common fonts are Calibri, Times
New Roman, and Arial. The default font of Word 2016 is Calibri.

Font sizes are measured in points. Point size is the vertical measurement of a character. One
inch equals 72 points. The most common point sizes are 10 and 12 point. This handout is
written in 11 pt. Arial.

Point Size
Font

15
The ribbon has shortcuts to make it easier to change the size, shape, and style of your font.
From here, you can Bold ( ), Italicize ( ), or Underline ( ) your text. You can also change
the point size and the font style. First highlight the text, then select the command.

NOTE: If you decide to type in 16 point and Times New Roman font at the beginning of
your document, this decision will remain as you
change these settings).

NOW YOU TRY:

o Type your name.
o Highlight your name.
o Click the drop-down arrow on the Font menu Home
tab.
o Select a different font style.

Lesson 10: Line Spacing

The default line spacing of Word 2016 is multiple
spacing. This means when you press Enter, there will
be a wider space in between sentences.

You can change the default line spacing at any time. For example, you can change the setting
when you open a new document, in the middle of drafting a document, or after you have
finished. Some users prefer to type their document first and format it (or change the style) after

NOW YOU TRY:

o Type your name and address as three (3)
different lines. It should look like this:

Twinsburg Library

10050 Ravenna Road

Twinsburg, Ohio 44087

o Highlight your name and address.

o Click on the Paragraph icon or on the
) to reveal the
paragraph dialog box.
o Notice the option to change the line spacing.
Click on the small triangle under Line Spacing,
and choose single.
o Click OK.

You can change line spacing for an entire document by specifying the spacing before you begin
typing. Or, you can change the line spacing by highlighting a specific paragraph (as you just
did).

16
Lesson 11: Cut, Paste, and Copy

To Cut: means to remove the text from your document and store on your Clipboard

To Copy: means to make a duplicate of it.

To Paste: means to deposit the text that you have either cut or copied, to another
location in your document, or to a different document.

Use format painter to apply formatting settings to another set of text on your
document.

Tip: This is great for keeping any headings or titles consistent in your document.

Clipboard

The clipboard is a feature of all Microsoft Office products. It is a temporary

holding place of text or images that you have copied or cut.

To see what is stored on the clipboard:

1. Click on the Home tab.
2. Click on the right corner button ( ) on the Clipboard group.
The Clipboard appears.

NOW YOU TRY: Copying

o Highlight your name. Click on the copy icon ( ) in the ribbon. This creates an
invisible copy of your name.
o Move the cursor down a few lines by pressing the Enter key on the keyboard.

o Click the paste icon ( ). This should paste a second copy of your name on your
document. Every time you click the paste icon, another copy of your name appears.

NOW YOU TRY: Cutting

o Once again highlight your address. Click on the cut icon in the toolbar. This actually
cuts the original text (e.g. your address) from the document. It disappears from the
document and is now on the clipboard.
o Click on a different area of the document.
o Click the paste button. Your address now appears in a new spot.

Lesson 12: Spelling and Grammar Check

Grammar Check: A feature of Microsoft Office that checks for grammar errors
throughout the document.

Spell Checker: A feature of Microsoft Office that checks for spelling errors throughout
the document.

17
What do the lines mean?

When you see wavy blue lines, this means that grammar check has found a possible
grammatical error.

misspelled word.

How to Fix Errors

A.) You can right-click over the red or green lines. Word will
display a menu of how to correct any possible mistakes
(see right).

OR

B.) You can select Spelling & Grammar under the Review
ribbon.

You will see a pane open on the right side of your screen that
displays possible mistakes in the document.

Click Change

Click Ignore if you do not agree.

Click Ignore All if you want to ignore all instances of the word in the
current document.

Click Add to add the word to the dictionary of your computer.

Click Change to change only this instance of the word.

Click Change All to replace all instances of the misspelled word with
the suggested word.

18
AutoCorrect: A default feature that automatically corrects
common typos and grammar errors without your
involvement. You can decide to keep this feature active or
turn it off.

To turn AutoCorrect off:

1. Click File.
2. Click Options.
3. Click Proofing.
4. Click AutoCorrect Options.

Lesson 13: Beyond Typing: Using the Keyboard

The following commands can be used on your keyboard to navigate within Microsoft Word.

To move the insertion point.... Press......

One character to the left or right Left Arrow or Right Arrow
One word left or right CTRL+Left Arrow or CTRL+Right Arrow
One line up or down Up or Down Arrow
One paragraph up or down CTRL+Up Arrow or CTRL+Down Arrow
One page up or down Page Up or Page Down
To left or right end of current line Home or End
To first or last character of the entire document CTRL+Home or CTRL+ End

19
Basic Shortcut Keys for Navigating Through Documents
The following are keyboard shortcuts (keys are bolded):

Function Description Keyboard Shortcut

New Creates a new blank document Ctrl + N
Open Opens a saved document Ctrl + O
Save Saves the current document Ctrl + S
Print Prints the current page Ctrl + P
Undo Cancels the last change to the document Ctrl + Z
Copy Copies the selected text to the clipboard Ctrl + C
Paste Pastes the cut or copied selection Ctrl + V
Cut Removes the selection and places it in the Ctrl + X
clipboard
Find Finds text within the current document Ctrl + F
Help F1
Displays the next page Page Down
Moves the cursor to the top of the next page Ctrl + Page Down
Displays the previous page Page Up
Moves the cursor to the top of the previous page Ctrl + Page Up
Moves to the end of the current line End
Moves the cursor to the end of the document Ctrl + End
Moves to the beginning of the current line Home
Moves the cursor to the beginning of the document Ctrl + Home

20
Mail Merge
Step by Step

Mail Merge is a handy feature that incorporates data from both Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel and allows you to
create multiple documents at once, such as letters, saving you the time and effort of retyping the same letter over and
over. Here is an example of how to use it to create a letter thanking people who donated to a particular fund.

1.) Gathering Your Data

x The first thing you do is create an Excel spreadsheet, creating a header for each field such as First Name, Last
Name, Address, City, State, and Postal Code
(NOTE: It’s important to not refer to the postal code as a zip code, but more about that later).
x The field headers (ie first name, last name) are labeled separately so that you can filter them alphabetically if you
need to.
x You can also add additional headers, such as a donation amount. Be sure to label it something you’ll remember.
If you are using dollar amounts, change the type of number it is under ‘Number’ at the very top to ‘Text’ for every
dollar entry and manually type the dollar sign otherwise the dollar sign ($) will not show up in your letter.
2.) Prepare your letter in Microsoft Word. When creating a letter, it’s a good idea to insert a placeholder where the
information from the mail merge will be placed, ie [Address], [Amount].

3.) Under “Mailings” in Microsoft Word click on ‘Start Mail Merge’ and click on ‘Step by Step Mail Merge Wizard.’
x A window will appear to the right of your document that says ‘Select
Document type.’ In this instance leave it on ‘Letters.’
x At the bottom click on Next: Starting Document.
x The next step will read ‘Select Starting Document.’ If you currently have the
letter you created leave the selection ‘Use the Current Document’ selected.
 x Next, click ‘Select Recipients’ at the bottom. You will see ‘Use an Existing List’
the ability to browse for your list.

x Click on the ‘browse’ button and find your list on your computer that you typed
up in Excel.

x Once you find your document click open and a box will show up that says ‘Select table.’ If you only had one tab on your
spreadsheet click okay.
x You will then see the data you had typed. You can also choose to leave off certain names if you want to. Click okay.
x The table will close and then the dialog box on the right will say ‘Currently Your
Recipients Are Selected From:’ and will give the title of your excel spreadsheet
document.
x At the bottom of the dialog box click ‘write your letter.’
 x From there you can start adding your fields from your spreadsheet. Highlight the
placeholder marked [Address] and then click on Address block. The spreadsheet
will pull in your data from your spreadsheet.

x If you did not write ‘postal code’ and wrote ‘zip code’ instead you can click on ‘match fields’ and find the field that matches
‘postal code’ instead. Be sure to cycle through your address list to make sure your addresses are correct. Click okay.
x Highlight the greeting line placeholder and replace it with the ‘Greeting Line’ under Write Your Letter. You can also filter it to
where it only lists their first name.

x For the other fields such as ‘amount’ you can highlight amount and go to ‘More items.’ Then, go down to ‘amount’ and select
it.
 x Next go to ‘preview your letters.’ From there the database information will have populated your
letter. You should be able to cycle through the information you typed to make sure that your
addresses and amounts are correct.
x If you’re satisfied, click on ‘Complete the merge’ and then
click on ‘print.’

x It will give you the option to click on ‘print current record’ or you can print all of the letters from
your database.

x It’s important to thoroughly look over all your letters to make sure there aren’t any typos or problems with formatting,
especially on the letter itself.

You can use the mail merge to create letters, mailing labels, emails, name badges, or etc. This can also work on saving it to a
PDF if you’ve got a PDF converter, such as Primo PDF.